Medicinal plants used in Lesotho for treatment of reproductive and post reproductive problems

Author’s Accepted Manuscript Medicinal plants used in Lesotho for treatment of reproductive and post reproductive problems A. Moteetee, L. Seleteng Kose

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To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology Received date: 10 June 2016 Revised date: 11 October 2016 Accepted date: 20 October 2016 Cite this article as: A. Moteetee and L. Seleteng Kose, Medicinal plants used in Lesotho for treatment of reproductive and post reproductive problems, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.10.062 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Medicinal plants used in Lesotho for treatment of reproductive and post reproductive problems

A. Moteetee*, L. Seleteng Kose

Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa.

*Corresponding author, Tel.: +27 11 559 2977; fax: +27 11 559 2411.E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Moteetee)

ABSTRACT Ethnopharmacological relevance: Reproductive healthcare has been highlighted as a major challenge in Lesotho mainly due to the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections. As a result other reproductive ailments have not received much attention, particularly because healthcare facilities are already limited and many of them are inaccessible. For these reasons, medicinal plants play a major role in primary healthcare system in the country, in addition the plants are easily accessible, more affordable, and their use forms part of the cultural heritage. However, documentation of medicinal plants used for reproductive ailments is scattered, more importantly the biological and pharmacological properties, as well as toxicity of many of these plants are not yet known. Aim of the study: To document the plants used by both male and female Basotho (residing in Lesotho) for the treatment of reproductive ailments, to explore their recorded biological and pharmacological effects as well as their toxicity, and to establish if these plants are used for similar purposes in other southern African cultures. Materials and Methods: The results stem from published results of recent interviews of traditional medicinal practitioners in the Maseru District of Lesotho, first author’s own experiences and 1

observations from the Qacha’s Nek District as well as comprehensive literature survey including numerous books and unpublished data. Electronic databases such as Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect were also used to search for the chemical compounds, pharmacological activity, and toxicity of the plants. Results: A total of 87 plant species are reported to be used for the treatment of several reproductive problems such as infertility, complications associated with pregnancy (twelve plants are used to treat conditions such as colic, heartburn, nausea, and constipation), cleansing and/ or toning of the uterus (with a purpose either to induce pregnancy or to get rid of the placenta, for example Withania somnifera and Zantedeschia albomaculata), difficult childbirth, as well treatment of breast and cervical cancer, cysts, fibroids, and testicular tumours (e.g. Hypoxis hemerocallidea). For the toning of the uterus, it is common to use a combination of plants, e.g. Gunnera perpensa, Scabiosa columbaria, and Eriospermum ornithogaloides. Conclusions: Of the 87 plants used for reproductive healthcare, the highest number (31) is used for the treatment of infertility (in both men and women). The pharmacological effects, active compounds, and toxicology of many of these plants are not yet known. Keywords: childbirth, dysmenorrhoea, infertility, menorrhagia, reproductive problems

Chemical compounds Aloin (PubChem CID: 12305761), Anthraquinone (PubChem CID: 6770), Berberine (PubChem CID: 2353), Coumestrol (PubChem CID: 5281707), Genistein (PubChem CID: 5280961), Loganin (PubChem CID: 87691), Protopine (PubChem CID: 4970), Sanguinarine (PubChem CID: 5154), Sesquisabinene (PubChem CID: 25202482), Swerodside (PubChem CID: 161036), Thujone (PubChem CID: 91456), Uzarin (PubChem CID: 20055063), Withanolide (PubChem CID: 161671), Xysmalorin (PubChem CID: 208007), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound (accessed 0706-2016).

Introduction It has been argued that reproductive health is the second most prevalent health care problem in Africa (Diame, 2010), furthermore, World Health Organization statistics (WHO, 2012) show that 2

maternal conditions, birth asphyxia and trauma, and preterm birth complications rank among the top 20 causes of death in Africa. McPherson et al. (2014) have also pointed out that the burden of disease in Eastern and Southern Africa “due to infectious disease and diseases related to reproductive and sexual health is extremely high”. It is reported that at least 4 000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes in southern Africa, with approximately 3 000 used in South Africa (Van Wyk et al., 2009) and over 300 in Lesotho (Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011). Traditional medicine in Lesotho still plays a vital role in rural areas for a number of reasons including: 1) Easy access to medicinal plants; since traditionally information is transferred orally through generations, some people are able to treat minor ailments such as headaches and stomach aches by simply picking and self-administering the correct plant, even without having to consult a traditional healer (pers. obs.). 2) It is part of a strong cultural heritage; as in many other cultures, medicinal plants are not only used for their curative properties, but for symbolic and spiritual importance. In fact, the majority of participants (pregnant women) in a study by Mugomeri et al. (2015), indicated that they use herbs for no particular reason, other than because it is tradition. Furthermore people believe that illness is not triggered only by physical causes but also as a result of witchcraft or punishment from the ancestors (Mafimisebi et al., 2010; Gruca et al., 2014), acts which a western doctor cannot deal with. Traditional medicine is therefore considered to provide holistic treatment including psychosocial health, as opposed to Western medicine (Cocks and Møller, 2002). 3) Lack of adequate healthcare facilities; the country still faces challenges in providing healthcare services attributable to the increasing burden of disease brought about by HIV/AIDS (Lesotho has the second highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the world) and the shortage of expertise and human resources (http://www.commonwealthhealth.org/africa/lesotho/health_systems_in_lesotho/). These challenges are worsened by the country’s demographic and geographic profile. 4) Inaccessibility to available healthcare services; the majority of the country’s population resides in the rural areas which are isolated by the mountainous terrain, thus presenting a physical barrier to both staff and patients to the already limited facilities. In fact, WHO estimates that around three-quarters of the rural population is outside of walking distance of a health facility (http://www.lesothoreview.com/healthcare-2015.php). 5) Unaffordability of pharmaceutical medicines; with 26.2% unemployment rates in 2014, Lesotho was ranked 2nd highest in Africa and 5th highest in the World (www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/Unemplyment_rate/). 3

Published literature on medicinal plant use in Lesotho is limited, the only publications that included ethnobotanical uses are those documenting the flora of Lesotho, these are Phillips (1917), Jacot Guillarmod (1971), and Schmitz (1982). A more recent ethnomedical review by Moteetee and Van Wyk (2011) presented a relatively comprehensive ethnobotanical data for Lesotho. Only three studies have recently (past 16 years) been published on the basis of ethnobotanical information sourced mainly from traditional medical practitioners. These are Shale et al. (1999), who concentrated on plants with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities, Seleteng Kose et al. (2015), and Mugomeri et al. (2016), with a focus on plants used for common ailments. However none of these focussed specifically on plants used for treatment of reproductive ailments, therefore such information is scattered. Recently published results on the use of medicinal plants in the Maseru District (Seleteng Kose et al., 2015), showed that reproductive problems (excluding degenerative illnesses such as breast and cervical cancer) were the most commonly treated afflictions by the traditional medicine practitioners, with 47 plants. Of these, 47% are used for treatment of infections [i.e. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), sexually transmitted infections (STIs)], while 53% are utilised for other reproductive problems such as sterility. In that study, infertility and difficult pregnancy/labour are ranked among the top 10 most treated conditions together with tuberculosis (TB) and opportunistic infections related to HIV (including reduction of mother to child transmission) (Seleteng Kose et al. 2015). Mugomeri et al. (2016) recorded only six medicinal plants used for reproductive problems. The important role played by medicinal plants in the complementing of reproductive healthcare is underscored by the numerous recent studies that have been conducted across the globe to document plants used traditionally for this purpose (e.g. Bussman and Glenn, 2010; Ramakrishna and Saidulu, 2014; Ramihantaniariyo et al., 2003; Semenya et al., 2013; Torri, 2013; Tsobou et al., 2016), with many of them focussing on maternal reproductive health problems (e.g. Abdillahi and Van Staden, 2013; Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2015; De Boer and Cotingting, 2014; Kankara et al., 2015; Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa, 2007; Martínez, 2008; Ogbe et al., 2009; Srithi et al., 2012; Steenkamp, 2003; Yazbek et al., 2016; Yemele et al., 2015) and a few on male reproductive health (e.g. Abdillahi and Van Staden, 2012; Chauhan et al., 2014; Erhabor et al., 2013; Nantia et al., 2009). Other studies have focussed on specific conditions, for example Van Andel et al. (2014) have reported that over 2 000 species are

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used in Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia for treatment of menstrual disorders alone (i.e. dysmenorrhoea, induce or regulate menses, and induce abortion). The aim of this paper is to present an ethnobotanical review of plants traditionally used by the Basotho for the treatment of reproductive problems, with the exclusion of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical properties of the plants used for the latter will be presented elsewhere. Known active chemicals, pharmacology effects (antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities), as well as toxicology are also listed. Materials and Methods The review stems from published results of recent interviews of traditional medicinal practitioners in the Maseru District of Lesotho, first author’s own experiences while growing up in the Qacha’s Nek District in that country, as well as comprehensive literature survey (which included numerous books and unpublished dissertations and theses). Details of data collection of the published results are as outlined in Seleteng Kose et al. (2015). As far as we are aware, diagnosis by both herbalists and diviners is based on the presented symptoms, in addition diviners throw bones and consult ancestors during consultation. Electronic databases such as Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect were also used to search for the chemical compounds, pharmacological activity, and

toxicity of the plants using scientific names of the plants (as well as their synonyms) and keywords such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, chemical constituents, childbirth, dysmenorrhoea, infertility, menorrhagia, phytochemicals, reproductive ailments, reproductive disorders, reproductive health, reproductive problems, and toxicity. Species names were validated at www.theplantlist.org, however, in some cases the database has retained older names (and lists the newer names as ‘unresolved’), for example Rhus divaricata Eckl. & Zeyh is upheld over Searsia divaricata (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Moffett, in this case the South African Red Data List database http://redlist.sanbi.org was followed.

Results and Discussion Table 1 presents the plant species (synonyms given in brackets) used for various reproductive problems, as well as their vernacular names (in Sesotho), the main therapeutic uses, dosage forms as well as their active chemical compounds as reported in the literature. In cases where there is no 5

information available, compounds recorded for other species in the same genus are indicated in brackets. Available information on pharmacological activity (antioxidant and anti-inflammatory) as well as the toxicology of the plants is recorded in Table 2. The review has revealed that 87 plant species are used for various reproductive ailments as follows (it should be noted that many of these plants are used in more than one category): infertility/ sterility (31), menstrual problems and other uterine disorders (28), complications associated with pregnancy (15), breast cancer (13), cleansing and toning of uterus (11), childbirth (11), cervical cancer (7), virility (4), fibroids and cysts (3), prostatitis and testicular tumours (2), contraceptive (1). The plants include three pteridophyte, 66 dicot, and 18 monocot species across 41 families, with the majority of them belonging to Asteraceae (18), followed by Rubiaceae (6), and Lamiaceae (5). Most medicines are administered orally as decoctions, less commonly as infusions, and rarely as a douche. Interestingly, unlike in many ethnobotanical studies in which the family Fabaceae usually features with a high number of species used traditionally for medicinal purposes (e.g. Afolayan et al., 2014; Aremu et al., 2012; Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Steenkamp, 2003), in the current study, only three species of the family are used for reproductive problems. The reason for this is unknown since many members of the family Fabaceae are known to possess a number of phytochemicals which have proven medicinal properties, most species are used as sedatives/ adaptogens in Lesotho (Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2007). It is also observed that several species are used for the treatment of more than one illness, in this regard the species with the most uses are G. perpensa with eight uses and Scabiosa columbaria with six uses. The different categories are discussed in the paragraphs that follow. Thirty-one plants are used for the treatment of infertility, with more than half (19) used specifically by women (e.g. Ajuga ophrydis, Haplocarpha scaposa, S. columbaria, Bulbine narcissifolia) as opposed to two species that are used only by men (i.e. Hypoxis hemerocallidea and Olea europaea ssp. africana). The use of the remaining plants in this category (10) is not gender specific (e.g. Cephalaria pungens, Dicoma anomala, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Salvia runcinata,). According to Okonufua and Obi (2009), there is an indication that infertility is a major problem associated with reproductive health in sub-Saharan Africa. Based on experiences from Uganda, Cui (2010) has argued that a couple’s failure to conceive is due to male infertility in about 50% of cases, but indicates that according to Dr Mahmoud Fathalla (the former director of the Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction based at WHO), the social 6

burden “falls disproportionately on women”. Cui (2010) also points out that “in many cultures, childless women suffer discrimination, stigma and ostracism”, and further quotes Dr Mahmoud Fathalla saying that “when a couple is unable to reproduce, the man may divorce his wife or take another wife if they live in a culture that permits polygamy”. Surprisingly, only very few of the listed plants are used for similar purposes by other cultures in southern Africa, although none of the plants are restricted to Lesotho, this is possibly because of the different cultural believes and practices. Elephantorrhiza elephantina is reported to be used for infertility in Zimbabwe as well, though specifically by women (Hutchings et al., 1996). Rhoicissus tridentata is used as a cure for impotency and barrenness by the Zulu people, while Rumex species are reported to be used by the “Nguni and the Sotho ……. as a remedy for barrenness, infertility and sexual impotency” (Watt and Brandwijk, 1962). Restoration of virility in men is another aspect that is perhaps related to infertility, for which the Basotho use four plants Berkheya setifera, Helichrysum caespititium, H. platypterum, and Mentha aquatica. Generally, scientific validation on the effectiveness of the species utilised for infertility by the Basotho is very limited. Male sterility mainly results from problems affecting spermatogenesis or sperm transport, and less commonly from problems such as low levels of hormones produced by the pituitary gland (https://www.andrologyaustralia.org/your-health/male-infertility/). Several plants have been demonstrated to have in vivo and/or in vitro androgenic activities which include: increased semen volume, sperm count and mobility, the weights of the testis, seminal vesicles and prostate, as well as serum testosterone levels (Nantia et al., 2009). For example, treatment of infertile men with a mixture of Tribulus terrestris, Asparagus racemosus and Withania somnifera increased semen volume, sperm count and mobility (Devi et al., 2004). The pharmacological properties of these plants could support their traditional use in improving male fertility. The androgenic activity of other plants such as Hypoxis hemerocallidea and O. europaea has not been reported yet, however their proven pharmacological properties could support their traditional use in improving male fertility. Female sterility can be due to mainly anatomical defects including “tuboperitoneal abnormalities, endometriosis, myomas distorting the uterine cavity, congenital uterine anomalies, and other, less frequent anomalies of the reproductive tract” (Abrao et al., 2013). Aloe species have been reported to have oestrogenic activity (Telefo et al., 2002), this could validate the traditional use of A. ecklonis for female sterility. Rhoicissus tridentata, used widely by southern African women for delayed childbirth, to facilitate childbirth, and for delayed or painful 7

menstruation (Hutchings et al., 1996; Roqaiya et al., 2015; Van Wyk et al., 2009; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) is used in Lesotho only for improved fertility in females. Nonetheless, two alkaloids sitosterol and sitosterolin isolated from this plant demonstrated only slight oestrogenic activity (Brookes and Katsoulis, 2006). On the other hand it has been shown to exhibit antioxidant activity against radical substances such as xanthine oxidase (Opoku et al., 2002). The rootstock of R. tridentata is reported to be toxic as it was responsible for the death of a human due to acute paralysis of the central nervous system causing respiratory arrest (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), this could be brought about by the presence of sitosterol, sitosterolin and proanthocyanidins (Brookes and Katsoulis, 2006). Certain phytochemicals such as flavonoids have been reported to exhibit oestrogenic activity in both in vitro and in vivo assays, for example coumestrol and genistein showed an increase in uterine weight in mice (Collins-Burow et al., 2015).

Forty-eight plant species are utilised as uterotonics for the treatment of all menstrual problems, to induce labour, ease labour pains, for difficult childbirth, and afterbirth cramps, as well as for cleansing and toning the uterus, with most of them (20) used for painful periods (e.g. A. ophrydis, D. anomala, Euclea crispa, G. perpensa, Rumex lanceolatus, Rhynchosia adenodes, S. columbaria, Sopubia cana). Gunnera perpensa is one of the most renowned plants used in traditional medicines in southern Africa for maternal reproductive ailments (such as dysmenorrhoea) and related conditions, for example it is used by Zulu traditional healers as a galactagogue (Simelane et al. 2012). Some of its other numerous uses are treatment of bladder problems, cancer, headaches, heart diseases, hypertension, kidney complaints, psoriasis, rheumatic fever, sores, stomach bleeding, stomach problems, swellings, and wounds (Brookes and Dutton, 2007; Hutchings et al., 1996; Mathibe, 2015; McGaw et al., 2005; Mugomeri et al., 2016; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Simelane et al., 2012; Van Wyk et al., 2009). Gunnera perpensa is also the only plant reported to be used as a contraceptive by the Basotho people. Scabiosa columbaria is one of the most highly regarded plants (pers. obs.) for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea, it therefore is no surprise that its Sesotho name is selomi (meaning “one who bites”), which is also the Sesotho name for period pains. Five plants are used for the treatment of unspecified uterine disorders (i.e. B. setifera, D. anomala, Malva parviflora, S. columbaria, and Xysmalobium undulatum). According to Watt and BreyerBrandwijk (1962), M. parviflora is reported to have also been used in the olden days in the Western Cape Province as a cure for conditions such as leucorrhoea. The latter, which is an excessive 8

mucus secretion of the cervix, may be due to a number of reasons including hormonal disturbances, chronic inflammation of the glands or infection (Bourne et al., 1937). In southern Africa, the tubers of X. undulatum are generally used as uterine sedatives (Hutchings et al., 1996). Twelve plants are used for other uterine disorders (5), regulation of the menstrual cycle (3), menorrhagia (3), and amenorrhoea (1). During interviews there was no reference made to the use of plants to effect abortion, this is most probably because abortion is illegal in Lesotho, unless it is to save the life of a pregnant woman (http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abortion/doc/lesotho.doc). Although there are several causes of amenorrhea in females of reproductive age, it is generally associated with pregnancy, therefore in such cases people are likely to consult on suspicion of a pregnancy. It is therefore not surprising that traditional practitioners will use euphemisms such as amenorrhea and regulation of menses instead of abortion. It should be noted that plants used for regulation of the menstrual cycle and amenorrhoea are often used in the same way as abortifacients. Plants utilised to induce labour, ease labour pains, for difficult childbirth, and afterbirth cramps include the widely distributed Mentha longifolia, the well-known sub-Saharan African species D. anomala, and the popular southern and eastern African medicinal plants such as Eucomis autumnalis, Pentanisia prunelloides, S. columbaria, and X. undulata. Mentha longifolia, “which includes subspecies polyadena Briq. is administered by the European and the African to hasten prolonged confinements and to induce labour pains” (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The species has numerous traditional uses elsewhere within its distribution range, e.g. as an anthelmintic, and for treatment of anorexia, coughs, digestive problems, kidney stones, headache, liver complaints, toothache, etc. (Gulluce et al., 2007; Mikaili et al., 2013). Cleansing of the uterus follows after childbirth or miscarriage, for this purpose species such as Gerbera piloselloides, Kniphofia caulescens, and Solanum aculeatissimum are used. Certain plants are also used for the expulsion of retained placenta, namely G. perpensa and P. prunelloides. Both plants are used for similar purposes by other cultures as well, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) has reported that a decoction of roots of G. perpensa “is given by the European and the Zulu to animals to assist the expulsion of the placenta. It is sometimes given to a woman for the same purpose”, while a decoction of the roots of P. prunelloides is used by the Xhosa people. It appears that the uterus is also cleansed to improve fertility, e.g. a decoction consisting of Eriospermum ornithogaloides, G. perpensa, and S. columbaria is used. A number of plants are used for toning the uterus, especially during pregnancy, either individually (e.g. Gerbera piloselloides, G. perpensa, or W. somnifera) or 9

as a mixture of several plants referred to as ‘pitsa’ (meaning pot) or ‘sehlapetso’ in the local language. The latter is an equivalent of ‘isihlambezo’, a herbal medicine “used by many Zulu women in South Africa as a preventative health tonic during pregnancy” (Varga and Veale, 1997) and ‘kgaba’, a medicine taken in the third trimester by pregnant Tswana women (Van der Kooi and Theobald, 2006). Solanum aculeatissimum, reported here as being used for cleansing the uterus after a miscarriage is also used in West Africa for dysmenorrhea and in Uganda to induce labour (Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa, 2007). Inflammatory conditions such as primary dysmenorrhea are caused by excessive amounts of prostaglandins which are the hormones responsible for uterine contractions, therefore treatment involves suppressing the production of these hormones (Steward and Deb, 2014). Extracts from some plants such as Agapanthus campanulatus (Fawole et al., 2009), Argemone ochroleuca (Niu et al., 2012), Dicoma anomala (Shale et al., 1999), Gunnera perpensa (Lall and Kishore, 2014), Mentha longifolia (Karimian et al,. 2012), Rhynchosia adenodes (Shale et al., 1999), and Rumex nepalensis (Vasas et al., 2015) have been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, due to their ability to inhibit enzymes responsible for the synthesis of prostaglandins, such as cyclooxygenase isoenzymes (COX-1 and COX 2). This property could be used to support the traditional use of the plants as uterotonics. For centuries uterotonic plants have been used to induce and ease labour, and also as abortifacients (Roqaiya, et al., 2015). Gunnera perpensa not only has antispasmodic effects, it has also been proven to have uterotonic effects. In a study by Dube (2014), application of methanolic root extracts of the plant increased the contractility of isolated rat uterus muscle strips. Kaido et el. (1997) has shown that G. perpensa exhibits direct smooth muscle activity on isolated rat uterus, however the plant is potentially toxic if used consecutively for a long period (Mwale and Masika, 2011). Pentanisia prunelloides has also shown uterotonic activity and direct effects on smooth muscle, an in vivo study has shown significant anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral activity (Van Wyk et al., 2009). Biological activity of S. coronatus used by the Basotho people to ease childbirth is not yet known, but several Senecio alkaloids are regarded as uterine stimulants. However, many of them have been found to be toxic to test mice, causing hepatic necrosis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The Southern Sotho use the root (not the bulb) of E. regia as a remedy to prevent premature childbirth, the bulb is regarded as being highly toxic (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

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Several plants (15 in total) are also utilised to relieve uneasiness during pregnancy and deal with the various conditions associated with pregnancy, i.e. abdominal pain (e.g. Hermannia depressa), colic (e.g. S. columbaia, Searsia divaricata), constipation (e.g. Anthospermum rigidum ssp. pumilum), flatulency (Hermannia geniculata), heartburn (Pelargonium sidoides), lack of appetite (H. depressa), nausea (e.g. Kalanchoe tetraphylla), and other unnamed complications (e.g. Buddleja salviifolia, Cephalaria pungens, Rubus rigidus). Rubus rigidus is also reportedly used to facilitate childbirth by the Manyika women in Southern Zimbabwe (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Some of the plants listed in this category have been shown to have pharmacological activities which could be directly linked to their therapeutic uses, for example relief from abdominal pain when using H. depressa could be due to its anti-inflammatory activity as evidenced by the significant levels of COX-1 inhibition (Reid et al., 2005), the plant also appears to be safe as it has been found not to display any toxicity (Essop, 2005). The use of B. salviifolia could also be pain related, in which case three compounds isolated from this plant exhibited high COX-2 inhibition (Pendota et al (2014). Pharmacological effects of other plants on the other, have no obvious connection with their traditional use, it is however worth mentioning that some of these uses appear to be only restricted to Lesotho. Pelargonium sidoides for instance, is better known for its medicinal uses in the treatment of ailments related to the digestive (especially diarrhoea and dysentery) and respiratory tracts, these pharmacological effects have been attributed to the presence of coumarins, especially umckalin (Van Wyk et al., 2009). Root extracts have demonstrated significant activity against a number of bacteria (Kayser and Kolodziej, 1997; Mativandlela et al., 2006), but showed no inhibition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and weak activity against the tested fungal species (Mativandlela et al., 2006). The plant has also shown scavenging activity on a number of free radicals (Nair et al., 2007). None of these results link these pharmacological effects directly to its use for heartburn, however P. sidoides is rich in terpenoids (Linhares et al., 2010), especially sesquieterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, monoterpenes, and phenylpropanoids (Kayser et al., 1998). Terpenes such as D-limonene have been used for heartburn due to their gastric acid neutralizing effects (Sun, 2007), it is therefore hypothesized that the terpenoids in P. sidoides could have similar effects on heartburn. The only available pharmacological activity of Kalanchoe tetraphylla (as K. thyrsiflora) is its proven moderate anti-cancer activity against human cell lines (Fouche et al., 2008), however the plant is known to possess bufadienolides which are toxic to livestock (Van Wyk et al., 2002). 11

A number of plants are used to treat several types of cancer and other growths including female breast cancer (13), cervical cancer (7), fibroids and cysts (4), as well as prostate problems and testicular tumours (2). Female breast cancer is reported to be the most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide, it is however generally low in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia when compared to the rest of the world, especially Western and Northern Europe, Australia/New Zealand, and North America where the incidence rates are high and South America, the Caribbean, and Northern Africa where they intermediate (Jemal et al., 2011). Plants prescribed for the treatment of breast cancer include Leobordea lanceolata, Selaginella caffrorum, Turbina oblongata (Ipomoea oblongata), and some of the well-known southern African species namely D. anomala, G. perpensa, and the widely distributed Withania somnifera (Seleteng Kose et al., 2015). Interestingly, no reports of similar use by other southern African cultures could be found, however G. perpensa is used for other forms of cancer (as reported earlier). Aloe maculata is a well-known southern Africa plant used for numerous medical conditions including circulatory problems, diabetes, digestive problems, respiratory ailments (coughs, colds, fever), and skin conditions (e.g. boils, injuries, sores, promotion of hair growth) (Grace et al., 2009). Cussonia paniculata is used traditionally as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and wound healing plant in southern Africa, it is also used for gynaecological problems, malaria, and mental illness (De Villiers et al., 2010 and the cited references thereof). Dicoma anomala has a great reputation especially in the treatment of digestive (e.g. colic, constipation, diarrhoea, dysentery) and respiratory (colds, coughs, sore throat, etc.) ailments, as well as STIs such as gonorrhoea (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000). Elephantorrhiza elephantina is used for wide range of ailments including circulatory (anaemia, hypertension), gastro-intestinal, gynaecological (e.g. dysmenorrhoea, infertility), respiratory, and skin (Hutcings et al., 1996; Mpofu et al., 2014; Van Wyk et al., 2009). Although F. depressum occurs widely in southern Africa, no medicinal use has been reported other than in Lesotho. In this country it is a renowned magic plant used as a good luck and protective charm, as well as a means of causing harm to enemies (Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011). Hermannia depressa is better known for its use as a protective charm especially by the Basotho and Zulus, medicinally it is used for digestive and respiratory ailments in southern Africa (Hutchings et al., 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). There are no reports of medicinal use of the species L. lanceolata anywhere else outside Lesotho where it is used to treat diarrhoea (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and mixed with Aster 12

bakerianus for fever (Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011). The only other use of S. runcinata in Lesotho is as a charm to drive away bugs after an illness, it is also reported that “a decoction of root, stem and leaf has been used by the European for the relief of urticaria” (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), it is also used by the Zulu as a purgative (Hutchings et al., 1996). Withania somnifera is also one of the most popular medicinal plants used in Ayurvedic medicine as a sedative and hypnotic and is regarded to be effective against numerous ailments in southern Africa (Van Wyk et al., 2009). Traditional healers reported to use several plants including B. salviifolia, C. paniculata ssp. sinuata, M. longiflora, and Phytolacca heptandra for the treatment of cervical cancer including other growths within the female reproductive system such as fibroids and cysts are also treated. It is however not clear how this particular cancer and the other benign growths are diagnosed, one possibility could be that the diagnosis would have already been done in a western medicine setting. Root decoction of B. narcissifolia is used for both fibroids and cysts, while Ajuga ophrydis is used for fibroids and Zantedeschia albomaculata ssp. albomaculata (mixed with Eucomis autumnalis) for cysts. Apart from the medicinal plants used for the male reproductive healthcare (i.e. improvement of fertility and virility) mentioned earlier, one plant is used for the treatment of prostate problems (Artemisia afra) and another for testicular tumours and swollen testicles (H. hemerocallidea). Artemisia afra is “one of the oldest and best known of all the indigenous medicines in southern Africa” (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000) with a wide variety of traditional medicinal uses including cancer, diabetes, respiratory tract problems, gastro-intestinal disorders, skin afflictions, gynaecological problems, and cardiovascular diseases (Hutchings et al., 1996; Patil et al., 2011). Hypoxis hemerocallidea (incorrectly referred to as African potato) is another famous southern African medicinal plant with a variety of traditional uses including treatment of burns, cancer, cardiac disease, dizziness, respiratory problems, testicular tumours, prostate hypertrophy, ulcers, wounds, and as an emetic, tonic, and immune system booster (Drewes et al., 2008; Katerere and Eloff, 2008; Van Wyk et al., 2009). The common name ‘African potato’ is said to be incorrect because the plants do not produce tubers but rather corms, it has been argued that the name must have been incorrectly translated from the Afrikaans name ‘Afrika-patat’ (http://www.plantzafrica.com/planthij/hypoxishemero.htm). Of the breast cancer plants, W. somnifera has been reported to reduce tumour cell proliferation and the side effects of chemotherapeutic agents cyclophosphamide and paclitaxel (Winters, 2006). None of the seven plants used for the treatment of cervical cancer has been tested for their anti-cancer activity. 13

Artemisia afra, used by the Basotho for the treatment of prostatitis has been shown to have numerous biological activities including anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-trypanosomal, antidiabetic, anti-cancer and anti-malarial (Patil et al., 2011). However, the plant contains the monoterpenoid thujone which if taken in excessive amounts can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, dizziness, headache, cramps, hallucinations, comma, deliriums, and seizures (Ndhlala et al., 2013), as well as addiction and cerebral dysfunction (Van Wyk and Wink, 2004). Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) have reported that ingestion of the oil from this plant produces a haemorrhagic nephritis, non-fatty degeneration of the liver and pulmonary oedema and sometimes abortion in rabbit and the guineapig. Furthermore, ethanol extracts have also been shown to exhibit cytotoxicity (Venables et al., 2016). Phytosterol glycosides from H. hemerocallidea have shown activity on benign prostate hypertrophy (Hutchings et al., 1996), with anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activity being attributed to rooperol (Van Wyk et al., 2009). Phytolacca heptandra is used for cervical cancer and “African women who are pregnant make periodic prophylactic use of the strong purging action of the root in order to prevent their children being born with birth marks” however the plant is known to be poisonous (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Conclusions A total of 87 plant species are used for the treatment of various reproductive problems with most of them used for the treatment of sterility (31), followed by menstrual problems and uterine disorder (28) and complications associated with pregnancy (15). Curiously, most of the plants used for infertility are gender specific, with most of these (19) being used specifically by females and only two used by males. Gunnera perpensa, the most used plant to combat a number of reproductive problems, has been proven to have several pharmacological activities such as analgesic, antiinflammatory, anti-spasmodic and uterotonic, which could explain its use for period pains, toning of the uterus, labour induction, as well as expulsion of retained placenta. Several other plants have also shown biological activities that could validate their traditional medical uses, e.g. P. prunelloides (uterotonic), A. campanulatus, A. ochroleuca, D. anomala, R. adenodes, and R. nepalensis (anti-inflammatory), A. afra and H. hemerocallidea (anti-prostatitis), and W. somnifera (androgenic). It should however be pointed out that many of these biological activities have been assessed using in vitro assays only, even those that have been tested in vivo have been done so mostly in lower mammals such as mice. Extracts from a number of plants such as A. campanulatus, Berkeya setifera, D. anomala, E. autumnalis, H. odoratissimum, H. hemerocallidea, M. parviflora, 14

Salvia runcinata, and others, have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and/or antioxidant activities with no toxicity exhibited, these are the plants that could be recommended for prescription by traditional healers. Conversely, several others have been reported to exhibit varying degrees of toxicity (e.g. Cotyledon orbiculata, G. perpensa, Helichrysum platypterum, Mentha aquatica, R. tridentata) and should therefore not be used, particularly in large quantities, without consultation. Scabiosa columbaria (the second most used plant) on the other hand, has no proven pharmacological activities that could be linked to its medicinal uses although it contains iridoid glycosides which are reported to have anti-inflammatory effects (Viljoen et al., 2012). In addition, extracts of this plant have shown no antimicrobial activity against a number of pathogens (Van Vuuren & Naidoo, 2010). With regards to the evaluation of the biological activities and safety of these plants, a number of gaps have been identified. For example, a total of 43 plants including A. ophrydis, Commelina africana, E. ornithogalloides, S. aculeatissimum, Sopubia cana, Turbina oblongata, and Z. albomaculata used for various reproductive problems have not been assessed for any pharmacological activity nor for their toxicity. Certain plants such as Brunsvigia radulata, Morella serrata, and Phytolacca heptandra have no pharmacological data, but have been found to be toxic. It is therefore recommended that all these plants should be subjected to the appropriate assays to evaluate both their efficacy and toxicity. Acknowledgements This work is based on the research supported in part by the National Research Foundation of South Africa for the Grant number 93625. The University of Johannesburg (UJ) is gratefully acknowledged for financial support. The National University of Lesotho (NUL) together with the Lesotho Government (National Manpower Development Secretariat) are also acknowledged for financial assistance to the second author. References Abdel-Ghani, A.E., Hassan, H.M. and El-Shazly, A.M., 2013. Phytochemical and biological study of Malva parviflora L. grown in Egypt. Zagazig J. Pharm. Sci. 22 (1), 17–25. Abdel-Sattar, E., Maes, L., Salama, M.M., 2010. In vitro activities of plant extracts from Saudi Arabia against malaria, leishmaniasis, sleeping sickness and Chagas disease. Phytother. Res. 24(9), 1322–1328.

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Table 1. —List of Lesotho medicinal plants, their vernacular names in Sesotho, parts used, the main uses, major chemical compounds, and references (synonyms are given in brackets). Species (naturalised Vernacular Parts used Dosage Main uses Major alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

form

phytochemicals

asterisk*) Pteridophytes Equisetaceae Equisetum

mohlaka-

ramosissimum Desf.

photoane

rhizome

decoction

infertility in women

alkaloids,

taken orally

(Hutchings et al.,

flavonoids (Saleh

(Equisetum

1996; Jacot

and Abdalla, 1980;

ramosissimum subsp.

Guillarmod, 1971;

Steenkamp, 2003)

ramosissimum)

Phillips, 1917; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962)

Pteridaceae Adiantum capillus-

lehōrōmetso

unspecified

decoction

difficult

alkaloids,

32

veneris L. (Adiantum

taken orally

confinements

flavonoids,

capillus-veneris var.

(Hutchings et al.,

glycosides,

capillus-veneris)

1996; Jacot

saponins, steroids,

Guillarmod, 1971)

tannins, triterpenoids (Ibraheim et al., 2011; Ishag et al., 2014)

Selaginenellaceae Selaginella

moriri-oa-

whole

decoction

breast cancer (Jacot

No records

caffrorum (Milde)

matlapa

plant

taken orally

Guillarmod, 1971;

(alkaloids,

Moteetee and van

flavonoids,

Wyk, 2011)

coumarins, steroids)

Hieron.

(Almeida et al., 2013) Dicotyledons Apocynaceae Xysmalobium

poho-tšehla/

undulatum (L.)

leshokhoa

roots

powdered

cervical cancer;

glucosides

root is boiled

eases pregnancy;

(xysmalobinum),

and drunk

afterbirth cramps,

cardiac glycosides

(Asclepias undulata

uterine disorders

(uzarin, xysmalorin)

L.)

(Jacot Guillarmod,

(Van Wyk et al.,

1971; Maliehe,

2009)

W.T.Aiton

1997; Phillips, 1917; Van Wyk et al., Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) 2009; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927) Araliaceae Cussonia paniculata

motšetše

leaves

decoction

breast cancer; mixed

flavonoids,

33

Eckl. & Zeyh. ssp.

taken orally,

with Searsia

triterpene

sinuata (Reyneke &

sometimes

divaricata and

glycosides

Kok) De Winter

as an enema

Scabiosa

(Adedapo et al.,

columbaria for

2008)

period pains; cervical cancer (Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Phillips, 1917) Asteraceae Aster bakerianus

phōa

roots

decoction

sterility in women,

terpenoids

Burtt Davy ex

taken orally,

tonic for pregnant

(Tsankova and

C.A.Sm.

powdered

women (Shale et al.,

Bohlmann, 1983)

plant applied

1999; Seleteng Kose

on syphilitic

et al., 2015)

sores Artemisia afra Jacq.

lengana

leaves

ex. Willd.

drunk as

prostatitis (Seleteng

coumarins,

infusion

Kose et al., 2015;

flavonoids,

Van Wyk and Wink,

monoterpenoids

2004)

(1,8-cineole, thujone, camphor, etc.), sesquiterpenoid lactones (Van Wyk and Wink, 2004)

Berkheya cirsiifolia

mohatollo-o-

roots,

decoction

virility in men

no records

(DC.) Roessler

mosoeu

leaves

taken orally

(Maliehe, 1997)

(alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, terpenoids) (Odeleye et al., 2011)

B. setifera DC.

leleme-la-

roots,

decoction

complications

no records (see 34

khomo

leaves

taken orally

associated with

above)

pregnancy; uterine disorders; mixed with Rumex lanceolatus for Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) sterility(Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927) *Crepis

lematla-la-

hypochaeridea (DC.) Thell.

maqeba

Dicoma anomala

hloenya

Sond.

not

decoction

sterility (Watt and

specified

taken orally

Breyer-Brandwijk,

no records

1962) roots,

decoction

breast cancer;

alkaloids,

leaves

taken orally

uterine disorders;

glucosides,

painful

phytosterols,

menstruation; labour

sesquiterpene

pains; infertility

lactones (Becker et al.,

(Jacot Guillarmod,

2011; Van Wyk et

1971; Mugomeri et

al., 2009)

al., 2016; Van Wyk et al., 2009; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Gazania krebsiana

tsikitlane

roots

Less.

G. linearis (Thunb.) Druce

tsikitlane

roots

decoction

sterility in women

terpenoids

taken orally

(Seleteng Kose et

(Bohlmann and

al., 2015)

Zdero, 1979)

decoction

purgative for

no records (see

taken orally

pregnant women;

above)

mixed with other 35

plants for infertility in women (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; Moffett, 2010; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927) Gerbera ambigua

seboka

(Cass.) Sch.Bip.

G. piloselloides (L.)

tsebe-ea-pela

whole

taken as an

given to pregnant

terpenoids

plant

infusion

women (Seleteng

(Bohlmann and

Kose et al., 2015)

Wallmeyer,1982)

decoction

improves fertility;

coumarins, phenols

taken orally

cleanses uterus

(Xao et al., 2002)

roots

Cass.

(Seleteng Kose et al., 2015) Haplocarpha

khutsana /

roots,

decoction

period pains;

sesquiterpenes,

scaposa Harv.

papetloana

leaves

taken orally

infertility in women;

sesquisabinene

amenorrhoea

(Bohlmann and

(Schmitz, 1982;

Wallmeyer,

Watt Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) and Brandwijk,

1982)

1927; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Helichrysum

phate-ea-ngaka

whole

decoction

increases virility in

phloroglucinols

plant

taken orally

men (Maliehe, 1997;

(Lourens et al.,

Sond. ex Harv.

Seleteng Kose et al.,

2008)

(Helichrysum lineare

2015)

caespititium (DC.)

var. caespititium DC.) H. nudifolium var. pilosellum

boleba/

whole

decoction

mixed with

plant

taken orally

Commelina.

no records

36

africana and (L.f.) Beentje

papetloana-ea-

Salvia triangularis

(Gnaphalium

liliba

for infertility in

latifolium Thunb., G.

women (Watt and

pilosellum L.f.,

Breyer-Brandwijk,

Helichrysum

1962)

latifolium (Thunb.) Less.) H. odoratissimum

phefo

(L.) Sweet

whole

decoction

menstrual pains

flavonoids,

plant

taken orally

(Seleteng Kose et

phloroglucinols,

al., 2015)

pyrones, terpenoids (Lourens et al., 2008)

H. platypterum DC.

papetloana-ea-

(Gnaphalium

mafika

roots

decoction

for virility in men

flavonoids,

taken orally

(Jacot Guillarmod,

phloroglucinols,

platypterum

1971; Phillips, 1917) terpenoids (Lourens et al., 2008)

Sch.Bip.) H. psilolepis Harv.

tōane-khomo

roots

decoction

period pains (Jacot

no records (see

taken orally

Guillarmod, 1971;

above)

Phillips, 1917; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Senecio coronatus

motabo/

Harv. (Cineraria

lehlomanyane

roots

decoction

to ease difficult

sesquiterpene esters

taken orally

childbirth (Jacot

(Shakhnoza and

coronata Thunb.,

Guillarmod, 1971;

Saidkhodzhaev,

Senecio lachnorhizus

Maliehe, 1997;

2012)

O.Hoffm. Senecio

Moffett, 2010;

lasiorhizoides

Phillips, 1917)

Sch.Bip.) Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage form

Main uses

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) 37

S. rhomboideus

lekoto-la-

Harv.

litšoene

roots

decoction

female sterility

no records (see

taken orally

(Watt and Breyer-

above)

Brandwijk, 1962) Caprifoliaceae Cephalaria pungens

tšoene

Szabō

whole

decoction

infertility;

no records

plant

taken orally

complications

(glycosides,

associated with

saponins) (Kayce et

pregnancy Seleteng

al., 2014)

Kose et al. (2015) Scabiosa columbaria

selomi

L.

roots,

infusion

mixed with Searsia

iridoid glycosides

leaves

taken orally

divaricata and

(loganin,

Cussonia paniculata

swerodside) (Van

for colic in pregnant

Wyk et al., 2009)

women, period pains, and for difficult childbirth; cleanses the womb; uterine disorders; female infertility (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011; Phillips, 1917; Schmitz, 1982; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Van Wyk et al., 2009; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Commelinaceae Commelina africana L.

khotsoana

whole

decoction

crushed and mixed

alkaloids,

plants

taken orally

with Haplocarpha

cardenolides, 38

scaposa for female

saponins, tannins

sterility (Watt and

(Agunbiade et al.,

Brandwijk, 1927;

2012)

Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) C. benghalensis L.

khotsoana

whole

decoction

sterility in women

flavonoids,

plant

taken orally

(Phillips, 1917; Van

glycosides,

Wyk and Gericke,

phlobatannins,

2000; Watt and

saponins, tannins

Breyer-Brandwijk,

(Jemilat et al.,

1962)

2010)

Convolvulaceae Convolvulus

moroto-oa-

not

decoction

medicine to ease

no records

bidentatus Bernh

phooko /

specified

taken orally

pregnant women

(alkaloids,

Apud Krauss

morarana-o-

(Phillips, 1917; Watt

coumarins) (Jenett-

monyane

and Breyer-

Siems et al., 1998;

Brandwijk, 1962)

Malik et al., 2015)

C. sagittatus Thunb.

morarana-o-

not

decoction

medicine to ease

no records

monyane

specified

taken orally

pregnant women

(alkaloids,

(Jacot Guillarmod,

coumarins) (Malik

1971; Watt and

et al., 2015)

Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Turbina oblongata

mothokho

roots

A. Meeuse

decoction

breast cancer

no records

taken orally

(Seleteng Kose et

(alkaloids) (Cholich

al., 2015)

et al., 2013)

decoction

mixed with

phenols, saponins,

taken orally

Commelina africana

tannins (Molefe,

for female

2013)

Crassulaceae Cotyledon orbiculata L. var. oblonga (Haw.) DC

serelile

roots

39

infertility; difficult confinements (Phillips, 1917) Kalanchoe

serelile/sereleli

roots

tetraphylla H. Perrier

decoction

given to pregnant

steroids (Singab et

taken orally

women for nausea

al., 2012)

(K. thyrsiflora)

(Schmitz, 1982; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962)

Ebenaceae Euclea crispa

mohlakola

leaves

(Thunb.) Gürke

decoction

painful menstruation

alkaloids,

taken orally

(Jacot Guillarmod,

flavonoids,

1971; Phillips, 1917) saponins, terpenoids (Pretorius et al., Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) 2003) Searsia divaricata

kolitšane

not

decoction

mixed with

no records

specified

taken orally

Cussonia paniculata

(polyphenols,

Moffett (Rhus

and S. columbaria

triterpenes)

divaricata Eckl. &

for colic in pregnant

(Yürüker, 1998)

Zeyh.)

women and period

(Eckl. & Zeyh.)

pains (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) S. erosa (Thunb.)

tšilabelo

leaves

Moffett (R. erosa

decoction

uterine cancer

no records (see

taken orally

Mugomeri et al.

above)

Thunb.)

(2016)

Fabaceae Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels

mositsana

rhizome

decoction

breast cancer;

flavonoids, tannins,

taken orally

infertility (Seleteng

terpenoids (Mpofu

Kose et al., 2015)

et al., 2014)

(Elephantorrhiza 40

burchellii Benth.) Leobordea

khonathi

roots

decoction

breast cancer (Jacot

alkaloids (Van Wyk

taken orally

Guillarmod, 1971;

and Verdoorn,

B.-E. van Wyk &

Phillips, 1917, Watt

1989)

Boatwr. (Lotononis

and Breyer-

lanceolata (E.Mey.)

Brandwijk, 1962)

lanceolata (E.Mey.)

Benth.) Rhynchosia

monya-mali

roots

adenodes Eckl. &

decoction

menstrual pains

no records

taken orally

(Shale et al., 1999)

(flavonoids)

Zeyh.

(Besson et al., 1977)

Gentianaceae Chironia krebsii

leptjetlane-la-

not

decoction

to ease pregnancy

xanthone glycosides

Griseb.

liliba

specified

taken orally

(Watt and Breyer-

(Wolfender et al.,

Brandwijk, 1962)

1991)

C. palustris Burch.

leptjetlane

not

decoction

same as above (Watt

no records (see

specified

taken orally

and Breyer-

above)

Brandwijk, 1962) Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) Geraniaceae Pelargonium

khoara

roots

sidoides DC.

decoction

heartburn in

coumarins,

taken orally

pregnant women

flavonoids, phenolic

(Jacot Guillarmod,

acids, tannins

1971; Maliehe,

(Herbert et al.,

1997; Moteetee and

2003; Herbert,

Van Wyk, 2011;

2007; Van Wyk et

Phillips, 1917; Van

al., 2009)

Wyk et al., 1997, 2009) Gunneraceae Gunnera perpensa L. qobo

roots

decoction

breast cancer; mixed

Benzoquinones, 41

taken orally

with Asclepias

glucosides (Drewes

humilis and

et al., 2005; Khan et

Scabiosa

al., 2004)

columbaria used to regulate menstrual cycle; tones the uterus; period pains; colic in pregnant women; induces labour; expulsion of placenta in both women and animals; contraceptive by women (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; Maliehe, 1997; Phillips, 1917; Schmitz, 1982; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015); Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000); Van Wyk et al., 2009; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Lamiaceae Ajuga ophrydis

senyarela

Burch. ex Benth.

whole

decoction

regulation of

no records

plant

taken orally

menstrual cycle;

(flavonoids)

period pains;

(Inomata et al.,

fibroids in womb;

2013)

mixed with Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage form

Main uses

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) 42

Berkheya setifera, Kohautia amatymbica, and Rumex lanceolatus for female infertility (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; Maliehe, 1997; Phillips, 1917; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927) Mentha aquatica L.

koena-e-

whole

infusion/

for virility in men

flavonoids,

nyenyane

plant

decoction

(Maliehe, 1997)

terpenoids

taken orally

(Malingré and Maarse, 1974)

M. longifolia (L.) L.

koena

whole

infusion/

cervical cancer;

plant

decoction

dysmenorrhoea;

taken orally

delayed

flavone glycosides,

pregnancy;

monoterpenoids

complications

(Sharaf et al., 1999)

associated with pregnancy; during pregnancy to ease labour (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; Maliehe, 1997; Moffett, 2010; Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011; Phillips, 1917; Pooley, 1998; Schmitz, 1982; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Van Wyk et al., 1997, 2009; Watt and Breyer43

Brandwijk, 1962) Salvia runcinata L.f.

S. triangularis

mosisili

mosisili-oa-loti

Thunb.

whole

decoction

breast cancer;

terpenoids

plant

taken orally

infertility (Seleteng

(Kamatou et al.,

Kose et al., 2015)

2008)

whole

decoction

mixed with

no records (see

plant

taken orally

Helichrysum

above)

nudifolium var. pilosellum and C. africana for Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) infertility in women (Watt an Brandwijk, 1927; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) Malvaceae Hermannia depressa

seletjane

roots

N.E.Br.

decoction

abdominal pains in

phenolics, saponins,

taken orally

pregnancy, breast

tannins (Molefe et

cancer; nausea,

al., 2013; Reid et

improves appetite in

al., 2005)

pregnant women (Moteetee and van Wyk, 2011; Phillips, 1917; Pooley, 1998; Schmitz, 1982; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000) H. geniculata Eckl. &. Zeyh. (Hermannia

selepe

roots

decoction

used for flatulency

no records (see

taken orally

in pregnant women

above)

(Jacot Guillarmod, 44

betonicifolia Eckl. &

1971; Moffett, 2010;

Zeyh.. H. chrysantha

Phillips, 1917; Watt

E. Meyer ex

and Breyer-

Turczaninow non

Brandwijk, 1962)

Harvey) *Malva parviflora L.

tika-motse

roots

douche for

profuse

alkaloids,

uterine

menstruation,

flavonoids,

troubles,

uterine problems

glucosides,

decoction

(Jacot Guillarmod,

phytosterols,

taken orally

1971; Moteetee and

saponins, total

for

Van Wyk, 2011;

phenols, steroids,

menorrhagia

Phillips, 1917;

tannins (Abel-

Seleteng Kose et al.,

Ghani et al., 2013;

2015; Watt and

Shehata and Galal,

Brandwijk, 1927;

2014)

Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Myricaceae Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) Morella serrata

malokela /

whole

decoction

period pains

flavonoids,

(Lam.) Killick

maleleka

plant

taken orally

(Hutchings and Van

saponins, steroids,

Staden, 1994; Jacot

terpenoids (Ashafa,

Guillarmod, 1971;

2013)

Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011; Phillips, 1917; Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962) Oleaceae Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata (Wall. &

mohloare

leaves,

drunk as

male infertility

Flavonoids,

stem (bark)

infusion

(Maliehe, 1997; Van

glucosides, steroids, 45

G.Don) Cif. (Olea

Wyk et al., 1997,

tannins, terpenoids

africana Mill., E.

2009)

(Masoko &

europaea subsp.

Makgapeetja, 2015;

africana (Mill.)

Tsukamoto et al.,

P.S.Green)

1984)

Orobanchaceae Sopubia cana Harv.

leilane/

unspecified

pulumo- tšoeu

decoction

decoction of this

no records

taken orally

plant mixed with

(flavonoids)

Salvia runcinata

(Saxena, 1990)

used for period pains (Phillips, 1917) Papaveraceae *Argemone

hlaba-hlabane-

ochroleuca Sweet

e-putsoa

stem

decoction

period pains

alkaloids

taken orally

(Maliehe, 1997;

(Waksmundzka-

Moffett, 2010)

Hajnos and Sherma, 2011)

Phrymaceae Mimulus gracilis

sehlapetso

R.Br.

Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

not

decoction

for irregular

no records

specified

taken orally

menstruation (Jacot

(flavonoids,

Guillarmod, 1971;

glycosides) (Ferro

Phillips, 1917; Watt

et al., 1972;

and Breyer-

Keefover- Ring et

Brandwijk, 1962)

al. 2014)

Main uses

Major

Parts used

Dosage form

phytochemicals

asterisk*) Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca heptandra Retz.

monatja

roots

decoction

cervical cancer,

no records

(toxic)

taken orally

taken by pregnant

(triterpenoid

(low dosage

women to prevent

saponins) (Moreno

to avoid

birthmarks in their

and Rodriques,

46

adverse

unborn children

effects)

(Moffett, 2010;

1981)

Moteetee & Van Wyk, 2011; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015, Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Polygonaceae Rumex lanceolatus

khamane

rhizome

decoction

root decoction for

flavonoids, tannins

taken orally

menstrual pains,

(Jimoh et al., 2008,

ecklonianus Meisn.,

mixed with Ajuga

as R. ecklonianus)

Rumex ecklonii

ophrydis and

Meisn., Rumex

Berkheya setifera

linearis Campd.

for treatment of

Rumex meyeri

sterility (Jacot

Meisn., Rumex

Guillarmod, 1971;

meyerianus Meisn.)

Seleteng Kose et al.,

Thunb. (Rumex

2015; Steenkamp, 2003; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) R. nepalensis Spreng

khamane-e-

unspecified

kholo

decoction

for newly confined

anthraquinones,

taken orally

women (Phillips,

lignan derivatives,

1917; Watt and

naphthalene

Breyer-Brandwijk,

glycosides,

1962)

stilbenoids, tannins (Vasas et al., 2015)

Rosaceae Rubus rigidus Sm.

monokotšoai-

roots

oa-banna

Species (naturalised

Vernacular

Parts used

decoction

cervical cancer,

flavonoids,

taken orally

complications

glycosides,

associated with

phytosterols

pregnancy Seleteng

(Nguelefack et al.,

Main uses

Major

Dosage

47

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

form

phytochemicals

asterisk*) Kose et al. (2015)

2011)

decoction

menstrual pains and

no records

taken orally

as purgative to

(terpenoids)

Zeyh. ssp. pumilum

pregnant women

(Rosoarivelo et al.,

(Sond.) Puff

(Seleteng Kose et

2011)

(A. humile N.E.Br.,

al., 2015; Watt and

A. pumilum Sond.)

Brandwijk, 1927;

Rubiaceae Anthospermum

phakisane

roots

rigidum Eckl. &

Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Galium capense

seharane

roots

decoction

purgative for

no records

taken orally

pregnant women

(anthraquinones,

garipense (Sond.)

(Watt and Breyer-

triterpene saponins,

Puff (Galium

Brandwijk, 1962)

iridoid glucosides)

Thunb. subsp.

garipense Sond., G.

(De Rosa et al.,

wittbergense Sond.)

2000)

G. mucroniferum

mohlatsoa-

Sond. var.

meno/

dregeanum (Sond.)

seharane

roots

decoction

sterility in females

no records (see

taken orally

(Jacot Guillarmod,

above)

1971; Moffett, 2010)

Puff (G. dregeanum Sond.) G. undulatum Puff

morara-o-

roots

mofubelu

decoction

taken by women in

no records (see

taken orally

the latter part of

above)

their pregnancy, said to have purgative effects Kohautia

morokolo-oa-

amatymbica Eckl. &

poli

unspecified

decoction

mixed with Ajuga

taken orally

ophrydis, Berkheya

Zeyh. (Hedyotis

setifera, and Rumex

amatymbica (Eckl. &

lanceolatus for

Zeyh.) Steud.),

sterility (Moffett,

no records

48

Oldenlandia

2010; Steenkamp,

amatymbica (Eckl. &

2003; Watt and

Zeyh.) Kuntze)

Brandwijk (1927; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962)

Pentanisia

setima-mollo

prunelloides

roots,

decoction

breast cancer; eases

flavonoids, tannins,

leaves

taken orally

childbirth, expulsion

terpenoids (Mpofu

of retained placenta

et al., 2014)

(Klotzsch) Walp.

(Jacot Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) Guillarmod, 1971; Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011; Phillips, 1917; Pooley, 1998; Schmitz, 1982; Van Wyk et al., 1997, 2009, Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962) Scrophulariaceae Buddleja salviifolia

lelothoane

leaves

complications

flavonoids (Pendota

(L.) Lam. (Lantana

associated with

et al., 2013)

salviifolia L.)

pregnancy; cervical cancer (Maliehe, 1997; Seleteng Kose et al., 2015)

Solanaceae *Solanum

thola/ thola-e-

whole

decoction

decoction used to

alkaloids,

aculeatissimum Jacq.

meutloa

plant

taken orally

cleanse uterus after

glycosides,

(S. cavaleriei H. Lév.

miscarriage

saponins, steroids,

& Vaniot, S.

(Moffett, 2010)

(Shale et al., 1999) 49

khasianum C.B. Clarke) Withania somnifera

mofera-ngope

roots

(L.) Dunal

decoction

breast cancer;

alkaloids,

taken orally

infertility;

glucosides, steroids,

menorrhagia; toning

withanolides (Jain

of the uterus;

et al., 2012)

removes retained conception products (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011; Phillips, 1917; Schmitz, 1982; Van Wyk et al., 1997; Watt and Brandwijk, 1927; Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962) Vitaceae Rhoicissus tridentata

morara

(L.f.) Wild

not

decoction

sterility in women

alkaloids,

specified

taken orally

(Jacot Guillarmod,

flavonoids, saponins,

Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) & R.B. Drumm.

1971; Phillips, 1917) tannins (Mukundi et al., 2015)

Monocotyledons Amaryllidaceae Agapanthus

decoction

mixed with other

alkaloids,

taken orally

plants for period

flavonoids,

F.M.Leight. ssp.

pains (Maliehe,

phytoecdysteroids,

patens (F.M.Leight.)

1997; Moteetee and

saponins,

campanulatus

leta-la-phofu

roots

50

F.M.Leight. (A.

Van Wyk, 2010)

sapogenins (Fowale et al., 2009;

patens F.M.Leight.)

Savchenko et al., 1997)

Brunsvigia radulosa

lematla

bulb

decoction

individually or

alkaloids (Campbell

taken orally

mixed with other

et al., 2000;

Baker, B.

plants is used for

Harborne et al.,

burchelliana

infertility in women

1999)

Herb.)

(Jacot Guillarmod,

Herb. (B. cooperi

1971; Phillips, 1917; Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Araceae Zantedeschia

mohalalitoe

rhizome

albomaculata

decoction

mixed with Eucomis

flavonoids (Greca et

taken orally

autumnalis to cure

al., 1998)

(Hook.) Baill.

cysts in the uterus (Maliehe, 1997; Moffett, 2010; Moteetee and Van Wyk, 2011); Mugomeri et al., 2016)

Asparagaceae Asparagus

lerara-tau/

microraphis (Kunth)

lehonyeli

roots

decoction

period pains (Shale

no records

taken orally

et al., 1999)

(alkaloids,

Baker (Asparagopsis

flavonoids, steroidal

microrhaphis Kunth,

glycosides) (Vlase

Protasparagus

et al., 2014)

microraphis Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage form

Main uses

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) (Kunth) Oberm.) 51

Eriospermum

khongoana-

not

decoction

mixed with Gunnera

ornithogaloides

tšingoana/

specified

taken orally

perpensa and

Baker

tsebe- ea-pela

no records

Scabiosa

(E.coerulescens

columbaria to

Poelln., E. haygarthii

cleanse the uterus

Baker, E.

and improve fertility

microphyllum Baker

(Maliehe, 1997; Moffett, 2010)

Eucomis autumnalis

khapumpu

bulbs,

decoction

for difficult

flavonoids,

roots

taken orally

childbirth (Jacot

terpenoids

clavata (Baker)

Guillarmod, 1971;

(Mulholland et al.,

Reyneke

Maliehe, 1997;

2013)

(Mill) Chitt. ssp.

Schmitz, 1982; Van Wyk et al. 1997, 2009) E. regia (L.) Aiton

khapumpu

root

decoction

to prevent premature

no records (see

taken orally

childbirth

above)

(Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962) Fusifilum depressum

moretele

(Baker) U.Müll.-

whole

breast cancer (Jacot

glycosides (Crouch

plant

Guillarmod, 1971);

et al., 2007)

Doblies, J.S.Tang &

Moteetee and Van

D.Müll.-Doblies

Wyk, 2011, Phillips,

(Drimia depressa

1917, Pooley, 2003,

(Baker) Jessop,

Watt and Breyer-

Urginea depressa

Brandwijk, 1962)

Baker, U. ecklonii Baker & Adamson Ledebouria cooperi

decoction

soothing medicine to flavonoids,

taken orally

ease pregnancy

terpenoids

(Scilla cooperi

(Hutchings et al.,

(Mulholland et al.,

Hook.f., S.

1996; Phillips, 1917;

2013)

rehmannii Baker, S.

Seleteng Kose et al.,

(Hook.f.) Jessop

leptjetlane

bulb

52

sphaerocephala

2015; Watt and

Baker, etc.)

Breyer-Brandwiijk, 1962)

Cyperaceae Scirpus falsus

loli

rhizome

infertility (Seleteng

C.B.Clarke

no records

Kose et al., 2015)

Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

Parts used

Dosage

Main uses

form

Major phytochemicals

asterisk*) Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis

moli

corms

hemerocallidea

decoction

infertility in men,

phytosterol

taken orally

testicular tumours,

glycosides (Ncube

swollen testicles

et al., 2013)

Fisch.

(Seleteng Kose et al., 2015; Van Wyk et al., 2009) Poaceae Cynodon

mohloa

leaves and

decoction

labour pains (Watt

no records

roots

taken orally

and Brandwijk,

(flavones) (Mural et

1927)

al., 2015)

decoction

given during

phenolic

taken orally

parturition to

compounds (Shode

(Typha latifolia

strengthen

et al., 2002)

subsp. capensis

contractions (Watt

Rohrb.)

and Breyer-

incompletus Nees. (Cynodon hirsutus Stent) Typhaceae Typha capensis

motsitla

rhizome

(Rohrb.) N.E.Br.

Brandwijk, 1962) Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe ecklonis SalmDyck (Aloe agrophila Reynolds)

lekhalana

roots

decoction

infertility in women

taken orally

Jacot Guillarmod

no records

(1971);

53

Schmitz(1982) A. maculata All.

lekhala-la-bafu

leaves

breast cancer

aloin,

(Pooley, 2003; Watt

anthraquinones,

and Breyer-

saponins

Brandwijk, 1962)

(Schmelzer et al., 2008)

Bulbine narcissifolia

khomo-ea-

Salm.-Dyck (B.

balisa

roots

decoction

uterine cysts,

anthraquinones,

taken orally

fibroids; infertility

glycosides

densiflora Baker, B.

in women (Maliehe,

(Qhotsokoane-

latibracteata Poelln.

1997; Watt and

Lusunzi and

Breyer- Brandwijk,

Karuso, 2001)

1962) Phalangium narcissifolium (Salm-Dyck) Kuntze) Kniphofia caulescens

leloele

Species (naturalised

Vernacular

alien species are

names (in

marked with an

Sesotho)

bulbs

Parts used

decoction

infertility in women;

anthraquinones (Dai

taken orally

mixed with

et al., 2013)

Dosage

Main uses

Major

form

phytochemicals

asterisk*) Baker

Gunnera perpensa to cleanse uterus; regulates menstrual cycle (Maliehe, 1997)

K. northiae Baker

lelutla

stems

decoction

period pains;

anthraquinones

taken orally

menorrhagia

(Van Wyk et al.,

(Mugomeri et al.,

1995)

2016)

54

Table 2. —List of Lesotho medicinal plants, their anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, toxicology, and references. Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

Equisetum

FRAP assay: FRAP units =

Not yet evaluated

No severe discernible

ramosissimum Desf.

5.44 x 100 μM Fe2+; ESR =

toxic effects (Li et al.,

97.8% (Štajner, et al., 2009).

2016)

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) Pteridophytes Equisetaceae

DPPH assay: 43.41 ± 7.68% (Li et al., 2016)

Pteridaceae Adiantum capillus-

H2O2 assay: Glutathione

Carrageenan induced

Chorioallantoic

veneris L.

peroxidase recovery= 6.40

oedema assay: 67.27%

membrane bioassay: weak

(H2O2 only), 7.60 (H2O2 + 5

inhibition at 300 mg/kg (3

irritation in the hen’s egg

μl leaf extract), 8.62 (H2O2

hrs) (Haider et al. 2011)

test (Nilforoushzadeh et

+ 10 μl leaf extract), 10.20

al., 2014)

H2O2 + 20 μl leaf extract) Selaginenellaceae Selaginella

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Xysmalobium

ABTS assay: methanol

Cyclooxygenase assay: 96 %

undulatum (L).

extract of aerial part, 50%

COX inhibition (Jäger et al.,

Aiton f. var.

inhibition at 0.125 mg/ mL

1996)

Dry, alcoholic extract of the root is very toxic to animals (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962)

undulatum

(Steenkamp et al., 2004)

*Carrageenan-induced

Not yet evaluated

caffrorum (Milde) Hieron. Dicotyledons Apocynaceae

Araliaceae Cussonia paniculata

Not yet evaluated

55

Eckl. & Zeyh. ssp.

oedema assay: 96.6 %

sinuata (Reyneke &

inhibition at 50 mg/kg (2hrs);

Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) Kok) De Winter

histamine-induced oedema assay: 92.4 % at 200 mg/kg (3hrs) (Adedapo et al., 2008)

Asteraceae Afroaster hispida

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Artemisia afra Jacq.

DPPH & ABTS assays: Crude

Lipoxygenase assay: EC50 =

MTT toxicity assay: IC50

ex. Willd.

extract: IC50 = 2.113 μg/ml

21.8 in 25 μg/ml of crude

16.95 μg/mL on McCoy

against DPPH, 6.44 μg/ ml

extract 15 LOX inhibitory

fibroblast cell line (More

against ABTS (Muleya et al.,

activity (Muleya et al., 2014a)

et al., 2012)

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

DPPH & ABTS assays:

Lipoxygenase assay: 80%

Extracts showed no

EC50 = 2.471 μg/ml against

15-LOX inhibition at 25

toxicityon human red

DPPH, 1.967 μg/ml against

μg/ml (Muleya et al.,

blood cells and kidney

ABTS (Muleya et al.,

2014b)

epithelial cells (Sibadze

(Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt

2014a)

Berkheya cirsiifolia (DC.) Roessler B. setifera DC.

2014b) *Crepis

and Van Zyl, 2008)

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Cyclooxygenase assay: 86%

No mortalities or toxicity

COX inhibition (Shale et al.,

signs on rats (Balogun

1999)

and Ashafa, 2016)

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

hypochaeridea (DC.) Thell. Dicoma anomala Sond.

Gazania krebsiana

DPPH & ABTS assays: IC50

56

Less.

3.32 µg/ml (DPPH), 5.00 µg/ml (SOD), 0.60 µg/ml (metal chelating), 0.70 µg/ml (ABTS) (Balogun and Ashafa, 2016)

G. linearis (Thunb.)

Not yet evaluated

Druce

Carrageenan-induced

Single oral

oedema assay: no

administration: no significant

Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

major inhibition at 200 or

change was observed in

500 mg/kg; 48% inhibition

haematological

at 1000 mg/kg (4hrs) (El

parameters liver

Kady et al., 2015, as G.

functions, and kidney

longiscapa

functions (El Kady et al.,

alien species are marked with an asterisk*)

2015, as G. longiscapa) Gerbera ambigua

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

G. piloselloides (L.)

ABTS assay: (Wang et al.,

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Cass.

2014)

Haplocarpha

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Cyclooxygenase assay: 96 %

No toxicity using

pilosellum (L.f.)

COX inhibition (Jäger et al.,

sulforhodamine B assay

Beentje

1996)

with 73.1 % T/C of

(Cass.) Sch.Bip.

scaposa Harv. Helichrysum caespititium (DC.) Sond. ex Harv. H. nudifolium var.

Graham cells, 83.9 % T/C of SF-268 glioblastoma cells, 35.3% T/C of 57

MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma cells (Lourens et al., 2011) H. odoratissimum

5,6-dihydroxy-3,7,8-

promising anti-inflammatory

No toxicity using

(L.) Sweet

trimethoxyflavone, 5,7-

activity of 5,6-dihydroxy-

sulforhodamine B assay,

dihydroxy-3-

3,7,8-trimethoxyflavone and

with 17.5% T/C of

methoxyflavone, 3',4',5,7-

3',4',3,5-tetrahydroxy-7-

Graham cells, 48.2% T/C

tetrahydroxy-3-

of SF-268 cells, 7.4% T/C

methoxyflavone and

of MCF-7 breast

3',4',3,5tetrahydroxy-7-

methoxyflavone (Legoalea

cancer cells (Lourens et

methoxyflavone, have

et al., 2013)

al., 2011)

Not yet evaluated

Potential toxicity using

antioxidant activity by the DPPH free radical assay (Legoalea et al., 2013) H. platypterum DC.

Not yet evaluated

sulforhodamine B assay, with 0.8% T/C of Graham cells, 35.1% Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) T/C of SF-268 cells, 4.6% T/C of MCF-7 breast cancer cells (Lourens et al., 2011) H. psilolepis Harv.

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

No toxicity using sulforhodamine B assay, with 25.9% T/C of Graham cells, 58.4% T/C of SF-268 cells, 23.1% T/C of MCF-7 breast cancer cells ((Lourens et 58

al., 2011) Senecio coronatus

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

antioxidant potency, level

Carrageenan-induced

Acute and sub-acute dose

of GPx, CAT

oedema assay: isolated

toxicity tests showed no

and SOD was significantly

HECB showed 60.29 %

significant change in any

restored by plant extract

inhibition at 400 mg/kg

biochemical parameters

treatment (Kokilavani et al.,

(Tiwari et al., 2013)

(Tiwari et al. 2013)

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

C. sagittatus Thunb.

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Turbina oblongata

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

Harv. S. rhomboideus Harv. Caprifoliaceae Cephalaria pungens Szabō Scabiosa columbaria L. Commelinaceae Commelina africana L. C. benghalensis L.

2014) Convolvulaceae Convolvulus bidentatus Bernh Apud Krauss

A. Meeuse Species (naturalised alien species are marked with an asterisk*) (Ipomoea oblongata) Crassulaceae

59

Oedema assay: 51%

Negative – acute

L. var. oblonga

inhibition at 100 mg/kg;

mammalian toxicity test

(Haw.) DC

76% inhibition at 400

(Amabeoku and

mg/kg (Amabeoku &

Kabatende, 2012); acute

Kabatende, 2012)

bufadienolide cardiac

Cotyledon orbiculata

Not yet evaluated

glycoside toxicity in animals, with presence of histopathologically multiple foci of myocardial degeneration (Tustin et al., 1984) Kalanchoe

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Toxicity against human

tetraphylla H. Perrier Ebenaceae Euclea crispa (Thunb.) Gürke

cancer cells using the MTT test (Al-Fatim et al., 2005)

Searsia divaricata

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Oedema assay: 93.7%

Negative – acute, sub-

elaphantina

inhibition at 50

acute and chronic

(Burch.) Skeels

mg/kg (Lall & Kishore,

mammalian toxicity tests

2014; Maphosa et al., 2009)

[low toxicity on blood

(Eckl. & Zeyh.) Moffett S. erosa (Thunb.) Moffett Fabaceae Elephantorrhiza

parameters, however, some level of toxicity were demonstrated on organs namely kidneys, lungs, liver and spleen. 60

Therefore the plant should be used with caution, with a Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) maximal dose of25 mg per ml] (Maphosa et al., 2010) Leobordea

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Cyclooxygenase assay: leaf

Not yet evaluated

lanceolata (E.Mey.) B.-E. van Wyk & Boatwr. Rhynchosia adenodes Eckl. &

extract 95% COX inhibition;

Zeyh.

root extract 93% COX inhibition (Shale et al., 1999)

Gentianaceae Chironia krebsii

inhibition of two xanthones

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Griseb.

2,3-dihydroxy-4-

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Pelargonium

High levels of TDZ (2.5;

EPsR 7630 assessed in acute

The half maximal

sidoides DC.

5.0µ M) induced higher

bacterial bronchitis model in

cytotoxic concentration of

radical scavenging activity

rats, tracheal lesions

EPs 7630 (CC50) of 557

based on the DPPH assay

significantly reduced at

lg/ml (Theisen and

methoxyxanthone and the 2-formyl-3-hydroxy-4methoxyxanthone against human cancer cells (Pedro, et al., 2002) C. palustris Burch. Geraniaceae

61

(Kumar et al., 2015);

doses of 30 and 60 mg/kg

Muller, 2012); EPss 7630,

antioxidant potential

(Bao et al., 2015).

did not cause obvious

measured by DPPH radical

toxic effects in mice

scavenging activity (EC50 of

(lungs, liver, spleen,

5.5 µm/ml) and ORAC

kidneys), (Moyo and Van

(1000 µmolTE/g), (Moyo et

Staden, 2014)

al., 2013) Gunneraceae Gunnera perpensa

Crude extract: EC50 = 1.069

Oedema assay: 59.2%

L.

μg/ml against DPPH; 32.49

inhibition at 150 mg/kg (Lall

μg/ml against ABTS

& Kishore, 2014; Nkomo et

(Muleya et

Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

al., 2014a)

al., 2010); Lipoxygenase assay:

Toxicology

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) EC50=81.18 μg/ ml soya bean 15LOX inhibitory activity.

Lamiaceae Ajuga ophrydis

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Radical scavenging activity

Anti-inflammatory effect

Acute toxicity using the

(Reduce DPPH radicals into

(300 µg/cm) provoked

Microtox

the neutral DPPH-H form),

oedema reductions ranging

acute toxicity test

(Mimica-Dukić et al.,

from 21 to 27% (Conforti et

revealed 20% toxicity for

2003);

al., 2008)

the human health

Burch. ex Benth. Mentha aquatica L.

The DPPH scavenging

(Conforti et al., 2008)

assay of 7.50 µg/mL, (Benabdallah et al., 2016) M. longifolia (L.) L.

IC50 = 57.4 µm/ml (plant

Decreased TNFα pro-

Moderately toxic for oral

extract) and 10700 µm/ml

inflammatory cytokine

medication in rats, with

(essential oil) against DPPH

expression (Karimian et al.,

LD50 of 470 mg/kg 62

(Gulluce et al., 2007)

2013)

(Jalilzadeh and Maham, 2015); Marked cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 cells using Brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay (Al-ali et al., 2013)

Salvia runcinata L.f.

IC50 value of 6.09 µg/ml

IC50 value of > 100 µg/ml,

Non-toxic, IC50 value of

using a modified

using 5-LOX (Kamatou et

> 100 µg/ml, using 3-

quantitative 2,2-diphenyl-1-

al., 2005)

[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-

picrylhydrazyl

yl]-2,5-

(DPPH) assay (Kamatou et

diphenyltetrazolium

al., 2005)

bromide (MTT) assay on Graham cells (Kamatou et al., 2005)

S. triangularis

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

Not yet evaluated

COX-1 inhibition in stem

Not yet evaluated

Thunb. Malvaceae Species (naturalised alien species are marked with an asterisk*) Hermannia depressa N.E.Br.

(78%) and root (81%) at 0.5 mg/ml (Reid et al. 2005)

H. geniculata Eckl.

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

&. Zeyh

No deleterious effect on the livers, kidneys, lungs or hearts of rats animals, but significantly reduced (p < 0.05) white blood cells and other haematological parameters (Kazeem and Ashafa, 2015)

*Malva parviflora L.

Strong scavenging activity

Cyclooxygenase assay: 98%

Not yet evaluated 63

with IC(50) of 89.03 µg/mL

COX-1 inhibition at 200

using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-

μg/ml (Shale et al., 1999;

hydrazyl (DPPH) radical

Shale et al., 2005) ;

assay (Bouriche et al, 2011)

inhibition of croton oilinduced ear edema by 57% and acetic acid-induced vascular permeability by 36 and 40% (Bouriche et al, 2011)

Myricaceae Morella serrata

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

(Lam.) Killick

Significant lethality against brine shrimp naupli with LC50 of 0.26 µmL-1 in ethanol extract and 0.18 µmL-1 in methanol extract of root (Ashafa, 2013)

Oleaceae Olea europaea ssp.

Scavenging activity of

Not yet evaluated

No mutagenicity in a

cuspidata (Wall. &

flavonol rhamnoglucoside

bacterial reverse mutation

G.Don) Cif.

rutin (TEAC 2.75 mM) by

test and in an vitro mammalian

Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) ABTS·+radical cation

chromosomal aberration

(Benavente-Garc a et al.,

test, and no genotoxic

2000)

activity in mouse micronucleus test at concentrations of 2000 mg/kg bw/d. (Clewell et al., 2016)

64

Orobanchaceae Sopubia cana Harv.

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Low cytotoxicity against

Papaveraceae *Argemone ochroleuca Sweet

MRC-5 cells (CC(50) of 11.6 µg/mL) (AbdelSatter et al, 2010)

Phrymaceae Mimulus gracilis

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Oedema assay: compounds

Not yet evaluated

R.Br. Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca heptandra Retz. Polygonaceae Rumex lanceolatus Thunb. R. nepalensis Spreng

1, 7 and 16 exhibited 65.3%, 57.7% and 43.2% reduction respectively (Vasas et al., 2015) Rosaceae Rubus rigidus Sm.

Free radical scavenging activity (Emaxs of

Not yet evaluated

Moderately toxic (LC50 of 19.8 μg /ml), (Moshi et al., 2010)

Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) 119% and 229% activity on DPPH and β-carotene test), constituent flavonoids

65

exhibited potent antioxidant activities (66 to 93.56% against DPPH radical) (Nguelefack et al., 2011) Rubiaceae Anthospermum

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

G. undulatum Puff

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Kohautia

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Pentanisia

5-lipoxygenase inhibitory

Cyclooxygenase assay: 88%

Ethanol leaf extract MTT

prunelloides

[IC50 (ppm) of 32.71] and

COX-1 inhibition at 0.1

assay: No toxicity

(Klotzsch) Walp.

DPPH anti-oxidant

mg/ml (Lall & Kishore,

observed on monkey

activities [IC50 (ppm) of

2014; Yff et al., 2002).

kidney cells up to 31.25

11.79], (Frum and Viljoen,

Lipoxygenase assay: 79%

mg/mL (Yff et al., 2002);

2006)

15-LOX inhibition at 167

Nongenotoxic activity

μg/ml (Muleya et al., 2015)

using Salmonella

rigidum Eckl. & Zeyh. ssp. pumilum (Sond.) Puff Galium capense Thunb. subsp. garipense (Sond.) Puff G. mucroniferum Sond. var. dregeanum (Sond.) Puff

amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh.

microsome assay (Madikizela et al., 2014)

Scrophulariaceae Buddleja salviifolia

IC50 of 0.23 mg/ml for

Cyclooxygenase assay:

IC50 > 200 µg/ml

(L.) Lam.

DPPH and 0.14 mg/ml

isolated

Inhibition of cell 66

Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

for ABTS radical

compounds 1, 2, 3)

proliferation using

scavenging tests (Adewusi

exhibited high COX-2

resazurin test (Jonville et

et al., 2011)

inhibition (70%, 80%, 90%

al., 2011)

alien species are marked with an asterisk*)

respectively) (Pendota et al (2014) Solanaceae *Solanum

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Withania somnifera

Dose related increase in

NFkappaB-inhibitory

Marked toxicity, IC50

(L.) Dunal

SOD, CAT and GPX

activity, TNTα-inhibitory

values of 2.1 Ag/ml

enzymes activity in frontal

activity (Kaileh et al., 2007)

(PE/EtOAc) and 1.1

aculeatissimum Jacq.

cortex striatum of rats

Ag/ml (MeOH) against

(Bhattancharya et al., 1997)

ECV-304 cells (Al-Fatim et al., 2005)

Vitaceae Rhoicissus tridentata

Inhibition of 1, 1'-diphenyl-

Significant inhibition of

(L.f.) Wild & R.B.

2-picryhydrazyl free

cyclo-oxygenase (COX-1),

Drumm.

radical, xanthine oxidase,

Lin et al., 1999)

Not yet evaluated

and also prevented production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and free radical mediated DNA sugar damage (Opoku et al., 2002) Monocotyledons Amaryllidaceae Agapanthus

Not yet evaluated

Cyclooxygenase assay: ±

campanulatus

90% COX-1

F.M.Leight. ssp.

and 70% COX-2 inhibition

patens (F.M.Leight.)

at 250 μg/ml (Fawole et al.,

Not yet evaluated

67

F.M.Leight. Brunsvigia radulosa

2009) Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Herb.

Cytotoxicity with BL6 mouse melanoma cells, IC50 ranging between 0.43 and 9.4 mg/ml (Campbell et al., 2000)

Araceae Species (naturalised

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Cyclooxygenase assay: leaf

Not yet evaluated

alien species are marked with an asterisk*) Zantedeschia albomaculata (Hook.) Baill. Asparagaceae Asparagus microraphis (Kunth)

extract 89% COX inhibition;

Baker

root extract 97% COX inhibition (Shale et al., 1999)

Eriospermum

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Eucomis autumnalis

DPPH assay: EC50 = 2.461

80% inhibition of COX-1

Not yet evaluated

(Mill) Chitt. ssp.

μg/ml against DPPH; ABTS

and 85% inhibition of

clavata (Baker)

assay: EC50 = 24.4 μg/ml

COX-2 enzymes at 250μg

Reyneke

against ABTS (Muleya et

ml-1 (Taylor and van

al., 2014a)

Staden, 2002);

ornithogaloides Baker

IC50 of 72 mg/ml for the bulb, 27 mg/ml for the root extracts, and 15 mg/ml for the leaf extract (Taylor and Van Staden, 2001) E. regia (L.) Aiton

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated 68

Fusifilum depressum

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

Hypoxis

Antioxidant activity using

Cyclooxygenase assay: 48 %

Negative toxicity using

hemerocallidea

the DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-

COX inhibition (Jäger et al.,

Ames test and VITOTOX

Fisch.

picryl hydrazine) and FRAP

1996); 98%COX-1 and

(Elgorashi et al., 2003;

(ferric reducing ability of

COX-2 74% inhibition at

Reid et al., 2006); and

plasma) tests, Inhibition of

250 µg/ml in corm, and

positive – micronucleus

quinolinic acid (QA)

78% COX-1 and 59%

test (Taylor et al., 2003);

induced lipid peroxidation

COX-2 in leaf (Aremu et al.,

No toxicity with LD50 of

in rat liver tissue using the

2010)

1948 mg/kg in mice

(Baker) U.Müll.Doblies, J.S.Tang & D.Müll.-Doblies Ledebouria cooperi (Hook.f.) Jessop Cyperaceae Scirpus falsus C.B.Clarke Species (naturalised alien species are marked with an asterisk*) Hypoxidaceae

thiobarbituric assay (TBA),

(Ojewole, 2006);

Superoxide free radical

No genotoxicity using

scavenging activity using

the neutral red uptake

nitroblue tetrazolium assay

(NRU) assay (Verschaeve

(Nair et al., 2007);

et al., 2013)

Poaceae Cynodon

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Typha capensis

2,2-diphenyl-1-

Not yet evaluated

Negative effects on

(Rohrb.)

picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)

incompletes Nees Typhaceae

vitality, motility, sperm 69

radical N.E.Br.

scavenging activity of

production and

12.8% (Masoko et al.,

mitochondrial membrane

2008)

potential (Henkel et al., 2011)

Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe ecklonis Salm-

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Inactive, 5-lipoxygenase

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory activity

Toxicology

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated

Dyck A. maculata All.

inhibitory and DPPH antioxidant activities IC50 (ppm) > 100 (Frum and Viljoen, 2006) Bulbine narcissifolia Salm.- Dyck

Species (naturalised alien species are marked with an asterisk*) Kniphofia caulescens Baker K. northiae Baker

graphical abstract

70

71