Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

MEDICINAL PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF BEVERAGES

7

Aysu Tolun⁎, Zeynep Altintas† ⁎

Food Engineering, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey, †Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany

7.1 Introduction Over the last decade there has been growing interest in the production and consumption of functional foods because they provide significant health benefits, such as reducing the risk of chronic diseases and improving the physiological conditions in human body. Whole, fortified, or enriched foods have a potentially beneficial effect on human health when consumed as part of a varied diet on a regular basis (Vicentini et al., 2016). The functional beverage industries represent the largest and fastest growing part of the functional food sector consisting of food, beverages, and supplement sectors. Global functional drinks market grew by 3% in 2010 to reach a value of $48,186.1 ­million and the market substantially expanded by 7.8% to reach a value of $70,182.8 million in 2014 (Yumda, 2017). This high demand toward functional beverages is the results of several factors including convenient content, size, shape, and appearance of the containers, as well as ease of distribution and storage conditions for the refrigerated and shelf-stable products. Moreover, it is feasible to incorporate desirable nutrients and bioactive compounds to the functional drinks such as antioxidants, dietary fibers, prebiotics, proteins, peptides, unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins. The interest of functional beverages has resulted in a number of new drinks in the marketplace designed to address the specific health concerns. There are various applications of functional beverages like dairy-based beverages, probiotic drinks, energy drinks, sports drinks, meal replacers, health and wellness, caffeinated beverages, weight management, vegetable, and fruit beverages. These functional beverages either improve the general and physical conditions and/or decrease the risk of the evolution of diseases (Corbo et al., 2014). Functional and Medicinal Beverages. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816397-9.00007-8 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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The expected impact of functional beverages, such as reducing of cancer risk, boosting immune system, improving physical and mental condition, antistress, antiaging, antioxidant, and anti-­inflammatory properties, depends on their contents and production methods. While developing commercially successful functional beverages some important factors, including the selection of raw material, process technology, and the taste, texture, flavor, appearance, chemical and functional properties of the beverage, must be taken into consideration to obtain a safe, high quality, and market value product. Increasing the success of a newly developed product in the market also depends on the scientific evidence, daily intake limit, consumer acceptance, commercial aspects, and legal regulations (Scheme 7.1). Emerging technologies focus on some applications, including high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric fields (PEFs), and nanotechnology, to improve the manufacturing methods of functional foods without compromising their sensory and functional properties. The expected changes in health and nutrition approaches within the upcoming years have been increasing the importance of functional and medicinal food considerably; thus will result in comprehensive research activities. This chapter is an extensive review of the medicinal properties and functional components of beverages with the recent developments in the field. It covers the classification of functional beverages with a particular focus on fermented, dairy-based, nondairy-based, fruit-based, and herbal-based functional beverages.

Products cannot be marketed unless they are considered to be safe. While formulating a new functional beverage the existing regulatory framework (FDA, EU) has to be considered

Unknown daily intake limit (safety and effectiveness) may cause side effects

Daily intake limit Consumer acceptance

Legal regulations

-Economic benefit -Easy access to the raw material -Usage of feasible technology

Commercial aspect

Functional beverage is not a medicine so it is accepted as a organoleptic by consumer

Developing a commercially available functional beverage

Scientific evidence

Bioavailability tests supporting in vitro and in vivo trials which have appropriate markers to determine the positive effect of the components on the target body functions

Scheme 7.1  Important aspects to take into consideration for the development of commercially successful functional beverages.

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Furthermore, the importance of bioaccessibility of these products and their health benefits are discussed. Current in vitro and in vivo studies in the field are also covered.

7.2  Classification of Functional Beverages Nutraceuticals found in functional food can be classified in several ways and this classification leads to better understanding of their role in human health. Four classification approaches to nutraceuticals are given in the following: (1) They can be grouped based on the food source (i.e., which food they are derived from). The source may be a plant, animal, or microbial. β-glucan, ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, ­lycopene, quercetin, and lutein are among the good examples of plant derived nutraceuticals. Conjugated linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid are originated from animal sources, whereas Saccharomyces boulardii, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus are examples of microbial sources. (2) Nutraceuticals can be classified based on the relatively concentrated foods. This approach is more convenient when there is a particular interest for a specific food due to its agricultural properties and geographical location or nutraceutical compound (e.g., isoflavones in soybean and other legumes; quercetin in red grape and citrus fruit; eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in fish oils; β-carotene in carrot and pumpkin; catechins in tea and berries, etc.). (3) Another way of grouping nutraceuticals depends on their mechanism of action. Here, the most important parameter is their proven physiological properties regardless of food source. Antioxidant, antibacterial, hypotensive, hypocholesterolemic, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and osteoprotective nutraceuticals are among the best examples of this group. (4) Classifying them based on the particular chemical element/ groups is the other common way that enables to understand their chemical nature. Isoprenoids, phenolic compounds, amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, lipids, and minerals constitute good examples of this type of nutraceuticals. It is worth mentioning that classifying nutraceuticals is easier than those of functional foods. The major reason for this is the fact that functional foods may be formulated using more than one food source, including plant, animal, or even microbial together. For example, a milk-based symbiotic beverage consists of skimmed milk, fruit juice, and probiotic bacteria (Walsh et  al., 2014). Additionally, one functional food possesses more than one nutraceuticals; hence, we cannot

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classify them according to their nutraceutical content. As an example, there exist vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and polyphenols in fermented coconut water (Camargo Prado et al., 2015). Moreover, a functional food may demonstrate more than one health benefit as is the case in a study in which the fresh and processed cashew (Anacardium occidentale) apple juices displayed anticlastogenic, antimutagenic, anticancer, and cardioprotective effects (Melo-Cavalcante et al., 2011). We also cannot categorize the functional foods according to their chemical nature because they include many compounds and chemical structures. Due to these reasons, this chapter classifies the functional beverages based on their formulations that cover dairy-based, nondairy-based, fruit-based, and herbal-based functional beverages.

7.3  Fermented Beverages and Their Health Benefits Fermented probiotic foods containing sufficient number of certain live microorganisms stimulate the growth of preferred microflora and positively modify the host intestinal microbiota when consumed on a regular basis (Rathore et al., 2012; Salmeron et al., 2015). Probiotics are the fermented ingredients that alter the composition and/or activity of the gastrointestinal microflora and they are beneficial to the host’s health. These fermented foods are important for achieving the new generation functional beverages (Liutkevicius et  al., 2016). According to certain estimation, probiotic foods constitute between 60% and 70% of the total functional food market (Tripathi and Giri, 2014). Prebiotics, which are specialized plant fibers, improve the host health by stimulating the activity of certain favorable bacteria species in the colon (Walsh et al., 2014; Kolida and Gibson, 2008). Recently, an increase has been observed in the number of novel probiotic food production and most of the probiotics are dairy-based products. These probiotics are linked to a range of health benefits due to their therapeutical nature or good potential as a healer for some diseases, such as diarrhea, gastroenteritis, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, depressed immune function, inadequate lactose digestion, infant allergies, hyperlipidemia, hepatic diseases, and Helicobacter pylori infections (Salmeron et  al., 2015; Parvez et al., 2006). Fermentation process enhances the nutritional and sensory properties of food and also prolongs the shelf life of very perishable fruit, such as strawberry. This prolonged conservation period offers new sustainable and successful alternatives to strawberry market. This is particularly important for protecting antioxidant characteristics and color of the food from negative influence of storage time and

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temperature. Hornedo-Ortega and colleagues studied the influence of storage conditions on anthocyanin and color of gluconic fermentation of strawberry and reported that the half-life of the beverage was 60 days when stored at 4°C. During this period the composition and properties of beverage could be preserved (Hornedo-Ortega et al., 2016). Although there are numerous studies on traditional dairy-based fermented beverages and their production, there is also a growing ­interest in nondiary-based fermented beverages (Zannini et  al., 2013). The fact behind this is that nondairy fermented beverages can overcome some of the disadvantages associated with the fermented dairy products, such as lactose intolerance, allergy, and the impact in cholesterol levels (Rathore et al., 2012). While the number of lactose-­ intolerant individuals is globally around 20%, it can reach up to 100% in some Asiatic (e.g., Japan and China) or African countries (Swagerty et al., 2002). Therefore, nondairy fermented beverages offer a good alternative to those people, who suffer from lactose intolerance and also for the other consumers that prefer avoiding dairy products. The majority of nondiary fermented beverage research has focused on fruit, cereal, and soybean-based products. The increasing demand for the health-promoting foods requires finding new nondiary substrates for probiotic production. According to the recent studies, fruit and vegetable juices have been commonly used in food matrices that serve as carriers of probiotic bacteria. In addition to these, cereals are also potential substrates as they contain nutrients that can be easily assimilated by probiotics (Salmeron et al., 2015; Martins et al., 2013). Dairy-based and nondairy-based fermented beverages are discussed in Sections  7.3.1 and 7.3.2, respectively, with a deep insight about their health benefits.

7.3.1 Dairy-Based Fermented Beverages Kefir, functional whey beverage, yogurt, and drinkable yogurt can be given as examples of the dairy-based fermented beverages. These fermented dairy products demonstrate desirable characteristics to maintain the healthy balance of human intestinal microflora that plays an important role in presenting resistance to pathogen colonization in the intestinal tract. When these beverages are consumed in adequate amounts, they display a positive influence on the host health (FAO/WHO, 2001; Walsh et al., 2014). Functional dairy-based fermented beverages have generally been studied and formulated in combination with another foodstuff such as germinated wrinkled lentils, plant sterols (PSs), oregano extract or essential oil (Boroski et al., 2012), barley malt (Zannini et al., 2013), calcium, vitamin D, prebiotic dietary fiber (Liutkevicius et  al., 2016) to enhance nutritional value,

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texture, and flavor of the beverages and to avoid undesirable turbidity and sedimentation, especially during a long time storage. Addition of these foodstuff or bioactive substances to dairy beverages followed by fermentation may be an option to improve nutritional quality and functionality of the beverages, such as mineral solubility and antioxidant activity (Gunenc et  al., 2017; Chaturika Jeewanthi et  al., 2015; Jalili et al., 2001). The aim of using combined substrates is to expand the nutritive value of beverages by utilizing some low market value by-product and to adjust the desired physical and sensory properties, cost and shelf life of the final products. The cultured dairy products alone display nutraceutical effect. They can be easily formulated to incorporate compatible probiotic bacteria with prebiotics, making these fermented dairy products symbiotic (Walsh et al., 2014). Their combination with other foodstuff helps enhancing the new formulation of the resulting functional food in terms of nutritive value and achieving good stability against other bioactive compounds, which exist in the formulated food or beverages. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that stimulate an immune response generate resistance to an infection and act as immunomodulators (Walsh et al., 2014; Guo, 2009). They show anticarcinogenic properties and play a part in cholesterol metabolism, lactose metabolism, absorption of calcium, and synthesis of certain vitamins (Aluko, 2012). Walsh et  al. have formulated a carbonated drinkable yogurt beverage by mixing pomegranate, vanilla, and yogurt, containing ­inulin as a prebiotic, along with probiotic bacteria L. acidophilus and Bifidobacterium to obtain symbiotic products. Inulin was added to act in symbiosis with the bifidobacteria both in the beverage and in the intestine, to improve functional benefits of the new formulation (Walsh et  al., 2014). Being a native fruit to the Middle East, pomegranate includes an uncommon conjugated linoleic acid and soluble ­polyphenols and tannins. Pomegranate tannins have a suppressing effect on the certain pathogenic species exist in the intestine, whereas they do not display a noteworthy influence on the probiotic bacteria survival such as Bifidobacterium and L. acidophilus (Bialonska et al., 2009). Therefore, the addition of pomegranate to the functional beverage product can simultaneously support the survival and proliferation of LAB in the intestine. The research results on determining the shelf life of this beverage have showed that it can retain the therapeutic level of probiotics up to 9 weeks at normal refrigerated temperature. When the carbonated yogurt beverages were compared with the noncarbonated counterparts, the survival rate of probiotics did not show a significant difference. Moreover, organoleptic evaluation demonstrated that there was no considerable difference between the investigated samples and commercial products for pomegranate flavor regarding sensory properties (Walsh et al., 2014).

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Kefir is a probiotic-rich fermented beverage that possesses unique properties and taste (Fornworth, 2006). Recently, the improvement of mineral solubility and antioxidant activity of the germinated wrinkled lentils have been investigated during fermentation in kefir (Gunenc et  al., 2017). Wrinkled lentils reduce the milling efficiency and have a low market value. On the other hand, they are excellent foodstuff because they are good source of proteins, fibers, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Germination is utilized as a method to amplify the seeds’ nutritive value and it activates enzymes in sprouting seeds to mobilize the reserved nutritious substances that are required for growth. Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids are broken down into simpler forms during this process (Swieca and Gawlik-Dziki, 2015). In their study, Guvenc et al. compared phenolic contents, antioxidant activity, and dietary fibers in the germinated and non-germinated wrinkled lentils and they investigated mineral solubility, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity in kefir beverages that were enriched with the germinated and non-germinated lentils during fermentation. It was proven that germination and fermentation considerably increased the functional and nutritional value of low-quality wrinkled lentils (Gunenc et al., 2017). A functional whey beverage, which includes vitamin D, prebiotic dietary fiber, and calcium, was developed and its influence on human health was investigated (Liutkevicius et  al., 2016). Whey contains about 20% of milk proteins, 50%–55% total milk solids, 70% of milk sugar, and 70%–90% of minerals and nearly all water soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and vitamin B complex (Sinha et al., 2007). Whey proteins can be used for several therapeutic applications. Their functional ingredients contain lactoperoxidase, lactoferrin, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, thermostable fractions of proteose peptones, bovine serum albumin, immunoglobulins, and bioactive peptides. Anticarcinogenic properties of these proteins can be explained with the presence of cysteine, cystin, lysine, and methionine. Anticarcinogenic activity, immune system, and several other metabolic features are stimulated by whey protein components and their peptide fragments (Gobbetti et al., 2002). The selection of calcium salts for the food products fortification is made based on their coherence with the production processes, the stability of the products, and the possible influence on the sensory features. Several studies have shown the unpleasant effect of calcium salts on the product taste (Ziadeh et al., 2005). Therefore, Liutkevicius et al. demonstrated the influence of calcium addition to the complex of prebiotic dietary ­fiber and vitamin D on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of whey beverages in order to determine the best formulation for the ­beverage development and to investigate its effect on human health. Two different compositions of calcium (calcium phosphate and

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c­ alcium lactate) were tested to find the optimum calcium preparation. Quality features of beverages were also investigated and compared for freshly prepared samples and the stored samples. The whey beverage with calcium lactate showed the most stabile quality indices and a 500 mL of this composition was daily consumed by volunteers over a period of 21 days. Consumption of the functional whey beverage with calcium lactate, prebiotic dietary fiber, and vitamin D3 significantly decreased the triglycerides (P < 0.01) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (P < 0.01). Furthermore, this research has also shown that the developed beverage considerably reduced the concentration of serum triglycerides (Liutkevicius et al., 2016). Whey protein concentrates have an important commercial value in beverage industry owing to their high nutritional value, favorable functionality, low cost, and easy availability. Enzymatic hydrolysis of whey protein concentrates improves their compatibility to be utilized in the food-processing industry. The hydrolysates also demonstrate several health benefits, including antihypertensive, opioid, mineral-­binding, antibacterial, antithrombotic, anti-gastric, and anticarcinogenic activities (Prieto et al., 2014; Aluko, 2012). The desirable characteristics of whey protein hydrolates create high demand for their incorporation into the functional beverages. The functional features of these hydrolates show difference based on the processing conditions such as the hydrolysis process, temperature, and type of cheese coagulants. Enzyme selection has a particularly important role in whey protein hydrolyzing process and many enzymes can be used to obtain optimal results depending on the application (Jeewanthi et al., 2014). Bioactive peptides are available in beverages and directly influence the enhancement of nutritional value in the beverage. Degree of hydrolysis of whey protein hydrolates determines the unmasked bioactive peptides in beverages. As the degree of hydrolysis increases, the nutritional value of proteins increases. The high degree of hydrolysis also causes the formation of small peptides and amino acids that participate in several body functions prior to absorption (Silvestre et al., 2013). Despite the high interest to the incorporation of whey protein hydrolysates (WPHs) into the beverages because of their nutritional values, the food industry has to deal with a problem that arises from bitterness of WPH applications. Mostly, the levels of the hydrophobic groups in nonprotein nitrogen are responsible for bitterness. The amino acids and exposed peptides react with sugar during the hydrolysis and this process is called Maillard reaction. This reaction is responsible for flavor, color, aroma, and texture of the product (Bastos et al., 2012). Maillard reaction produces several by-products that can be desirable or not. 5-­hydroxymethyl-2-furfural (HMF) is a good example for these by-products and its varying amounts can be used as an indicator for quality, color, and flavor of a beverage (Akram et al., 2014).

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Chaturika et  al. studied the physicochemical characterization of hydrolysates of whey protein concentrates for their utilization in beverages. The properties of the hydrolysates showed variation depending on the specificity of the proteolytic enzyme, protein composition, and hydrolysis time. These are important features that need to be carefully considered prior to the fortification of WPHs into beverages. Maillard reaction was delayed during the hydrolysis in order to preserve fresh taste and enhance the keeping quality. This was achieved by choosing the appropriate enzymes (i.e., protease S and M) for hydrolysis of whey protein concentrates. Protease M treatment of WPHs resulted in less bitter taste because the amount of the produced nonprotein nitrogen was low when compared to other enzymes. In case the main focus is higher nutritional benefits rather than the fresh taste, protease A treatment of WPHs was found convenient for the development of the beverage (Chaturika Jeewanthi et al., 2015). PSs that are used as functional food ingredients have been defined as anti-inflammatory compounds (Garcia-Llatas and RodríguezEstrada, 2011). They also have protective effects against colon, prostate, and breast cancers. Consumption of foods enriched with PS, including phytostanols and phytosterols can reduce the levels of LDL cholesterol. A 2 g per day intake of PSs results in a cholesterol reduction of up to 9%. The diet alone is unable to offer the effective intake required to deliver the health benefits of PS. Therefore, the consumption of commercial foods enriched with free or esterified PS such as milk-based fruit beverage is important. PSs obtained from tall oil, soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, and corn oil have been added to milkbased fruit beverage that consists of skimmed milk and fruit juice such as tangerine juice, water, banana puree, grape concentrate, and banana flower (Alemany-Costa et al., 2012). It is worth mentioning that PSs are susceptible to oxidation like all unsaturated lipids. Avoiding lipid oxidation during processing and storage is critical to maintain the quality and safety of PS-enriched beverages, otherwise PS content may decrease in comparison with its initial amount. Moreover, in case of long-term storage other factors, including packaging materials, oxygen availability, storage temperature, exposure to light, and antioxidant contents, should be taken into account as these can influence the oxidative process of the lipid fraction in foods (Aluko, 2012). In the study conducted by Gonzalez-Larena et al., the effect of storage temperature on the stability of PSs in milk-fruit juice beverage was investigated during 6 months. Three different temperatures (4°C, 24°C, and 37°C) were examined. The total PS contents were measured at certain time points and they remained stable during the entire storage time. The amount of total polyphenols fluctuated throughout the storage, remained stable at 6 months and reached the initial values. A 36% decrease was observed in total carotenoids with storage at 2 months

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prior to reaching stabilization. An 18% increase for antioxidant capacity was achieved at 6 months. The color of the beverages rose over temperature and time due to the occurrence of Maillard reaction. The PS-enriched beverages were good source of PS even after 6 months and this could be related to the increase in the total antioxidant capacity. The presence of functional ingredients in milk-based fruit matrix containing antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, and antioxidant proteins can be considered as good choice for maintaining the initial PS contents (Gonzalez-Larena et al., 2012). Several other published works on dairy-based fermented beverages with their contents and health benefits are listed in Table 7.1.

7.3.2 Nondairy-Based Fermented Beverages Nondairy-based beverages are serious alternatives to dairy-based beverages, particularly for many people who have health concerns linked to lactose intolerance, allergenic milk proteins, and milk cholesterol content as well as for vegetarians. Hence, the development of nondairy-based beverages becomes a priority for food design and creates a high demand in research and food industry (Granato et al., 2010; Aluko, 2012; Rivera-Espinoza and Gallardo-Navarro, 2010). Nondairy-based foods generally contain probiotic bacteria strains and a probiotic food includes a high population of probiotic microorganisms in its formulation. Probiotics can be defined as microorganisms that provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. The development of nondairy beverages is a complex process that includes the selection of optimal process conditions, probiotic culture, and substrates. Most of traditional nondairy fermented beverages produced around the world are nonalcoholic beverages that are manufactured with cereals as the main raw material. Besides fruit juices, desserts and legume-based products can also be used as a substrate for probiotics (Prado et al., 2008). Appropriate selection of substrate composition and strains is necessary for the efficient control of distribution of the metabolic end products. Probiotic bacteria may be affected by many factors such as acidity, production of hydrogen peroxide by lactobacilli, oxygen content, ingredient variations, mutual antagonism between cultures (Walsh et al., 2014), the time and temperature during manufacture, transport, and storage of the product. The product development in the field of nondiary probiotic beverages still requires further sensory and physicochemical characterization studies (Salmeron et al., 2015). Cereal substrates have a great potential to develop novel ­nondairybased fermented beverages that promote the gastrointestinal health and can prevent chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes, and some cancers (Wang et  al., 2014). Cereal substrates support the growth of probiotic microorganisms

Table 7.1  Dairy-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Milkbased fruit beverages

Skimmed milk (50%) Mandarin juice (β-cryptoxanthin) (48%) Banana puree (1%) Grape juice (1%) Phytosterols from tall oil (2 g phytosterols/250 mL) Skimmed milk Tangerine fruit juice from concentrate Banana puree Grape juice Plant sterol (from tall oil) Kefir Germinated wrinkled lentiles Dietary fiber Whey protein concentrates

Exert cytotoxic effects upon intestinal cells (Caco-2), protect intestinal epitel damage, reduce the development of atherosclerosis and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer and Parkinson’s disease and multiple sclerosis

Lopez-Garcia et al. (2017)

Demonstrate protective effects against colon, prostate and breast cancers, reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL), show cholesterol lowering activity (cholesterol reduction of approximately 10%), decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases

Gonzalez-Larena et al. (2012)

Alters the composition and/or the activity of the gastrointestinal microflora, shows beneficial effect on the host’s health

Gunenc et al. (2017)

Displays opioid, antihypertensive, antibacterial, mineral-binding, antithrombotic and anti-gastric activities Calcium: bone metabolism, muscle functions, blood pressure, bone density, coagulation process, and releasing neurotransmitters, beneficial effect on lipid metabolism, insulin resistance, and abdominal obesity of persons with metabolic syndrome, bone mass and avoiding osteoporosis. The positive effect of adequate calcium intake on different chronic diseases such as hypertension, colon cancer, breast cancer Vitamin D: Preventive effect on hypertension, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, cancer, autoimmune, and infectious diseases Prebiotics: Promote human health by cholesterol lowering effects, improve gastrointestinal microflora, reduce blood lipids and blood pressure, increase the synthesis and absorption of nutrients and minerals, and have anticarcinogenic action and inhibition of pathogenic microorganisms Whey protein components and their peptide fragments stimulate the immune system, anticarcinogenic activity, and other positive metabolic features

Chaturika Jeewanthi et al. (2015) Liutkevicius et al. (2016)

Plant sterols enriched beverages

Kefir beverage Whey beverage Whey beverage

Hydrolysats of whey protein (fresh mozzarella cheese whey made by bovine milk and commercial enzymes: flavorzyme, protease A, protease M, protease S, and trypsin) Calcium Vitamin D Prebiotic, dietary fiber

Continued

Table 7.1  Dairy-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties—cont’d Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Milk-based symbiotic beverages

Drinkable yogurt Pomegranate Vanilla Inulin (prebiotic) Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium (probiotic) Prickly pear fruit (Opuntia ficus-indica) Whey Sugar (5% or 10%) Pectin (0% or 0.05%) Potassium sorbate (0.1%) Carboxy methyl cellulose (0.15%) Skimmed milk Free plant sterol (tall oil) Esterified plant sterol (soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and corn oil) Fruit juice (tangerine juice, water, banana puree, grape concentrate)

Maintain the healthy balance of the human intestinal microflora, act as immunomodulator, anticarcinogenic properties have been involved in cholesterol and lactose metabolism, absorption of calcium, and synthesis of certain vitamins, improve intestinal flora

Walsh et al. (2014)

Demonstrate antitumoral effect against prostate and colon cancer cells without affecting fibroblast viability

Baccouche et al. (2013)

Reduces LDL-cholesterol levels, contains anti-inflammatory and anticancer compounds

Alemany-Costa et al. (2012)

Whey-based prickly pear beverages

Plant sterol enriched fruit beverage

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   247

and provide adequate amount of probiotic cells to the human gastrointestinal tract (Salmeron et al., 2015). The use of cereals in functional beverage formulation is also important for obtaining desirable organoleptic and physicochemical characteristics. Even if functional beverages have a high nutritional value, they cannot be considered as a successful formulation unless they have the desired sensory properties accepted by consumers. Salmeron et al. have studied the effect of probiotic LAB on the physicochemical composition and sensory acceptance of the lactobacilli-fermented cereal beverages. L. acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Lactobacillus reuteri were used to produce fermented cereal (oats, barley, malt) beverages. It has been demonstrated that oat, barley, and malt substrates containing easily assimilated nutrients by probiotics can improve lactobacilli tolerance against the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract. These cereals also help the growth of mix-culture fermentations of probiotic microorganisms. Values of cell viability, mineral solubility content, free amino nitrogen content, color, volatile, and nonvolatile compound determinations were performed and a correlation between the volatile compound analyses and sensory acceptance was observed. The content of volatile compounds in the fermented food significantly influenced all of its organoleptic characteristics (Salmeron et al., 2014). Better understanding of how volatile compounds can make the fermented beverages more acceptable and the relations between lactobacilli cultures and cereal media can help to improve the formulation of nondairy functional beverages. Each cereal has different complex nutrient composition. They may considerably modify the properties of a food when mixed in a certain proportion. Mixing of the substrates may change the nutrient availability for fermentation and affect the microorganism growth and metabolism. The mixed culture fermentation that provides the complex growth patterns affects the organoleptic and functional properties of the food (Blandino et al., 2003). Most of the studies in the field have utilized single cereal substrate and culture as delivery vehicles for the production of potentially probiotic LAB (Rathore et al., 2012; Kedia et al., 2008; Angelov et al., 2006). Rathore et al. have studied the production of probiotic beverages using single and mixed cereal substrates, and investigated the influence of media formulation and inoculum on the fermentation parameters of novel cereal-based drinks produced with probiotic LAB. Three cereal flours namely malt, barley, and barley mixed with malt (barley malt) were selected and two probiotic strains (L. plantarum and L. acidophilus) were used for producing potentially probiotic beverages. It is indicated that the functional and organoleptic properties of these cereal-based probiotic drinks could be considerably modified through changes in the substrate or inocula composition. According to this study the mixed culture fermentations

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in mixed cereal substrates, and pure culture fermentation of single and mixed cereal media resulted in similar amounts of cell populations (Lactobacillus strains). However, the production of organic acids was considerably lower, which could have a strong impact on the organoleptic properties of the product when using the mixed culture in mix cereal substrates. It was concluded that malt is the best substrate (as single and mixed media) for cell growth and this can be due to its chemical composition (Rathore et al., 2012). Choosing a specific starter culture allows manipulation of the functionality, texture, flavor, and other characteristics of the final product (Zannini et al., 2013; Blandino et al., 2003; Ganzle et al., 2009). Such an approach results in developing novel functional products due to the production of microbial metabolites such as oligosaccharides (OS) and exopolysaccharides (EPS), which can affect important organoleptic features. Cereals fermented by using LAB produce a large structural variety of EPS and OS from sucrose through the activity of glycansucrases. Homopolysaccharides synthesized from sucrose through the action of extracellular glucansucrases or fructansucrases are polymers that consist of either glucose or fructose units (Aluko, 2012). The data about fermentation have been generated regarding LAB-mediated polysaccharide production during sourdough fermentation, which focuses on improving dough and bread quality, texture, flavor, and shelf life (Galle et al., 2011). Transferring this existing knowledge into the field of beverage production exhibits a promising approach for developing novel products, and provides an opportunity to overcome possible technological challenges. A recent study has addressed the organoleptic modulation of beverages using in situ-produced bacterial polysaccharides, including OS and EPS. The LAB-fermented barley was used in this work, and the sugar and metabolites were determined. The characterization of EPS produced in wort was performed in addition to the cell growth, rheology, and formation of metabolites and utilization of sugars during wort fermentation. It was demonstrated that the cereal fermented by LAB (i.e., Weissella cibaria MG1) can be potentially used for the production of a range of novel, nutritious, and functional beverages (Zannini et al., 2013). The coffee silverskin is used as raw material for formulating new beverages and its influence on body weight control has been researched (Martinez-Saez et al., 2014). Coffee silverskin, which is proposed as source of prebiotics, contains low calorie, and high dietary fiber and antioxidants (del Castillo et  al., 2002; Narita and Inouye, 2012, Pourfarzad et  al., 2013). It also shows an inhibitor effect on hyaluronidase enzyme. Thus, it can be an ideal novel raw material with a wide range of natural compounds. Obesity, partaking other 21st-­ century epidemic disease such as CVDs, cancers, metabolic syndrome, and d ­ iabetes, has been increasing globally. Therefore,

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r­esearch for ­formulating novel foods, drugs, or supplements to prevent and treat obesity is a priority worldwide. Several epidemiological investigations of weight control are associated with coffee consumption. Caffeine and chlorogenic acid presented in coffee silverskin may have the antiobesity effect (Cho et al., 2010; Murase et al., 2011; Roche and Phillips, 2014). With this motivation, coffee silverskin from Arabica (Coffea arabica) and Robusta (Coffea canephora) were used as raw materials to develop an innovative beverage (Martinez-Saez et al., 2014). Melanoidins, caffeine and chlorogenic acid, free glucose, total carbohydrates, water soluble proteins, total phenolic compounds, and total antioxidant capacity were investigated. Furthermore, dietary fiber, sensory acceptability, and body fat reduction in Caenorhabditis elegans (wild type strain N2) were analyzed. The research findings indicated that coffee silverskin extract has a good potential for achieving a successful beverage with the right nutritional composition and acceptable sensorial quality. The developed beverage also avoided fat accumulation due to the presence of coffee silverskin extract (Martinez-Saez et al., 2014). Soy is another commonly used raw material for probiotic bacteria (Coda et al., 2012), whereas peanuts can be described as a potential substrate for the preparation of functional beverages (Mustafa et al., 2009). The work of Amaral Santos and colleagues represents a good example of peanut-soy milk (SM)-based beverages in which they formulated new functional beverages with fermented peanut-SM by mix culture of six different LAB, including Lactobacillus rhamnosus [LR 32], L. acidophilus [LACA 4], Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus [LB 340], Pediococcus acidilactici [UFLA BFFCX 27.1], Lactococcus lactis [CCT 0360], and Saccharomyces cerevisiae [UFLA YFFBM 18.03] (Amaral Santos et  al., 2014). The main aim for the development of this product was to bring two important vegetable protein sources together, including peanut and soy. In a recent study a fermented SM-tea beverage was formulated and it was shown that acidic media created by LAB in the fermented SM was a good environment for the stability of tea catechins when compared to neutral or alkaline environments (Zhao and Shah, 2014). An alternative approach to maintain the functional compounds in tea extract can be the fermentation with LAB and bifidobacteria. In this study the fermented SM-tea was produced by culturing Streptococcus thermophilus, L. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, and Bifidobacterium longum in SM that was supplemented with tea extract. The results have shown that two-step bacterial fermentation increased the total antioxidant content and antiradical capacity and stability of tea polyphenols in the functional fermented SM-tea beverage (Zhao and Shah, 2014). SM and tea attract researchers’ interest owing to their high-level phenolic compounds, which demonstrate both in vitro and in vivo antiradical,

250  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic characteristics (Hsu et al., 2011; Li et al., 2013a, 2013b). It has also been reported that the regular intake of tea and SM enhances cardiovascular health and lowers blood pressure by reducing oxidative stress (Messina et al., 2001; Guthrie and Kurowska, 2001). The major bioactive phytochemical in SM is isoflavones. The latent bioactivity hindered by conjugated glycosides of isoflavones can be revealed by means of fermentation that converts isoflavone glycosides to aglycones during SM fermentation with LAB or bifidobacteria (Champagne et al., 2010). More examples of nondairy-based fermented beverages from the literature are summarized in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2  Nondiary-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Fermented cereal beverages

Fermented cereal (oats, barley, malt) Lactobacilli strains (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus reuteri)

Salmeron et al. (2015)

Fermented cereal-based drinks

Cereal flours (malt, barley and barley mixed with malt) Probiotic lactic acid strains [(Lactobacillus plantarum (NCIMB 8826) and Lactobacillus acidophilus (NCIMB 8821)] Fermented soymilk-tea, and soymilk supplemented with tea extract Streptococcus thermophilus Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. Bulgaricus Bifidobacterium longum Barley (barley variety Sebastian) LAB (Weissella cibaria MG1)

Reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers Promote the gastrointestinal health (diarrhea, gastroenteritis, irritable bowel syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease) Promote depressed immune function, inadequate lactase digestion, infant allergies, failure-tothrive, hyperlipidaemia, hepatic diseases and helicobacter pylori infections Modify the intestinal microbiota of the host, confer gastrointestinal health

Displays antiradical, antimutagenic, antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects, promotes cardiovascular health and lowers blood pressure by reducing oxidative stress

Zhao and Shah (2014)

Promotes the gastrointestinal microflora, confers benefits upon host well-being and health

Zannini et al. (2013)

Fermented soymilk-tea beverage

Barley malt wort

Rathore et al. (2012)

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   251

Table 7.2  Nondiary-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties—cont’d Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Fortified oat beverages

Oat beverage mix (oats, sugar, skim milk, maltodextrin, iodized salt) Iron Zinc Vitamin A Vitamin C Peanut Soymilk Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), including probiotic strains and yeasts Plant sterol from pine tree (tall oil) Skimmed milk Banana puree and grape juice concentrate Tangerine fruit juice

Reduce the incidence of iron deficiency

Trinidad et al. (2014)

Confer benefits to the health of the host

do Amaral Santos et al. (2014)

Prevent vascular and cardiovascular diseases

Garcia-Llatas et al. (2015)

Peanutsoymilk

Plant sterol enriched milkbased fruit beverages

7.4  Fruit-Based Functional Beverages and Their Health Benefits Fruits and vegetables, which contain many components including polyphenols, vitamins, minerals, and pectins, may be consumed as whole or as a raw material to prepare new mixed beverages. Fruit juice-based beverages are becoming more popular because they represent an easy and convenient way of consuming fruits that are important sources of health-promoting compounds (Rodriguez-Roque et  al., 2015). Therefore, there has been an intensive development of fruit and vegetables industry that attempts to design new attractive products. These products offer consumer a permanent access to fruits and vegetables independently their seasonality (Nowicka et al., 2016). The reasons for consumer preference of beverages include their nutrient profiles and health protective qualities as well as easy consumption depending on liquid and semiliquid structure of the beverage and being ready to drink. In addition to their nutritional profiles, fruits and vegetables are rich sources of antioxidants. These bioactive compounds improve the blood lipid profile, reduced oxidative stress, prevent atherogenic modification of LDL cholesterol and improve

252  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

HDL cholesterol concentration (Guthrie and Kurowska, 2001). When consumed at efficacious and safe level, bioactive compounds derived from fruits and vegetables show important health benefits. For an instance, polyphenols acting at molecular level improve endothelial function and inhibit platelet formation through the antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aggregative properties (Gunathilake et  al., 2013). There has been growing attention to polyphenol-rich foods because of the beneficial effects of dietary antioxidants on many chronic diseases such as CVDs (Aluko, 2012). American Heart Association has reported that CVD is the major cause of the death not only in developed countries but also in many developing countries. Deposition of cholesterol and lipids in arterial wall and occurrence of atherosclerotic plaques are the main pathophysiological processes for CVD development. Important risks for developing CVD are the low concentration of HDL cholesterol and high concentration of LDL cholesterol in blood. Therefore, these biomarkers can be used for the determination of CVD risk. A negative correlation between the intake of food and beverages containing polyphenolic bioactives and CVD was demonstrated in a number of studies (Gunathilake et al., 2013; Jalili et al., 2006). In this context newly formulated beverages enriched with bioactive compounds have been prepared using apple, blueberry, cranberry, orange, pineapple, kiwi, mango, strawberry, açai, cashew apple, chokeberry, aronia, purple grape, coconut water, jabuticaba berry, pomegranate, prunus fruit, pumpkin, punica lemon, elderberry, bitter gourd, ginger, and curcumin with some cardioprotective ingredients (Toscano et  al., 2017; Les et al., 2017). More examples of fruit-based beverages are listed in Table 7.3 with their formulations and medicinal properties. Oxidative stress can be defined as imbalance between the production of free radicals and the ability of the body to counteract or detoxify their harmful effects through neutralization by antioxidants. Imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants is the underlying basis of oxidative stress. This imbalance plays a role in pathophysiology of diabetes and CVDs. There is an association between oxidative stress and accumulation of abdominal fat in individuals (Furukawa et  al., 2004). A free radical is an oxygen containing molecule that has one or more unpaired electrons, making it highly reactive with other molecules. Increase of the highly reactive oxygen in the adipose tissue has been associated with the increasing expression of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase and reduced expression of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase. Excessive reactive oxygen species lead to toxicity and damage on cell components including nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids (Bernabe et al., 2013; Fujita et al., 2006). Antioxidants prevent these reactions by donating an electron to the free radicals. Therefore, ­dietary

Table 7.3  Fruit-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Fruit-based functional beverages

Apple, blueberry and cranberry juice together with water-extracts of ginger Amino acids (arginine, taurine) Vitamins (pyridoxine,Vit B6) Minerals (K citrate, Zn gluconate) Fruit beverage Whey protein

Hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive

Gunathilake et al. (2013)

Antidiabetic (significantly increase insulin response and decrease plasma glucose level) Prevent several cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, and some cancer types Antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antihypertensive and antihyperlipidaemic and antiproliferative Improved range of motion (ROM), pain reduction, neuroprotective cognitive effects

Meric et al. (2014)

Anticlastogenic, antimutagenic, anticancer, cardioprotective

MeloCavalcante et al. (2011)

Reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancers and inflammatory disorders Reduce plasma levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), cholesterol and triacylglycerol

Bernabe et al. (2013)

Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, cardioprotective, antithrombotic, antiatherosclerotic, hypolipidemic, anticholecystitic, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, immunostimulatory, antidiabetic

Camargo Prado et al. (2015)

Proteinenriched fruit beverages Fruit juice-based beverages Strawberry beverage Açai pulpfortified fruit and berry juice

Fresh and processed cashew apple juices Citrus-based juice Barley and brewers’ spent grain into fruit beverages Coconut water beverage

Blended fruit juice (orange 50%, kiwi 36% and pineapple 14%) Soymilk Strawberry beverage elaborated by gluconic fermentation of strawberry Açai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) Glucosamine hydrochloride, pomegranate, wolfberry, camu camu, passion fruit, aronia, acerola, and bilberry Ten common fruits (apricot, purple grape, white grape, lychee, banana, kiwi, pear, cranberry, blueberry, and prune) Cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale) juice Cajuina (processed juice) Cyclophosphamide Citrus-based juice (juice citrus −95%) Aronia extract (Aronia melanocarpa −5%) Barley (saffron variety), whole brewers’ spent grain (BSG) and BSG phenolic extracts, grape juice, cranberry juice, strawberry smoothie, pomegranate smoothie Fermented green coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) Yeast extract Soy protein hydrolysate Sucrose Seven lactic acid bacteria strains

RodriguezRoque et al. (2015) HornedoOrtega et al. (2016) Jensen et al. (2011)

McCarthy et al. (2013)

Continued

254  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

Table 7.3  Fruit-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties—cont’d Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Purple grape juice

Purple grape juice (Isabel, Bordeaux and Concord)

Toscano et al. (2017)

Bitter gourd beverage Jabuticaba berry beverage

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) extract Artificial sweetener Fermented jabuticaba (Myrciaria jaboticaba)

Protective effect against cancer, dyslipidemia, obesity, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease Hypoglycemic, antidiabetic Antioxidant, vasorelaxation and cardiovascular protection

Pomegranate juice

Pomegranate juice Punicalagin and ellagic acid

Martins de Sa et al. (2014) Les et al. (2017)

Prunus fruits smoothies

The Prunus fruits (plum, peach, apricot, nectarine) Plum fruit pure (Prunus L.) Sour cherry and sweet cherries (Prunus cerasus L.) Peach pure (Prunus persica L.) Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) Nectarine Pumkin waste Vegetable matrix Lactobacillus casei Pomegranate (Punica granatum)

Pumpkin and vegetable matrix juice Pomegranate juice

Purple rice berry beverage

Purple rice berry (Oryza sativa) extract

Mature coconut water beverage

Mature coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) Lactobacillus plantarum DW12

Cardioprotective, anti-atherogenic, antihypertensive, antidepressant and neuroprotective Controlling early stages of postprandial hyperglycaemia, obesity and cardiovascular diseases

Din (2011)

Nowicka et al. (2016)

Confers benefits upon host well-being, promote the gastrointestinal health

Genevois et al. (2016)

Reducing heart disease risk factors (such as LDL, oxidation, macrophage oxidative status, and foam cell formation) Protection against Alzheimer’s disease, prevention of cancer, hyperlipidemia, fatty liver hypercalciuria, kidney stones, heart disease and obesity Antistress, suppress the propagation of cancer cells, antihypertensive, antidiabetes, antimicrobial, antioxidant, reduce risk of Alzheimer’s disease

Choi et al. (2011)

Pannangrong et al. (2011)

Kantachote et al. (2017)

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   255

Table 7.3  Fruit-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties—cont’d Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Apple juice beverage

Apple juice (40 g/100 g juice) Fraxinus excelsior L. seed extract (2.1 g/L) Sweetener (0.2 g/L) Citric acid (2.43 g/L) Ascorbic acid (0.25 g/L) Potassium sorbate (0.1 g/L) Apple flavor (6 mL/L) Maqui (Aristotelia chilensis) Lemon juice (Citrus limon (L.)

Regulates glucose-homeostasis

Varela et al. (2014)

Antioxidant, antiatherogenic and cardioprotective, inhibiting adipogenesis and inflammation Rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds which provide numerous health-promoting properties

GironesVilaplana et al. (2012) GonzalezMolina et al. (2012)

Reducing risk of atherosclerosis, diabetes, uremia Protective effect against chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, antidiabetic activity, cholesterol-lowering effect, ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitory activity, reducing the risk of type II diabetes and obesity

Chen et al. (2011) Simsek et al. (2014)

Maqui berry and lemon juice Lemon juice with elderberry and grape concentrates Amla extract Fruit and vegetable juices

Lemon fruit (Citrus limon L.) juice Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) Red grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Citric acid Amla extract (Emblica officinalis) Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (green tea extract) Fermented vegetable juice (vegetables, seeds and sprouts of germinated lentils and cowpeas) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculantum) Carrot (Daucus carota sativus) Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) Celery (Apium graveolens rapaceum) Fresh red pepper (Capsicum annuum) Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Black cabbage (Brassica oleracea Acephala Group) Lemon (Citrus lemon) Pomegranate juice Orange juice Lactobacillus plantarum (3–3.5108 cfu microorganisms/300 mL of vegetable juice)

256  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

intake of antioxidants is associated with the reduced risk of some diseases such as CVDs, cancers, and inflammatory disorders (Bernabe et al., 2013; Kulling and Rawel, 2008). In this respect, there are many recent studies on formulating new beverages with fruit, vegetables, and some added ingredients. For an instance, the effect of citrusbased juice (95% citrus juice with 5% Aronia melanocarpa extract) on biomarkers of oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome compared with healthy individuals has been studied. According to in vitro research evidence from animal and human clinical trials in the study, many berry fruits including natural bioflavonoid compounds (anthocyanins, phenolic acids, and quercetin glycosides) can modulate the biomarkers associated with metabolic syndrome (Maki, 2003; Bernabe et al., 2013). The profile of phenolic phytochemicals determines the functionality of the whole food through synergistic interaction of phenolic phytochemicals (Liu, 2003; Lorenzetti and Branca, 2003; Lee et al., 2005). At this stage, in vivo assessment is essential for determination of health functionality of the newly formulated functional beverage. By this way, it can be proved that weather the product has efficacy on health. Although many different animal species can be used for this purpose, rats are frequently used model systems to study cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism. Hypocholesterolemic and hypotensive effects of fruit-based functional beverages in hypertensive rats, which were fed with cholesterol-rich diet, have been investigated by Gunathilake and colleagues. Blood pressure, serum, and liver lipids were spontaneously researched in hypertensive rats fed with the developed beverage, which was formulated with apple, blueberry, cranberry, ginger, and some cardioprotective ingredient such as minerals (Se, K, Zn), vitamins (pyridoxine, vitamin B6), and aminoacids (arginine, taurine). It was concluded that the functional beverage with a balanced bioactive profile using antioxidant rich fruits and ginger promises the formulating a novel “heart-healthy” beverage (Gunathilake et al., 2013). Vitamin C is an essential nutrient for the biosynthesis of collagen and certain hormones (Li and Schellhorn, 2007). As a rich source of vitamin C, the blended fruit juices (BFJs) are often combined with milk and SM to improve the sensory and nutritional characteristics of the final products. Moreover, milk is a rich source of proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals (Antone et  al., 2012; Claeys et  al., 2013). To prevent microorganism spoilage and contamination with pathogens, thermal treatment has traditionally been used for preserving of beverages. Nevertheless, in case the beverages contain heat-sensitive vitamins in their formulations, nonthermal food preservation technologies such as high-intensity HIPEFs and HPP should be chosen. Otherwise, the thermal treatment leads to the loss of healthy compounds and sensory proportion of the

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   257

­beverage (Odriozola-Serrano et al., 2013). Rodriguez-Roque and colleagues studied in vitro bioaccessibility of vitamin C, phenolic compounds, and hydrophilic antioxidant activity of a fruit-based beverage. The fruit juice was comprised of orange, kiwi, and pineapple with the percentages of 50%, 36%, and 14%, respectively. The BFJ-SM beverage (SMB) was prepared by mixing 50% of the BFJ, 42.5% of SM, and 7.5% of sugar. Vitamin C, phenolic, isoflavone, and carotenoid profiles as well as hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant activities were evaluated. According to the results, the hydrophilic constituents displayed higher bioaccessibility (in the range of 12%–26.5%) than those lipophilics (between 7.5% and 13.8%). It was found that the bioaccessibility of the BFJ-SM was slightly lower than that of SM or BFJ alone (reduction of 6.5%–14%). The BFJ-SMB brings together the healthy compounds of both SM (i.e., isoflavones) and BFJ (i.e., carotenoids). Thus, the mixed beverage has provided more variety of bioactive substances than the individual products (Rodriguez-Roque et al., 2015). Diabetes, from which 250 million of patients suffer globally, is claimed to be an epidemic disease of the 21st century. The development of diabetes causes many changes in human body, such as increase in oxidative stress, risen glucose concentration in blood, and the appearance of disease symptoms both in large (macroangiopathies) and small (microangiopathies) blood vessels (Nowicka et  al., 2016; Peng et  al., 2011). A balanced diet and maintenance of proper body mass are key elements to prevent from diabetes. The presence of polyphenols, vitamins, and minerals in the diet is important in the protection of diabetes, inflammatory states, neoplasms, obesity, and CVD (Michalska et al., 2016). Prunus fruits are rich sources of polyphenols, vitamins, minerals, and pectin. Antidiabetic activity of the beverages produced with prunus fruits has recently been studied. These beverages consist of plum (Prunus L.), peach (Prunus persica L.), apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), nectarine, and sour and sweet cherries (Prunus cerasus L.). The sugar content, and the identification and quantification of polyphenols, antioxidant capacity, polymeric procyanidins, α-­ glucosidase, and α-amylase inhibitory effect were evaluated to provide a detail insight about the health properties of prunus fruit smoothes. It was also concluded that their polyphenol profiles, antioxidant capacity, carbohydrate-hydrolysing, and intestinal absorption enzymes (α-­ amylase and α-glucosidase) inhibition are related to the hyperglycemia management in the body (Nowicka et al., 2016). Acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) pulp demonstrates antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects by reducing inflammation, improving joint motion, and altering pain perception (Jensen et al., 2011). Flavonoids have strong antioxidant activities in the pulp trigger the reduction of reactive oxygen production and exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. Chrysoeriol, a flavone, exists in the pulp and exhibits its influence in

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human polymorphonuclear cells, along with many aglycone polyphenolics. Other antioxidant compounds based in pulp, including luteolin, quercetin, and dihydrokaempferol, have the capacity to enter living cells and protect them from oxidative damage by the cell-based antioxidant protection in erythrocytes (CAP-e) (Kang et  al., 2010). The influences of acai pulp-fortified polyphenolic-rich fruit and berry juice consumption on pain, antioxidant status, inflammatory markers, and range of motion were evaluated by Jensen et al. (2011). The beverage consisted of eight berries juice (açai pulp, pomegranate, wolfberry, camu camu, passion fruit, aronia, acerola, and bilberry) and 10 common fruits (apricot, purple grape, white grape, lychee, banana, kiwi, pear, cranberry, blueberry, and prune). The fruity blend also contained glucosamine hydrochloride, generally recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration as a functional food ingredient. When healthy participants (19–52 years old) were fed with açai pulp-rich juice as twice daily during 12 weeks, a significant reduction in lipid peroxidation was observed, whereas free-radical scavenging activity was recorded much higher. Grape is another fruit as a good source of phenolic compounds, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. Phenolic compounds, particularly catechin, isoquercetin, and procyanidin B1 are the major compounds present in the grapes and their by-products (da Silva et al., 2016; de Camargo et al., 2014; Tao et al., 2016; Tolun et al., 2016). This fruit attracts researchers because its antioxidant capacity shows a significant correlation with phenolic compounds. Toscano and colleagues have studied the effects of phenolics of purple grape juice on serum antioxidant status, lipid profile, and blood pressure in healthy adults under intense physical training. The participants, who consumed purple grape juice, demonstrated a decline in their systolic blood pressure and serum concentrations of total and LDL cholesterol. Based on the results, it was found that the grape juice could improve the antioxidant status and the cardiometabolic profile of healthy adults, who exercised regularly (Toscano et  al., 2017). The potential of grape juice in improving cardiometabolic health has also been reported (Siasos et al., 2014). There are numerous studies about the fruits that demonstrate antioxidant properties such as red grape, elderberries, lemon, maqui fruit, etc. Likewise purple grape, red grape is also a good source of ­anthocyanin, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and hydroxybenzoates (Roberts et  al., 2001; Kallithraka et  al., 2005). There exist flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, and vitamin C in the chemical structure of elderberries. Lemon fruit (Citrus limon [L.] Burm. f ), which provides many health-promoting properties, is a rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, citric acid, vitamin C, and minerals. Vitamin C, which is an efficient scavenger of reactive oxygen

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   259

species, is probably the most important water-soluble antioxidant in lemon (Gonzalez-Molina et al., 2008; Benavente-Garcia and Castillo, 2008). Including all these nutrients and vitamins, lemon fruit demonstrates a wide range of health benefits by reducing the risk of various diseases including cancer, CVDs, and obesity (Adibelli et  al., 2009; Gonzalez-Molina et  al., 2010). The main compounds in lemon are flavonoids, hesperidin, eriocitrin (flavanones), diosmetin glycosides (flavones), vicenin-2 (flavone), diosmin (flavone), quercetin, and myricetin (flavonols). Maqui fruit (Aristotelia chilensis) has therapeutic properties that are related to its high polyphenol and anthocyanin contents (delphinidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside, delphinidin 3,5-­diglucoside, delphinidin 3-sambubioside, delphinidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside, cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-sambubioside, and cyanidin 3-glucoside). Maqui berries can also be used as natural colorants because of giving an attractive red color to the mixed juices (Escribano-Bailon et al., 2006; Schreckinger et al., 2010). Thus, these berries are usually utilized by the food industry to provide healthy juices with interesting color that is suitable for the consumer acceptance (Siro et al., 2008). The beverage combinations with lemon fruit (C. limon L.), red grape (Vitis vinifera L.), and elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) were prepared to determine and compare their bioactive compounds and colors (Gonzalez-Molina et al., 2012). Samples were labeled as follows: L (lemon juice control), EL (lemon juice plus 5% of elderberry concentrate), GL (lemon juice plus 5% grape concentrate), E (5% elderberry control solution in citric acid buffer), and G (5% grape control solution in citric acid buffer). According to the results, EL showed better properties than GL in terms of color. EL and GL demonstrated stronger color and color retention, and higher antioxidant activity. Likewise, when elderberry and grape concentrates were added to the lemon juice, it was observed that vitamin C content could keep its beneficial properties until the end of the shelf life (56 days) (Gonzalez-Molina et al., 2012). Another study for developing new polyphenol-rich beverages was conducted by Girones-Vilaplana and colleagues. New drinks based on antioxidant-rich berries using lemon juice and maqui berries were formulated at different concentrations (2.5% and 5% w/v). The phytochemical composition, antioxidant capacity, color, and stability during storage at two different temperatures (4°C and 25°C) were evaluated to characterize the formulated mixed juices as novel, safe, and acceptable drinks. It was reported that the beverages of maqui berries and lemon juice have exhibited a good stability with respect to the analytical parameters studied. It was observed that bioactive ­phytochemicals-rich new drinks had a high in vitro antioxidant activity as well as a preserved attractive color throughout the research period, especially at 4°C (Girones-Vilaplana et al., 2012).

260  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

Pomegranate juice is among commonly used beverages and some studies have reported its important ingredients in molecular level to understand their properties. Pomegranate juice contains two main polyphenolic components, including punicalagin isomers and ellagic acid that influence adipocyte functions (Les et al., 2017). These polyphenolic compounds belong to the family of hydroxybenzoic acids (Legua et  al., 2016; Les et  al., 2015). The metabolites of ellagic acid and ellagitannins generated by the intestinal microbiota have displayed beneficial actions on muscle strength and life span in worms (Ryu et al., 2016) and lipid metabolism in mammals (Kang et al., 2016). According to a very recent study, pomegranate juice and its main polyphenols (punicalagin isomers and ellagic acid) have shown direct effects on amine oxidases from human adipose tissue and inhibited lipid metabolism in adipocytes. The polyphenol content was determined using a Folin-Ciocalteu assay, whereas a high-­performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique was employed for anthocyanin analysis. Comprehensive studies were carried out also in human adipose tissues to determine amine oxidases (monoamine oxidase and semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase) activity using radiochemical assays. Furthermore, lipogenesis assessment and lipolysis measurements were performed in mouse and human adipose cells. The results revealed a dose-dependent capacity of pomegranate juice to inhibit the activities of monoamine oxidase and semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase present in human adipose tissue. The beverage also displayed an inhibitor effect on lipogenesis and lipolysis in mouse and human adipose cells. On the other hand, ellagic acid and punicalagin inhibited lipolysis rather than lipogenesis, and the combination of these two compounds showed a synergistic action in impairing basal glucose incorporation into lipids or monoamine oxidase activity (Les et al., 2017). Alzheimer’s disease (AD), characterized by neuronal loss, ­neurofibrillary tangles, and abnormal deposition of senile plaque and amyloid b peptide (Ab), is a progressive degenerative brain disorder. According to many researchers Ab is central to the pathogenesis of this disorder and the brains of AD patients are under extensive oxidative stress. Over the production of Ab results in Ab-associated free-radical oxidative stress (Miranda et  al., 2000). This oxidative stress is generated by lipid peroxidation, the formation of reactive oxygen species, and the subsequent modification of proteins by reactive lipid peroxidation products (Butterfield et  al., 2002). The protective effect of pomegranate (Punica granatum) against oxidative stress in PC12 cells and Alzheimer symptoms has been reported (Choi et al., 2011). Therefore, more detail research with P. granatum is necessary as it can help to treat oxidative stress-induced disorders. It is worthwhile to mention that the high polyphenol content of this beverage has

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   261

also shown ­beneficial impacts on reducing heart disease risk factors including LDL oxidation, macrophage oxidative status, and foam cell formation, all of which contribute to atherosclerosis and CVD (Aviram et al., 2004; Hartman et al., 2006).

7.5  Herbal-Based Functional Beverages and Their Health Benefits Tea is one of the most popular drinks in the world, 80% of which is consumed as black tea (Orem et al., 2017). Considering global consumption, tea is the second most consumed beverage after water according to the Tea and Herbal Association of Canada (2016). Canadian people drink around >10 billion cups of tea each year and it is expected that its consumption will increase approximately 40% by 2020 according to the report of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (2005). Tea is a plant-based beverage containing natural bioactive phytochemicals or phytonutrients (Pokorny and Schmidt, 2003; Meydani and Hasan, 2010; Grant et  al., 2017). Numerous antioxidant-rich plants, which show a potential to be used in tea production, have been found in recent years. However, a few of these plants have been investigated owing to their vast diversity (Bi et al., 2016). Natural antioxidants present in edible plants have attracted researchers because of the side effects of synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (Chu and Lau, 2007). The innovative research in the field of new polyphenol-rich drinks have prompted in connection with their health-promoting properties and consumer demand (Bi et al., 2016; Grant et al., 2017). Blending some ingredients of plant for producing ready to serve tea enhances antioxidant capacity, as well as flavor and color properties of the tea. Several different types of teas have been reported to suppress blood glucose levels and exert antidiabetic activities (Suliburska et al., 2012; Tamaya et al., 2010; Tanga et al., 2013: Hiasa et al., 2014). Added ingredients and/or mixed plant extracts offer flavor alternative to consumers to be incorporated into functional beverages because taste is one of major determinants for consumer preferences (Grant et al., 2017). In this section, we first introduce some important plants that are used for tea production together with their general health benefits and then continue with detail discussion of recent research works on herbal-based beverages. Ku-jin tea prepared from the buds and leaves of Acer tataricum subsp. ginnala possesses about 20 phenolic compounds, most of which are gallotannins and flavonoids (Bi et al., 2016; Li et al., 2013a,b). A. tataricum subsp. ginnala, mainly consumed in Japan, Korea, Mongolia, East Russia, and North and Northeast China, has been used in folk medicine for hundreds of years to reduce fever, improve ­eyesight

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and protect the liver (He et  al., 2012). Extract of the plant’s leaves demonstrate inhibitory activities against inflammation (Ko and Choi, 2015) and atopic dermatitis (Kim et al., 2010). Black tea, which is made from leaves of Camellia sinensis and constitutes 80% of the world tea consumption, reduces the risk of CVD by improving flow mediated dilatation and lowering LDL cholesterol concentrations (Zhao et al., 2015; Orem et al., 2017). Green tea is less oxidized version of black tea and its flavor often survives for only 1 year, whereas black tea can retain its flavor for a couple of years. Green tea catechins include a variety of functional compounds showing anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antibacterial, anti-obesity, neuroprotective, and cholesterol-­lowering effects. These catechins are mainly comprised of (−)-epicatechin (EC), (−)-epigallocatechin (EGC), (−)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG), and (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (Amarowicz et al., 2005). EGCG, the most abundant catechin in green tea, displays a strong antioxidant and reactive oxygen scavenger activity (Zhang et  al., 2012; Chen et al., 2011). According to several studies, green tea helps to decrease body weight and body fat, treat obesity and improve glucose and lipid metabolisms (Nagao et al., 2009; Trautwein et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2011). Ginseng originated from North America and Asia is also used for tea production. Ginseng tea is widely used in eastern societies due to its pharmacological effects on the central nervous system as well as on the endocrine, immune, and cardiovascular systems (Kennedy and Scholey, 2003; Ge et al., 2017). Rooibos tea (RT), prepared from infusions of Aspalathus linearis leaves and possesses a distinctive pleasant taste, desirable aroma, and low astringency, has gained popularity as a c­ affeine-free alternative to other types of tea and coffee served as hot or cold ­beverage (Jaganyi and Wheeler, 2003). Rooibos containing low tannin and high ascorbic acid has a healthful reputation because of its antioxidant, antimutagenic, hepatoprotective, phytoestrogenic, and antidiabetic properties. Moreover, it can function as an ideal carrier for vitamin D3 (Grant et al., 2017). Cinnamon is a member of Lauraceae family and used for the preparation of herbal-based beverages. Polyphenolic content of cinnamon, especially tannins (oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins) and monomeric phenolic compounds demonstrates health-promoting effects as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, and antidiabetic (Qin et al., 2010; Lv et al., 2012). It was reported that 3 g ­intake of cinnamon powder can decrease postprandial insulin concentration (Hlebowicz et al., 2009), whereas 6 g intake with rice pudding can reduce postprandial blood glucose by delaying gastric emptying (Hlebowicz et al., 2007). Consumption of food containing aqueous extract of cinnamon (corresponding to 3 g of cinnamon powder ingested per day) increased antioxidant activity, decreased malondialdehyde,

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   263

and glucose level in plasma in diabetic patients (Roussel et al., 2009). Cinnamaldehyde, another phytochemical founded in cinnamon, exhibits several biological functions, including antitumoral, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities (Helal et al., 2014). Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a raw material for herbal beverages and it has been used as a spice for >2000 years. Ginger exhibits antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics, and contributes to human health by improving blood circulation and reducing blood glucose concentration in diabetic individuals (Awe et al., 2013). Hibiscus sabdariffa cultivated in the northern part of Nigeria is a flower with reddish purple calyx flowers. Hibiscus flower extract contains a high level of antioxidant and its antioxidant activity is comparable with butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA) and α-tocopherol that can prevent heart-­ related diseases and some forms of cancer (Awe et  al., 2013). Cocoa (Theobroma cacao), containing flavonoids, especially the subclass of oligomeric flavonoids known as procyanidins, is one of the Nigeria’s major crop (Bearden et al., 2000). Flavonoid content prevents LDL oxidation in vitro by the sequestering of metal ion or scavenging radical species. Additionally, cocoa prolongs the lag time of LDL oxidation in parallel with its concentration (Kondo et al., 1996; Awe et al., 2013). Orem and colleagues have studied cardioprotective effect of phytosterol enriched instant functional black tea (FBT) on mild hypercholesterolemic individuals aged 25–60 years, whose plasma total cholesterol concentrations were in the range of 200–239 mg/dL. Anthropometric parameters, concentration of serum lipids, lipoproteins, and lipoprotein subfractions were investigated in this research. Cardiac risk factors including glucose metabolism, oxidant and antioxidant levels, inflammatory and endothelial conditions were also evaluated during a 4-week period. After dissolving each FBT sample in 250 mL of water, it was consumed twice a day by the volunteer subjects. The data indicated that the consumption of FBT significantly decreased the concentrations of total cholesterol level by 5.6%, and improved the ratios of total HDL cholesterol. The researchers concluded that the consumption of the developed FBT is a noteworthy beverage for delivering phytosterols and it has several beneficial cardioprotective effects in people with mild ­hypercholesterolemia (Orem et al., 2017). Recently, antidepressant-like effect of the sesquiterpenoids in ginseng (Panax ginseng) root extract was investigated by using animal models of depression, forced swim test in mice. For this study, the sesquiterpenoids components analyses, spontaneous locomotor activity test, forced swimming test, and biochemical measurements were performed. Sesquiterpenoids of ginseng root were analyzed by a gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS), whereas biochemical assays for measuring mouse brain neurotransmitters (gamma-­ aminobutyric acid, noradrenaline and dopamine) were c­ onducted

264  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. According to the results, sesquiterpenoids in ginseng root showed a significant ­antidepressant-like effect that must be associated with GABAergic, glutamatergic systems, and dopaminergic systems. Therefore, the sesquiterpenoids of ginseng show a potential to be a medicine for drug and functional food development against depression (Ge et al., 2017). Zhang et al. have published the effects of green tea extract enriched with low caffeine and high catechin concentrations on visceral fat loss in adults with a high proportion of visceral fat. A total of 104 volunteer subjects were randomly divided into two groups as the catechin and control groups. The first group consumed daily a green tea beverage containing 609.3 mg catechins and 68.7 mg caffeine, whereas the second group consumed a control beverage for 12 weeks. Fat mass measurement (at week 0, 8, and 12), anthropometric measurements (at week 0, 8, and 12), and clinical laboratory analyses (at week 0 and 12) including blood lipids, liver function, kidney function, glucose in blood, and insulin were carried out. According to the randomized trial, 12-week supplementation with green tea beverage rich in catechins significantly reduced the visceral fat area in individuals with a high proportion of abdominal visceral fat (Zhang et al., 2012). A comprehensive research on caffeine-free RT was conducted to evaluate the effect of vitamin D3 and Saskatoon berry syrup (SBS) addition on the antioxidant properties, flavor profile, and acceptability (Grant et al., 2017). Six different tea formulations were investigated including RT, RT with SBS, RT with SBS and vitamin D3, RT with vitamin D3, green tea, and green tea with SBS. Sensory results demonstrated that bitter and astringent features were substantially lower when SBS was added to RT formulations compared to those without syrup. RT with SBS also revealed significantly higher acceptability for flavor; and SBS addition to the beverage clearly increased the antioxidant capacities that may directly affect the health benefits of RT. The increase in antioxidant capacity must be due to the presence of several polyphenols, particularly flavonoids in SBS content. On the other hand, the addition of vitamin D3 to RT formulations did not considerably change the sensory attributes, antioxidant content, or acceptability (Grant et al., 2017). Chen et al. have studied the remedial effect of EGCG, a major component of green tea extract, and Amla (Emblica officinalis) extract on diabetic-uremic patients. A total of 15 healthy volunteers as a control group and 13 uremic diabetic patients as target group were selected for examinations of their renal function and plasma glucose level. Several plasma biomarkers were analyzed in diabetic-uremic patients after consuming the mixture of EGCG and amla extract (AE) for 3 months. Plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, inhibition of advanced glycosylated endproducts formation, plasma nitrogen

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   265

oxides, inflammatory marker (C-reactive protein), clinical markers (hepatic, renal function, atherogenic indices), and diabetic markers [plasma glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA)] were all evaluated during 3 months. According to the results, the optimal ratio of EGCG/ AE was found to be 1:1 for the beverage, which improved antioxidant defense, and diabetic and atherogenic indices in uremic patients with diabetes. On the other hand, significant changes were not observed in renal function, hepatic function, or inflammatory responses in the research period. It is worth mentioning that the findings indicated that 1:1 ratio of EGCG/AE has a good potential to be used in the treatment of uremic patients with diabetes (Chen et al., 2011). The high antioxidant content of cocoa (T. cacao) and hibiscus flower (H. sabdariffa) is a well-known fact in the field of functional food research. This attracts the scientists’ attention to study the combined effects of these natural antioxidant sources. As an example, ­antioxidant properties of hot and cold extracts of cocoa, hibiscus flower, and ginger (Z. officinale) beverage blends were studied by Awe and colleagues. Total phenolic content, ferric reducing property, 2, 2′-azino-bis [3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) scavenging ability, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)] free-radical scavenging ability of the extracts were evaluated. The combination of cocoa and hibiscus-flower extract resulted in higher antioxidant properties and free-radical scavenging than those of single extracts (100% cocoa extract or 100% Hibiscus-flower extract) (Awe et al., 2013). Other examples of herbal-based beverages from the literature are listed in Table 7.4 with their contents and medicinal properties.

7.6 Bioaccessibility Bioactive food ingredients should be adsorbed in the gut in order to wield their influence at systemic level (Lee, 2013). Bioaccessibility of food compounds is directly related to their bioavailability and ability to surpass the mucosal barrier of intestine. The amount of solubilized food compound found in the small intestine, which is available for the consequent adsorption, can be described as “bioaccessibility.” This process involves the release of compounds from food matrices (Gawlik-Dziki, 2012). Several factors play an important role on the bioaccessibility of a compound, including its initial amount in the food matrix, the presence of digestive enzymes, and the physicochemical features of the gastrointestinal mucosal barrier (Helal et  al., 2014; Tagliazucchi et al., 2012a). Modification of the food matrix may lead to some changes that exert a substantial effect on the release, transformation, stability, and absorption of the nutrients during digestion process (Rodriguez-Roque et al., 2015). The fractions of bioactive food

Table 7.4  Herbal-Based Beverages With Their Contents and Medicinal Properties Beverage

Content

Medicinal Properties

Reference

Ku-jin tea

Ku-jin tea (Acer tataricum subsp. ginnala or A. tataricum subsp. theiferum)

Bi et al. (2016)

Awa-ban tea

Phytosterol enriched black tea Ginseng tea

Awa-ban (Camellia sinensis) tea (anaerobically fermented with natural bacteria such as Lactobacillus) Phytosterol enriched instant black tea (Camellia sinensis) Ginseng (Panax ginseng) root extract

Inhibitory activities against atopic dermatitis and inflammation; antioxidant, antiviral, antitumoral, and antidiabetic Diabetes prevention

Orem et al. (2017)

Green tea

Catechin enriched green tea

Caffeine-free rooibos tea

Caffeine-free rooibos tea (Aspalathus linearis) Vitamin D3 Saskatoon berry syrup Mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaf extract

Cardio-protective effects, particularly against coronary heart disease, and mild hypercholesterolemia Antidepressant activity; pharmacological effects on the central nervous, endocrine, immune and cardiovascular systems Treating obesity and improving glucose and lipid metabolisms; showing antiobesity, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidative, neuroprotective, and cholesterol-lowering effects Protective effect on chronic disorders, and metabolic diseases such as obesity

Mulberry leaf extract Oregano extract

Maple sap beverages

Oregano extract (Oregano extract was added at three concentrations (0.001, 0.01, and 0.1 g/100 g) Oregano essential oil Pure linseed oil Omega-3 fatty acids Low-heat skim milk powder Fe (as FeSO4) at a level of 0.001 g/100 g Sodium azide (0.02 g/100 g) Sterilized maple sap

Hiasa et al. (2014)

Ge et al. (2017)

Zhang et al. (2012)

Grant et al. (2017)

Controlling the blood glucose levels (reduces postprandial hyperglycemia); showing hypoglycemic activities Reduced risk of coronary heart disease; prevention of prostate, colorectal, and breast cancers; curing inflammatory and degenerative diseases

Kim et al. (2011)

Promote bone health

Yuan et al. (2013)

Boroski et al. (2012)

Cinnamon beverages

Yerba-mate tea

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia) Whole bovine milk Honey (Acacia honey) Curcumin (Curcuma longa Linn) and catechin [epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epigallocatechin and epicatechin gallate] co-loaded water-in- oilin-water emulsion Sucrose, citric acid, ascorbic acid and sodium benzoate Yerba-mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) tea

Meadowsweet teas beverage Cocoa, hibiscus flower extract, and ginger beverage

Meadowsweet teas (F. camschatica, F. denudata, F. stepposa, and F. ulmaria) Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) Hibiscus flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa) Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Pepper leaves-based beverage

Fermented pepper leaves (Capsiccum annuum L.) Lactobacillus strains isolated from naturally lactic acid bacteria Fermented dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) vinegar Coffee silverskin Arabic (Coffea Arabica) and Robusta (Coffea canephora)

Curcumin and catechin beverage

Coffee silverskin

Show anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antitumoural, proapoptotic, and cardiovascular health-promoting effects Treats and prevents several diseases like cancer, obesity, infectious disease, and cardiovascular ailments

Helal et al. (2014)

Protective effects against the development of chronic disorders such as cardiovascular diseases Shows antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anticomplement activities; stimulates immune system Reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL); shows antioxidant and antimicrobial properties; improves blood circulation; reduces blood glucose level in diabetic patient; aids digestion and treatment of nausea Reduces the development of vascular complications including inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in diabetes; controls postprandial hyperglycemia; shows antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiaging, immuno-stimulatory, anticancer activities; contributes to intestinal regulation Contributes to body fat reduction and body weight control; acts as antioxidant; inhibits hyaluronidase enzyme

Cardozo and Morand (2016) Olennikov et al. (2017)

Aditya et al. (2015)

Awe et al. (2013)

Song et al. (2014)

Martinez-Saez et al. (2014)

268  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

compounds in solubilized form release from the food matrix upon subsequent digestion in the gut for intestinal uptake. In vitro and in vivo studies are the first essential steps for the better understanding of biological activity of a food matrix. Despite in vivo studies, such as human intervention trials and animal studies, provide more accurate results about the bioavailability of bioactive compounds, these applications require many ethical considerations, high cost, and long investigation times. These limitations make in vitro digestion models invaluable to predict the release of functional compounds from a food matrix, as well as to investigate their bioaccessibility and pre-adsorption profiles (Alminger et al., 2014). In vitro models also play an important role for studying the bioavailability of ingredients in beverages. Helal et al. reported on the bioaccessibility of polyphenols and cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon beverages, which are exposed to in vitro gastropancreatic digestion. The digestive process is initiated in the mouth with mastication breaks down the food matrix and results in the releases of majority of phenolic compounds exist in the food. The food bolus then cluster together with different hydrolytic enzymes and the physicochemical characteristics of the secretions exists in the gastrointestinal fluid affect the bioaccessibility of polyphenols (Tagliazucchi et  al., 2012b). The phenolic compounds can be stabilized by gastric acid that promotes their release from the food matrix (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2012), while several phenolic compounds (e.g., phenolic acids and anthocyanins) are known to be degraded at the moderate alkaline pH of the small intestine (Tagliazucchi et  al., 2010). Bioaccessibility of polyphenolic compounds is directly influenced by pre-absorptive interactions between polyphenols and food proteins or digestive enzymes as well as other food constituents such as lipids, sugars, and fiber, decreasing or increasing their bioaccessibility (Tagliazucchi et al., 2012b; Lambert et al., 2005., Ferruzzi et al., 2012). In their work, Helal et al. have shown that cinnamon beverages are a noteworthy source of dietary bioaccessible cinnamaldehyde and polyphenols. The different compositions of cinnamon beverages significantly affected their bioaccessibility. For example, the post-pancreatic bioaccessibility of cinnamon polyphenols was 79.9% and this was improved up to 90% by adding sweeteners to the beverage composition. Moreover, the addition of milk did not show any influence on the polyphenol bioaccessibility, whereas it negatively affected cinnamaldehyde bioaccessibility (Helal et al., 2014). Another recent work has demonstrated the influence of food matrix on in  vitro bioaccessibility of health-related compounds from a BFJ-SMB. It was observed that both food matrix and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion considerably affected the bioaccessibility. The influence of in  vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the concentration of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, vitamin C, isoflavones, and also

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   269

antioxidant activity of the BFJ-SMB was investigated. The lipophilic constituents of the beverage demonstrated lower bioaccessibility (6.5%–13.8%) than those hydrophilics (12%–26.5%). The bioaccessibility of quercetin and genistein compounds was found to be the highest, whereas it was the lowest for cis-violaxanthin + neoxanthin. Some compounds showed lower bioaccessibility in BFJ-SM when compared to those of BFJ or SM. On the other hand, the optimum bioaccessibility of aglycone isoflavones and phenolic acids was observed in BFJ-SM. The developed beverage displayed a desirable nutritional quality and highly bioaccessible compounds (Rodriguez-Roque, 2014). In a comprehensive study on milk-based fruit beverages, both in  vitro (simulated gastrointestinal digestion) and in  vivo systems were evaluated. In vitro and in vivo effects of PS-enriched beverages were compared. The interaction between β-cryptoxanthin and PS and also the effect of these bioactive compounds on the beverage adsorption were studied. The randomized and crossover study, which was conducted in 36 postmenopausal women, demonstrated a clear increase in the serum concentrations of campesterol and β-sitosterol after consumption of the developed beverages for 4 weeks, hence displaying suitability of the beverages as matrices for PS enrichment. The similar behaviour of PSs supplied by the beverages was observed both in in vitro and in vivo assays and the presence or absence of β-­ cryptoxanthin did not show any influence on the PS profiles throughout the investigations (Garcia-Llatas et al., 2015). On the other hand, in vivo assays in some recent studies have shown that the coexistence of β-Cx (β-­cyrptoxantin) and PS (e.g., β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, brassicasterol, sitostanol, and campestanol) in milk-based fruit beverages reduces the risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular risk (Granado-Lorencio et al., 2014). Furthermore, an antiproliferative effect in colon cancer Caco-2 cells was reported as a result of simultaneous presence of β-Cx and PS without synergistic apoptotic effect or antagonistic action between these compounds (Cilla et al., 2012). Melo-Cavalcante and colleagues have studied in vivo antigenotoxic and anticlastogenic effects of fresh cashew apple juice and processed juice (cajuina). Both of these drinks are widely consumed in Brazil and contain carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and vitamins. In vitro studies have demonstrated that they possess an antimutagenic activity and antioxidant effects. The antimutagenic effects of cashew apple juice and cajuina against mutagenesis induced by cyclophosphamide were evaluated by employing the comet assay, the chromosome aberrations assay, and the micronucleus test in mice. Both beverages could substantially reduce the DNA damage of peripheral blood cells. Cashew apple juice and cajuina supplied modulation percentages of 60.82% and 82.19%, respectively, when compared to the cyclophosphamide mice group. The average number of cells with chromosome

270  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

aberrations in bone marrow of mice has shown a decrease by 53% and 65% with cashew apple juice and cajuina, respectively. The results of in vivo studies have indicated the high anticlastogenic and antigenotoxic potential of both drinks due to the antioxidant compounds exist in their formulations (Melo-Cavalcante et  al., 2011). Several in  vivo tests from the literature that evaluates the functionality of newly formulated beverages are summarized in Table 7.5.

Table 7.5  In Vivo Tests for Evaluating Functionality of Novel Formulated Beverages Functional Beverage Fruit-based functional beverages Protein-enriched fruit matrix-beverages

Fresh and processed cashew (Anacardium occidentale) apple juices

Citrus-based juice

Purple grape juice

Fermented jabuticaba berry (Myrciaria jaboticaba) beverage

In Vivo Tests

Reference

Blood pressure and heart rate Analysis of serum and liver lipids Plasma glucose Insulin and C-peptide concentration in blood Plasma insulin and C-peptide responses Glucose response Comet assay Micronucleus test Chromosome aberrations tests Antimutagenic effects of cashew apple juice Antimutagenic potential of cajuina Chromosomal aberrations Anthropometric measurements 15-isoprostane F2 analysis Measurement of 8-OHdG (8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine) Measurement of protein carbonyl groups Measurement of reduced and oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSH) Carbonyl groups and oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) Blood pressure evaluation Biochemical analyses in plasma (total antioxidant capacity, total lipid, cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and high-density lipoproteincholesterol) Measurement of glycemic markers in serum Vascular reactivity in male Wistar rats

Gunathilake et al. (2013) Meric et al. (2014)

Melo-Cavalcante et al. (2011)

Bernabe et al. (2013)

Toscano et al. (2017)

Martins de Sa et al. (2014)

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   271

Table 7.5  In Vivo Tests for Evaluating Functionality of Novel Formulated Beverages—cont’d Functional Beverage Mulberry leaf extract Pomegranate juice

Pomegranate (Punica granatum) juice

Awa-ban (Camellia sinensis) tea Phytosterol-enriched functional black tea

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) root extract

Catechin-enriched green tea

In Vivo Tests

Reference

Sugar loading tests with starch, maltose, and sucrose using a Sprague-Dawley rat model Amine oxidases activity Radiochemical assays in human adipose tissues Lipogenesis assessments in mouse and human adipose cells Lipolysis measurements in mouse and human adipose cells In vivo behavioral test to analyze neurodegenerative effect in mice Measuring levels of cellular oxidative stress using DCF-DA assay Evaluation of oxidative stress-induced cell death using MTT reduction assay Y-maze test in mice Passive avoidance test Isolation of 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol (the active compound from the P. granatum extract) Oral carbohydrate tolerance test in male C57BL/6 J mice

Kim et al. (2011)

Analysis of anthropometric parameters Measurements of serum lipids, lipoproteins, and lipoprotein subfractions Measurements of parameters of glucose metabolism Analyses of oxidant and antioxidant parameters Measurements of inflammatory parameters Measurements of endothelial parameters Animal models of depression in mice forced swimming test The sesquiterpenoids components analyses Spontaneous locomotor activity test Biochemical measurements (the mouse brain monoamine neurotransmitters NA, DA, and GABA using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays) Anthropometric and body composition measurements Clinical laboratory analyses including blood lipids, liver and kidney functions, and glucose, hemoglobin and insulin in blood Recording every day’s diet, and assessing the activities

Les et al. (2017)

Choi et al. (2011)

Hiasa et al. (2014) Orem et al. (2017)

Ge et al. (2017)

Zhang et al. (2012)

Continued

272  Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages

Table 7.5  In Vivo Tests for Evaluating Functionality of Novel Formulated Beverages—cont’d Functional Beverage Amla (Emblica officinalis) extract

Whey beverage, containing calcium, vitamin D and prebiotic dietary fiber Fortified oat beverages Milk-based fruit beverages

Apple juice beverage supplemented with a Fraxinus excelsior L. seed extract

In Vivo Tests

Reference

Renal function and plasma glucose Measuring plasma thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (oxidative markers) Inhibition of AGEs formation Plasma nitrogen oxides (oxidative marker) Plasma thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances Plasma clinical markers (to assess hepatic function, renal function, and atherogenic indices) Plasma diabetic markers (plasma glucose, plasma glycosylated hemoglobin, plasma antioxidant status, and oxidative markers) Atherogenic markers (T-CHO, TG, HDL, LDL, HCY) Hepatic and renal functions Inflammatory marker (C-reactive protein) Analyses of physicochemical characteristics of the volunteers’ blood samples

Chen et al. (2011)

Amount of isotopic labels in circulating red blood cells (shift of the isotopic ratios in the red blood cells) Serum ferritin from blood samples Evaluation of endosomal/lysosomal membrane integrity Evaluation of transepithelial electrical resistance Measurement of mitochondrial transmembrane potential Measurement of intracellular reactive oxygen species Cell cycle analysis Detection of apoptosis Nutritional analysis Active compound contents Sensory analysis Triangle test Liking study (with 100 consumers, 18–65 years old, 20% male and 80% female)

Liutkevicius et al. (2016)

Trinidad et al. (2014)

Lopez-Garcia et al. (2017)

Varela et al. (2014)

Abbreviations: MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; DCF-DA, 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin diacetate; NA, noradrenaline; DA, dopamine; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; AGE, advanced glycosylated end products; HCY, homocysteine; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; T-CHO, total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides.

Chapter 7  Medicinal Properties and Functional Components of Beverages   273

7.7 Conclusion The last decade has witnessed a considerable change in consumer demands for food products. The growing interest of developing healthy and natural food alternatives and beverages drives consumer toward a healthy lifestyle and natural diet. Functional beverages, which are commonly consumed worldwide and constitute the fast growing segment of the functional food sector, are an arena that boosts a wide variety of products including dairy, nondiary, fruit, and herbal-based beverages. As it is highlighted throughout this chapter, dietary intake of fruits, vegetables, dairy, and herbal products are strongly associated with the reduced risk of developing chronic diseases such as cancer and CVDs, which are the leading causes of death in the developed countries. It is supposed that functional food contains biologically active compounds with physiological benefits should be a part of usual diet to enhance health or reduce the risk of diseases beyond basic nutritional functions. The evolving concept of functional foods has raised exciting prospects for future nutritional research for 21st century’s consumers. National and international nutritional societies must take a role for the education of general public. Well-informed individuals intend not only to satisfy their hunger but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being. Health-conscious consumers want to know the beneficial or possible harmful effects of functional foods. To fulfill the legal requirements such as recommended daily ­allowance (RDAs) and reference nutritional intake (RNIs), in  vitro studies should be supported by in vivo studies to determine the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of functional foods when consumed. Rapid advances in science and technology, growing costs of health care, changes in food laws and product claims, and the increase in life expectancy drive investors to produce innovative functional foods. However, developing a new functional food is an expensive process. The scientific researchers should also consider the cost-effectiveness, quality, market value, taste, flavor, appearance, and chemical properties of the function food, while designing their studies, and choosing the raw material and process technology. To increase the chance of a new product in the market with high success, the scientific evidence, daily intake limit, consumer acceptance, legal regulations, and commercial aspect must be considered altogether.

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Further Reading American Heart Association, 2003. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics–2003 Update. American Heart Association, Dallas, TX. Bai, N., He, K., Ibarra, A., Bily, A., Roller, M., Chen, X., 2010. Iridoids from Fraxinus excelsior with adipocyte differentiation-inhibitory and PPARa activation activity. J. Nat. Prod. 73, 2–6. Brown, A.L., Lane, J., Coverly, J., Stocks, J., Jackson, S., Stephen, A., Bluck, L., Coward, A., Hendrickx, H., 2009. Effects of dietary supplementation with the green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate on insulin resistance and associated metabolic risk factors: randomized controlled trial. Br. J. Nutr. 101, 886–894. Charalampopoulos, D., Pandiella, S.S., Webb, C., 2003. Evaluation of the effect of malt, wheat and barley extracts on the viability of potentially probiotic lactic acid bacteria under acidic conditions. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 82 (2), 133–141.

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