Metallogeny and craton destruction: Records from the North China Craton

Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

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Ore Geology Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev

Review

Metallogeny and craton destruction: Records from the North China Craton Sheng-Rong Li a, b,⁎, M. Santosh b, c a b c

State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences Beijing, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Kochi 780-8520, Japan

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 26 January 2013 Received in revised form 8 March 2013 Accepted 11 March 2013 Available online 22 March 2013 Keywords: North China Craton Lithospheric thinning Metallogeny Craton destruction Tectonics

a b s t r a c t The link between metallogeny and craton destruction in the North China Craton (NCC) remains poorly understood, particularly the mechanisms within the interior of the craton. In this overview, we summarize the major stages in the history of formation and evolution of the NCC, the spatio-temporal distribution and types of major ore species, as well as mantle contribution to the metallogeny, in an attempt to evaluate the geodynamic settings of metallogeny and the mechanisms of formation of the ore deposits. The early Precambrian history of the NCC witnessed the amalgamation of micro-blocks and construction of the fundamental tectonic architecture of the craton by 2.5 Ga. The boundaries of these micro-blocks and the margins of the NCC remained as weak zones and were the principal locales along which inhomogeneous destruction of the craton occurred during later tectonothermal events. These zones record the formation of orogeny related gold, copper, iron and titanium during the early to middle Paleoproterozoic with ages ranging from 2.5 to 1.8 Ma. The Early Ordovician kimberlite and diamond mineralization at ca. 480 Ma, the Late Carboniferous and Early to middle Permian calc-alkaline, I-type granitoids and gold deposits of 324–300 Ma, and the Triassic alkaline rocks and gold–silver-polymetallic deposits occurring along these zones and the margins of the blocks correlate with rising mantle plume, southward subduction of the Siberian plate and northward subduction of the Yangtze plate, respectively. The voluminous Jurassic granitoids and Cretaceous intrusives carrying gold, molybdenum, copper, lead and zinc deposits are also localized along the weak zones and block margins. The concentration of most of these deposits in the eastern part of the NCC invokes correlation with lithosphere thinning associated with the westward subduction of the Pacific plate. Although magmatism and mineralization have been recorded along the margins and few places within the interior of the NCC in the Jurassic, their peak occurred in the Cretaceous in the eastern part of the NCC, marking large scale destruction of the craton at this time. The junctions of the boundaries between the micro-continental blocks are characterized by extensive inhomogeneous thinning. We propose that these junctions are probably for future mineral exploration targeting in the NCC. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2.

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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Formation and evolution of the NCC . . . . . . 2.1. Amalgamation of microblocks . . . . . 2.2. Two major types of craton destruction . 2.3. The timing of destruction of the NCC . . 2.4. The heterogeneity of the NCC destruction Metallogeny in the NCC . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Spatial distribution of ore systems . . . 3.1.1. Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2. Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3. Copper, lead and zinc . . . . . 3.2. Chronology of metallogeny . . . . . . 3.2.1. Gold mineralization . . . . . . 3.2.2. Molybdenum mineralization .

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⁎ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China. Tel.: +86 10 8232 1732; fax: +86 10 8232 2176. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.-R. Li). 0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.03.002

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

3.3.

Ore deposit types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1. Gold ore systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2. Molybdenum ore systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3. Chaijiaying lead–zinc ore systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Mantle contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1. Northern margin of the NCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2. Eastern margin of the NCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3. Southern margin of the NCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4. Western margin and central NCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5. Link between metallogeny and the evolution of the NCC . . . . . . . . 3.5.1. Metallogeny in response to the formation of the NCC . . . . . . 3.5.2. Metallogeny in response to the destruction of the NCC . . . . . 3.5.3. Metallogeny linked with plate motion and mantle plume activity 4. Ore systems in the NCC: theoretical considerations and prospecting targets . . . 5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A. References for Tables 1 to 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction The construction and destruction of cratons have received much attention in recent years from geological, geophysical, geochronological and tectonic perspectives (e.g., Zhang et al., 2013, and references therein). In the past, various models including thermo-mechanical (e.g. Davies, 1994; Ruppel, 1995) and chemical (e.g., Bedini et al., 1997) erosion as well as delamination (e.g., Bird, 1978, 1979; Kay and Kay, 1993) have been proposed to explain the process of decratonization. The North China Craton (NCC) provides a classic example of craton destruction where the erosion model (e.g., Griffin et al., 1998; Lu et al., 2000; Menzies and Xu, 1998; Xu et al., 1998; Zhang et al., 2005; Zheng, 1999), and the delamination model (Deng et al., 2004a,b; Gao et al., 2002; Wu and Sun, 1999) have been invoked to explain the extensive lithospheric thinning, particularly in the eastern and central domains of the craton during the Mesozoic. Those who favor the thermo-mechanical erosion model attributed recycling of the asthenosphere and mantle plume upwelling as the major cause which resulted in erosion from the bottom of the lithosphere. In contrast, those who argue in favor of the latter model proposed the delamination of eclogitic material generated through continental collision and crustal thickening as the major cause for lithospheric thinning beneath the NCC. Although several studies have addressed the geodynamics associated with metallogeny in the NCC (e.g., Chen et al., 2007, 2009a,b; Li et al., 1996; Li et al., 2012, 2013; Mao et al., 2005a,b; Zhai and Santosh, 2013; Zhai et al., 2002), only few have investigated the link between metallogeny and the process of lithospheric destruction in the NCC. The criteria and predictions for the different mechanisms of lithosphere transformation are markedly different (Zhou, 2009), and therefore it is important to evaluate the process which is more likely to generate large-scale metallic deposits. The heterogeneity of the lithospheric destruction in the NCC, particularly the inhomogeneous thinning, has been recognized in several studies in the past (e.g., Deng et al., 2004a,b; Luo et al., 2006; Menzies et al., 1993) and confirmed in more recent studies (H.F. Zhang et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2013). This heterogeneity has been documented not only from the marginal domains of the craton both from the Western and Eastern Blocks of the NCC across the Great Hinggan Range–Taihang Mountain gravity lineament (HTGL, e.g., Xu et al., 2009), but also from the central part of the NCC, along the Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO) (e.g., Li et al., 2012, 2013; Tang et al., 2013). Integrated studies of the NCC based on high-resolution seismic images combined with observations on surface geology, regional tectonics and mantle dynamics have revealed marked variations in crustal and lithospheric structure

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and thickness, upper mantle anisotropy, and discontinuity structures and thickness of the mantle transition zone near the boundary between the eastern and central parts of the NCC (Chen, 2009, 2010; Cheng et al., 2013). Preliminary studies have identified a systematic relationship between the inhomogeneous lithosphere thinning and variations in the nature and distribution of ore systems (Li et al., 2012, 2013). However, systematic investigations to evaluate the possible relationship between the heterogeneity of lithosphere structure and metallogeny, which are fundamental to the formulation of exploration strategies for ore deposits, have not been carried out. There is a marked distinction in the distribution of the younger magmatic rocks in the NCC, with Carboniferous to Triassic suites occurring in the craton margin, and Jurassic to Cenozoic suites extending gradually into the interior. This distribution probably suggests that the destruction of the NCC started from its margins to the interior, reflecting the vulnerability of plate boundaries and weak zones on cratonic destruction (Xu et al., 2009). Within the basement of the NCC, at least six Precambrian microblocks have been identified such as the Alashan, Jining, Fuping, Qianhuai, Xuchang and Jiaoliao blocks (Zhai et al., 2005), the amalgamation of which occurred during the Neoarchean, and subsequent rifting–subduction–collision in the Paleoproterozoic led to the final stabilization of the craton (e.g., Santosh, 2010; Santosh et al., 2007; Zhai and Santosh, 2011; Zhai et al., 2005). The relationship between these microblocks and their boundaries with the inhomogeneous lithosphere thinning remain equivocal, although it is generally agreed that there is a strong link between metallogeny and the geodynamics of the NCC (e.g., Chen et al., 2007, 2009a,b; Li et al., 2012, 2013; Mao et al., 2005a,b, 2011; Qiu et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2003). Previous workers have adopted different tectonic classification schemes for the major mineral deposits in the NCC such as orogenic gold (e.g., Mao et al., 2002, 2005a,b, 2008, 2011; Qiu et al., 2002), and orogenic metals (Chen et al., 2004, 2007, 2009a). Several other classifications have also been proposed such as mesothermal–epithermal type (e.g., Chen et al., 1989; Li et al., 1996; Li et al., 2012, 2013), skarn type (e.g., Li et al., 2013; Shen et al., 2013), porphyry type (e.g., Li et al., 2003), cryptoexplosive breccia type (e.g., Li, 1995), quartz vein type (e.g., Nie et al., 2004; Pirajno et al., 2009), fracture-altered and breccia type (e.g., Mao et al., 2008; Qiu et al., 2002), etc. Among these classifications, some were based on the genesis of the ore deposit (genetic type), and the others took into account the ore characteristics (industrial type). Although the occurrence of major ore deposits in the marginal domains of the NCC are well established, their geneses remain debated. Most importantly, the ore deposits and prospecting potential within the interior of the NCC, regardless of the genetic and industrial types, are poorly understood.

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In this overview, we attempt to characterize the ore deposits both in the interior and marginal domains of the NCC and examine their prospecting potential. Our work provides new insights on the possible relationship between metallogeny and lithosphere thinning associated with craton destruction.

2. Formation and evolution of the NCC 2.1. Amalgamation of microblocks Based on the distribution of early Precambrian rocks, and through integrated geological, geochronological and geophysical information, at least six micro-continental blocks have been identified within the NCC (Bai et al., 1993, Wu et al., 1998; Zhai and Santosh, 2011, 2013; Zhai et al., 2000, 2005). From west to east these are the Alashan, Ji'ning, Ordos, Fuping or Xuchang, Qianhuai, Xuhuai and Jiaoliao blocks (Fig. 1). Rock types and their distribution in these microblocks display distinct differences, with Neoarchean volcanism and magmatism at 2.9–2.7 Ga and 2.6–2.45 Ga, indicating that these micro-blocks were not amalgamated into a coherent craton until at least 2.5 Ga. Several granitic intrusives with ages around 2.5–2.4 Ga invade the basement rocks in all these blocks (e.g., Geng et al., 2012; H.F. Zhang et al., 2012; Wu et al., 1998; Z. Zhang et al., 2012), suggesting that the microblocks were assembled prior to the emplacement of these granitoids, and that these microblocks define the unified tectonic architecture of the NCC at the end of Neoarchean (Li et al., 1997). An alternative framework of the NCC basement was suggested with two discrete blocks, the Western and Eastern Blocks, developed independently during the Archean and finally collided along the central zone (Trans-North China Orogen) to form a coherent craton during a global Paleoproterozoic collisional event at 1.85 Ga (Zhao et al., 2005, 2007). The nature of the NCC in the late Neoarchean has been addressed through several models. Among these, the vertical accretion with multi-stage cratonization (Zhao et al., 1993) and marginal accretionreworking (Jin and Li, 1996) are popular. Arc–continent or continent– continent collision models have also proposed to explain the early Precambrian evolution of this craton (Zhai and Santosh, 2011). A

volcanic–plutonic island arc zone characterized by TTG (tonalite– trondhjemite–granodiorite) rocks of 2.56–2.5 Ga along the western/ outer side, and calc-alkaline granitic rocks of 2.5–2.45 Ga on the eastern/inner side have been suggested in the western part of the Jiaoliao continent block (Wu et al., 1998; Zhao et al., 1993), implying arc–continent collision between the Jiaoliao block and the Qianhuai block. Based on the distribution of high-pressure granulites, Zhai et al. (1992) proposed continent–continent collision between the Qianhuai and Fuping blocks and between the Qianhuai and Ji'ning blocks at 2.5–2.6 Ga. Zhai et al. (2000) and Zhai and Santosh (2011) also proposed that between 2.6 and 2.45 Ga, the six microblocks in the NCC were amalgamated together by continent–continent, continent–arc or arc–arc collision (Fig. 1c).

2.2. Two major types of craton destruction Thermo-mechanical or chemical erosion and delamination are considered as the two major mechanisms that led to the destruction of the NCC. According to the erosion model, the bottom of the lithosphere is softened through heating by upwelling asthenosphere, and the shear stress from the horizontal flow of the asthenosphere would transfer the weakened lithospheric bottom to the asthenosphere. This type of erosion could upwell the thermal conduction of the asthenosphere into the bottom of the lithosphere leading to further erosion and thinning (Davies, 1994; Ruppel, 1995). The thermo-mechanical erosion model has been developed into a coupled scheme of both thermomechanical and chemical erosions (e.g., Ji et al., 2008; Xu, 1999). The duration of the thinning from the thermo-mechanical erosion depends on the temperature of the convective asthenosphere and the original thickness of the lithosphere. Based on a numerical simulation, Davies (1994) suggested that the duration for thinning a 200 km thick lithosphere to 100 km would be about ten million years provided that a plume is present at the bottom. However, in the absence of a plume, this process might take about 50–100 million years. The delamination model emphasizes the processes of regional tectonics. When cratons undergo tectonic convergence, such as plate subduction or collision, the crustal thickness increases leading to high grade metamorphism and mineralogical phase changes to generate

Fig. 1. Boundaries and locations of the Newarchean micro-continental blocks in the NCC. ALS = Alashan block, JN = Jining block, OR = Ordos Block, QH = Qianhuai block, XCH = Xuchang or Fuping block, XH = Xuhuai, and JL = Jiaoliao block. After Zhai and Santosh (2011).

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eclogite at the bottom. Eventually, the high density eclogitic material would break off and drop down into the mantle, leading to the delamination of the lithosphere (Beck and Zandt, 2002; Bird, 1979; Pysklywec et al., 2000). Thus, based on geological and tectonic models, Zhai et al. (2002), Deng et al. (2006) and Gao et al. (2008), among others discussed the thickening of the continental crust of the NCC and delamination during the Yanshanian. Recent studies have emphasized the role of interaction between melt or fluid and mantle peridotite on the micro-mechanics of chemical erosion (e.g., Xu et al., 2013). Investigations on mantle xenoliths have led to the identification of lithospheric alteration by melt or fluid. The spatial variation of isotopic characteristics in the source region, low Mg # values, systematic changes in the mineral phases, disturbance of the Re/Os isotopic system, mixed tDM ages, chemical zoning of minerals, among other features, have been documented. These features have been correlated to variations in the nature and characteristic of the lithospheric mantle during craton destruction process (e.g., Reisberg et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2004; Zhou, 2006; Zhang et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2013). Zhou (2009) summarized the criteria to evaluate the two mechanisms of lithospheric thinning. The thermo-mechanical/chemical erosion model is related with a prolonged and continuous magmatic activity, initially sourced from the lithosphere and gradually extending to asthenosphere. In this case, the resulting features include lithosphere extension, chemically layered lithosphere with different ages, and volcanic or sub-volcanic activity with different chemistry correlating with changes in the source characteristics. The delamination model, in contrast, is reflected in short and episodic magmatism derived from the asthenosphere, rapid extension of the lithosphere accompanied by strong surface erosion, and younger components dominating the lithosphere with volcanic or sub-volcanic material displaying the signature of recycled ancient crust. Apparently, evidence in support of both these phenomena — erosion and delamination — exists in the NCC, and a combined erosion plus delamination model is gaining acceptance with the notion that these two models are not mutually exclusive (e.g., Wu et al., 2008). 2.3. The timing of destruction of the NCC Craton destruction is not only related to the thinning of the craton lithosphere, but also involves changes in composition of the lithosphere, its thermal state and rheological nature. The loss in the stability of craton as a whole is recognized as craton destruction or decratonization by Zhu et al. (2011). Theoretically, the initiation of lithosphere thinning and the variations mentioned above mark the start of craton destruction. Since not all of these variations can necessarily show clear geological records on the earth surface, only magmatism, tectonic evolution, palaeogeography and metallogeny are taken as indicators of the destruction process. Among these, the magmatic signature is the most commonly employed criterion at present. Since its final cratonization during Paleoproterozoic, the NCC has remained largely stable for a long time. Intermittent small scale magmatic activity has been recorded in the Mesoproterozoic, such as the mafic dyke swarms, K-rich volcanics in the Dahongyu Formation, the Miyun rapakivi granite north of Beijing city, and the Damiao anorthosite in the northern part of Hebei province (Li et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009), which might all correlate with the rifting event of the Columbia supercontinent of which the NCC was an integral part (e.g., Santosh, 2010). Younger magmatic episodes include the Early Ordovician diamond-bearing kimberlite of ca. 480 Ma in the Mengyin area, Shandong province, and the Fuxian area, Liaoning province (Chi and Lu, 1996; Xu, 2001). The magmatism since Carboniferous is classified into 5 periods (Xu et al., 2009). The earliest phase is recorded from the northern margin of the NCC with a series of calc-alkaline, I-type granitoids of 324–300 Ma, correlated with the southward subduction of the paleo Asian plate (Fig. 2a; Zhang et al., 2007). Relatively weak

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magmatism in the Late Triassic characterized mostly by alkaline rocks has been documented from the northern and eastern margins of the NCC (Yang and Wu, 2009; Yang et al., 2007). The magmatism during the Jurassic is also mainly distributed in the north and east margins of the NCC, with granitoids comprising the major suite (Fig. 2b). Examples include the Tongshi intrusive complex emplaced at 180.1–184.7 Ma in the Luxi region (Lan et al., 2012), and the Linglong and Luanjiahe granites emplaced at 157–159 Ma in the northwest Jiaodong region (Yang et al., 2012). The magmatism attained its peak in the Cretaceous and was characterized by a wide range of felsic and mafic igneous rocks, distributed mainly in the Yanshan Mountains, Taihang Mountains, Jiaodong and Luxi regions. The Mapeng granitic pluton in the Taihang Mountains and the Sunzhuang dioritic pluton in the Heshan Mountain were emplaced at ca. 130 Ma (Li et al., 2012, 2013), and the Guojialing granodiorites in the north-western Jiaodong were also emplaced in the early Cretaceous (129 Ma, Yang et al., 2012). The magmatism during the end of Cretaceous to the Neogene was characterized by tholeiitic and alkaline basalt distributed within extensional basins and along deep-seated fractures within the craton. Although the duration of the magmatism cannot be directly correlated with the duration of craton destruction, the ages of these magmatic suites provide important constraints on the lithospheric thinning event. Thus, Xu et al. (2009) suggested that the initiation of the NCC lithosphere thinning would not be later than the Carboniferous and Triassic, respectively in the northern and eastern margins, and the southward subduction of the Paleo Asian Ocean Plate and the northward subduction of the Yangtze Plate as well as the consequent collision triggered the activity along the northern and southern margins of the NCC. The thinning of the NCC peaked in the late Jurassic to Cretaceous and continued even to the early Cenozoic, during a protracted period of more than 100 Ma (Xu et al., 2009). Geochemically, the Cenozoic basalts in the NCC show increasing alkalinity with time, suggesting an increase in the depth of the magma source (Xu et al., 2009). Combined with the ca. 100 Ma basalt in the Fuxin region derived from the asthenosphere, Wu et al. (2008) suggested that the destruction of the NCC occurred in the Cretaceous earlier than 100 Ma. Zhu et al. (2011) suggested that the start of destruction of the NCC should be later than the Late Mesozoic when the Pacific plate subducted towards west and the Mongolia–Okhotsk Sea closed which led to the transition of the tectonic system. In the central part of the NCC, previous studies on the Shihu gold deposit and the Xishimen iron deposit from the Taihang Mountains, and their genetically related intrusive rocks led to the suggestion that the Shihu gold deposit witnessed a greater amount of mantle input as compared to the Xishimen iron deposit during their formation in the Early Cretaceous (ca. 130 Ma); however, the major components for both were derived from the lower crust (Cao et al., 2011a,b; Li et al., 2012, 2013). Combined with published geophysical data (Wei et al., 2008), Li et al. (2013) suggested that the continental lithosphere is markedly thinner under the Fuping region than that under the Wu'an region, and that the inhomogeneous lithosphere thinning in the central NCC occurred at least as early as 130 Ma. Further studies on the major magmatism and metallogenesis in the Hengshan terrain revealed that these were part of the strong magmatic–metallogenic event that took place in the Taihang Mountains at ca. 130 Ma ago, and the lithosphere underneath the Hengshan terrain was strongly thinned and decoupled during the early Cretaceous, with the state of the destructed lithosphere largely preserved through the Cenozoic to present (Li et al., 2012, 2013). Although different opinions exist concerning the timing of the NCC destruction based mainly on magmatism, all the available evidence indicates that the Cretaceous marks the peak for lithosphere thinning or destruction in the NCC. The magmatic pulses can be clearly divided into several periods or stages, and the duration of each stage was relatively short, showing a prominent instantaneity. Theoretically, any magmatic event after final cratonization, regardless of

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Fig. 2. Distribution of the igneous rocks in the NCC. a — Caledonian, Variscanian and Indo-China epoches and b — Yanshanian epoch. 1 — North margin of the NCC fault zone; 2 — South margin of the NCC fault zone; 3 — Tan–Lu fault zone; and 4 — Taihangshan fault zone. After Cheng, 1994.

the source such as asthenosphere, lithosphere mantle, or crust, should be taken as a record of the craton destruction. However, the effect of the destruction would sometimes be local, or can even lead to episodes of lithospheric accretion, such as in the case of the Cenozoic pulse in the NCC. 2.4. The heterogeneity of the NCC destruction As mentioned in a previous section, the magmatism in the NCC since Carboniferous has been classified into 5 periods with different characteristics for the rock suites formed at different periods (Xu et al., 2009). If magmatism after cratonization is a robust record of the craton destruction, the magmas with different characteristics must represent different levels or tectonic domains. This would mean that the loci of craton destruction shifted vertically with time. Furthermore, the magmatism occurred at different locations in the NCC, implying that the destruction also shifted laterally. Recent studies, such as for example from the Late Jurassic (157– 159 Ma) Linglong and Luanjiahe granites in the northwest Jiaodong peninsula in the eastern NCC, show high Na2O + K2O, Al2O3, Sr/Y ratios, LREEs and LILEs (Rb, Ba, U, and Sr), low MgO, HFSEs (Nb, Ta, P, and Ti) and εHf(t) values (Yang et al., 2012). These characteristics are comparable to adakitic rocks, suggesting that the Linglong and Luanjiahe granitoids formed under relatively high pressure conditions and were likely derived from partial melting of the thickened lower crust of the NCC. The early Cretaceous (129 Ma) Guojialing

granodiorites in the northwest Jiaodong peninsula, however, possess high CaO, TFe2O3, MgO, LREEs, LILEs, Sr/Y, εNd(t) and εHf(t) values, and are metaluminous, with depletion in HFSEs (Yang et al., 2012), suggesting the involvement of mantle components in the magmatic source. Yang et al. (2012) correlated the formation of magma with the processes accompanying the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the NCC and the associated asthenospheric upwelling. The distribution of the magmatic rocks in the NCC (Fig. 2) shows that the magmatism occurred at the margins of the NCC in the Carboniferous to Triassic, extended from the margin to the inner areas of the NCC in the Jurassic, and reached its peak in the Cretaceous (Xu et al., 2009). This suggests that the destruction of the NCC started at its margins, and extended to the inner domains with time. The NCC is bound by Phanerozoic orogenic belts with the Xing'an–Mongolia orogenic belt in the north, the Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt in the south, the Sulu orogenic belt and the subduction zone between the Eurasia–Pacific plates in the east, and the Qilian orogenic belt in the west. The margins of the NCC, therefore, are all weak zones prone to be eroded or delaminated leading to the thinning of the lithosphere. The Trans-North China Orogen or the Daxing'an–Taihang Zone in the central part of the NCC, as a Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt (Zhao et al., 2007), or the boundary between the microblocks Fuping and Qianhuai (Zhai and Santosh, 2011), is also a major weak zone (Li et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2009). Magmatism and metallogeny of ca. 130 Ma have led to lithosphere thinning beneath the Taihang Mountains (Li et al., 2012, 2013; Shen et al., 2013). If the structure of the

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basement of the NCC is taken into consideration, the weak zones include the boundaries of the micro-blocks beside the Taihang Mountains. The NNE Tan–Lu Fault Zone, the major lithospheric fracture zone in eastern China, formed during the Mesozoic is a prominent weak zone in the interior of the NCC. During the northward subduction of the Izanagi plate in the early Cretaceous, the Tan–Lu Fault Zone witnessed counter-clockwise strike-slip activity, and served as a major channel for the upwelling of asthenosphere materials (Guo et al., 2013). Recent geophysical data and their geological interpretations (Fig. 3) reveal pronounced variation in the thicknesses of the lithosphere beneath the NCC which can be spatially correlated with the boundaries between the micro-blocks, the Trans-North China Craton or Daxing'an–Taihang Zone, the Tan–Lu Fault Zone and the margins of the craton, suggesting strong heterogeneity in cratonic architecture following the destruction. Coupled with the distribution of the magmatism in the NCC, it is obvious that the regions with thin lithosphere show clustered large scale magmatic rocks of Mesozoic age, implying that the extensive thinning of the lithosphere was coeval with the Mesozoic magmatism. This finding has also been extended to metallogeny in recent studies with evidence from the Taihang Mountains (Li et al., 2013) and the Heshan terrain (Li et al., 2012). 3. Metallogeny in the NCC 3.1. Spatial distribution of ore systems During the prolonged tectonic evolution of the NCC, several types of economic ore deposits formed at different times. Ore deposits of Precambrian age, particularly nonferrous metallic deposits, are widely developed in the northern margin of the craton (Rui et al., 1994). However, in this paper, we focus mainly on the mineralization that formed subsequent to the cratonization of the NCC in an attempt to evaluate their relationship with the decratonization event. 3.1.1. Gold Gold is one of the most important mineral resources in the NCC. The major gold deposits are found in the Jiaodong peninsula (eastern Shandong province), the Xiaoqinling region (south-eastern Shaanxi province and the west of Henan province) and the Jibei region (northern Hebei province) (Fig. 4a). The Jiaodong peninsula has long been known to host the largest cluster of gold deposits in China, and has been the major production in the country. The Xiaoqingling region

381

hosts the second largest gold cluster. Gold deposits in the NCC are dominantly distributed along the central domains of the eastern, southern and northern margins of the craton. In the Jiaodong region, located within the eastern margin of the NCC, several important gold deposits occur such as the Linglong quartz-vein type and the Jiaojia fracture-filling and altered type, both of which are recognized as super-large gold deposits with gold reserve exceeding 100 t. Several fracture-filling and altered type gold deposits, such as those of Sanshandao, Xincheng, Dayingezhuang, Dongfeng and the Canzhuang are also among the super-large category. The gold reserves of the Jinqingding and Denggezhuang quartz-vein type gold deposits, the two largest gold deposits in the east of the Jiaodong region, exceed 100 t. In the Xiaoqinling region in the south-western margin of the NCC, large scale mining for gold is traced to the Ming Dynasty (A.D.1368–1644). More than 1200 auriferous quartz veins have been explored in the Xiaoqinling region, among which about 400 t of gold reserve has been proved and more than 10 large and super-large gold deposits are exploited. These are represented by the Dongtongyu, Wenyu, Dongchuang, and Yangzhaiyu quartz-vein type gold deposits. Several large crypto-explosive-breccia type gold deposits, such as the Qiyugou gold deposit, and fracture-filling and altered type, such as the Shanggong gold deposit, are found in the Xiong'ershan region in eastern Qinling within the southern margin of the NCC (Chen et al., 2008). In the Jibei region, northern margin of the NCC, the Xiaoyingpan quartz-vein gold deposit, the Dongping quartz-vein–altered–fracture transition type gold deposit, and the Jinchangyu quartz-vein gold deposit are among the large-super large gold deposits. Apart from the gold deposits located along the margins of the NCC, some large scale gold deposits are also found in the interior of the NCC. These include the Shihu auriferous quartz-vein in the west of Hebei province within the central domain of the Taihang Mountains (Li et al., 2013) and the Yixingzhai auriferous quartz-vein in the northeast of Shanxi province, at the northern domain of the Taihang Mountains (Li et al., 2012). In the Luxi area, west of the Tan–Lu fault zone, the Guilaizhuang cryptoexplosive breccia type gold deposit and the Yinan skarn type gold deposit have also been proved to be large scale with gold reserves of more than 20 t (Guo et al., 2013; Mao et al., 2005a,b).

3.1.2. Molybdenum Seventeen large and medium molybdenum deposits have been identified in the NCC (Fig. 4b). The southern and northern margins of the craton are the main locations of the large ones. The Luanchuan– Lushi area of Henan province in the central part of the southern margin

Fig. 3. Maps of mantle transition thickness (a) and lithosphere thickness and (b) beneath the NCC. After Zhu et al. (2011) with revisions.

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of the NCC, hosts clusters of several important molybdenum deposits in Asia, such as the Nannihu, Sandaozhuang, Shangfanggou and Yechangping deposits. Recently, the molybdenum deposits of Laiyuan in Hebei province in northern Taihang Mountains within the central NCC are prospected as large molybdenum reserves (our unpublished data). 3.1.3. Copper, lead and zinc Copper deposits are not well developed in the NCC, with only a few large deposits occurring in the west and northeast margins. However, small scale copper deposits occur scattered in other margins and in the cratonic interior (Fig. 4c, Zhao et al., 2006a). Until now, no super-large Pb–Zn–(Ag) deposits have been reported from the NCC. However, a number of large and middle scale Pb– Zn–(Ag) deposits have been identified from the northern margin, within the central segment of the southern margin and the interior region in the Taihang Mountains (Fig. 4d, Zhao et al., 2006b). The Chaijiaying large scale Pb–Zn–Ag deposit located at the northwestern part of the

Hebei province within the northern margin of the NCC, is one of the well-studied representatives. The Mesoproterozoic Dongshengmiao, Tanyaokou, Huogeqi and Jiashengpan SEDEX deposits in the Langshan– Cha'ertaishan region, northern margin of the NCC, were discovered recently with overprinting Variscanian mineralization (Zhai et al., 2004). The spatial distribution of the metallic deposits shows that not only the margins of the blocks/craton, but also the interior of the NCC bear important metallic deposits. Notably, the important ore deposits in the interior of the craton are mostly located in the Taihang Mountains (Li et al., 2012, 2013; Shen et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2013), which defines the boundary between the Fuping, Ordos and Qianhuai microblocks, as well as the collisional suture between the Western and Eastern Blocks (Santosh et al., 2012). A similar case in the eastern NCC is the occurrences in the western part of the Tan– Lu fault zone, which defines the boundary between the Qianhuai and Jiaoliao microblocks (Fig. 4a–e). In the other basement boundaries between the microblocks, only a few ore deposits are found. In addition, within the same tectonic region, the ore deposits are

Fig. 4. Locations of ore deposits in the NCC. a — gold, b — molybdenum, c — copper, d — zinc–lead, and e — iron.

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383

Fig. 4 (continued).

scattered heterogeneously, such as for example in the southern margin of the NCC, where the ore deposits are mainly clustered in the middle section. 3.2. Chronology of metallogeny 3.2.1. Gold mineralization Gold mineralization in the NCC formed mainly during 4 periods (Table 1). The first phase is during Paleoproterozoic, when typical orogenic gold deposits formed such as the Diantou (2416 Ma, Luo et al., 2002), Xiaobanyu (2317 Ma, Luo et al., 2002), Dongyaozhuang (2451 Ma, Chen et al., 2001), Hulishan, Kangjiagou, Daiyinzhang, Shangyanghua, and Xiaozhongzhui ductile–brittle shear zone type gold in the Wutai Mountain, northeast of Shanxi province, central NCC with ages ranging from 2.3 to 2.5 Ga (Zhang et al., 2003). These gold deposits are all small scale with gold reserves less than 10 t. The second period is the early to middle Permian, when some

porphyry type gold deposits, such as the Zhulazhaga (280 Ma, Li et al., 2010) and the Bilihe (273 Ma, Qing et al., 2012) formed in the Inner Mongolia region, at the northern margin of the NCC. The third period is the middle Triassic, when the Qingchengzi gold–silverpolymetallic deposits (ca. 239 Ma, Xue et al., 2003) in the Liaoning province formed along the north-eastern margin of the NCC. The fourth period is in the early Cretaceous, when a large number of gold deposits formed in the northern, southern and eastern margins of the NCC. Most of the super-large gold deposits, such as those of Jiaodong represented by the Linglong quartz vein type (121 Ma, Li et al., 2008), and the Jiaojia fracture-altered type (120 Ma, Li et al., 2003), formed in the eastern margin of the NCC. Similar deposits in the southern margin of the NCC include the Xiaoqinling quartz vein gold deposits (127–129, Wang, 2010), and the Dongping-quartz vein-fracture altered gold deposit (140 Ma, Li et al., 2010) in the north-western segment of the Hebei province. Notably, some large scale gold deposits also formed in the interior of the NCC. The Shihu

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Fig. 4 (continued).

quartz vein gold deposit (130–140 Ma, Cao et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013) and the Yixingzhai quartz vein gold deposit (132 Ma, Li et al., 2012; Ye et al., 1999) are two representatives in the central NCC. 3.2.2. Molybdenum mineralization The molybdenum deposits in the NCC formed during three periods (Table 1). The first is in the early to middle Triassic, when some small to medium scale molybdenum deposits formed in the northern and southern margins (223–258 Ma). There are only a few large scale molybdenum deposits such as the Sadaigoumen porphyry molybdenum deposit (238 Ma, Shen, 2011) in the north of Hebei province, and the Dasuji porphyry molybdenum deposit (223 Ma, Zhang et al., 2009) in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, the northern margin of the NCC. The second period is in the early–middle Jurassic when some large scale molybdenum deposits formed at the north-eastern margin of the NCC and a few small scale deposits developed in the southern margin. The large molybdenum deposits are represented by the Lanjiagou (187 Ma, Huang et al., 1996) and the Beisongshumao (162 Ma, Li et al., 2009) porphyry type deposits, as well as the Yangjiazhangzi (190 Ma, Huang et al., 1996) skarn type deposit in the western part of Liaoning Province. The most important molybdenum deposits formed in the third period during early Cretaceous in the southern and northern margins, as well as in the interior of the NCC. The Luanchuan porphyry type molybdenum deposits in the southern margin of the NCC including the Sandaozhuang (145 Ma, Mao et al., 2005a,b), Nannihu (142 Ma, Mao et al., 2005a,b, and Shangfanggou (144 Ma, Mao et al., 2005a,b) are among the major molybdenum deposits in China. The skarn copper–molybdenum deposits, the Shouwangfen deposit (148 Ma, Huang et al., 1996) and Xiaosigou deposit (134 Ma, Huang et al., 1996) at the north-eastern margin of the NCC are also well known. Recently, the Laiyuan porphyry–skarn copper–molybdenum deposits in the central NCC has proved to be an important deposit based on drill core studies (our unpublished data). 3.3. Ore deposit types 3.3.1. Gold ore systems According to their nature of occurrence, the gold deposits in the NCC can be divided into the following types: 1) Paleoproterozoic

ductile–brittle shear zone type (the Dongyaozhuang type); 2) Permian porphyry-dominated type (the Bilihe type); 3) Jurassic (?) cryptoexplosive breccia type (the Guilaizhuang type); 4) Cretaceous quartz vein type (the Linglong type); 5) Cretaceous fracture altered type (the Jiaojia type); 6) Cretaceous strata-bound type (the Dujiaya type); 7) Cretaceous skarn type (the Yinan type); 8) Cretaceous cryptoexplosive breccia type (the Qiyugou type) and 9) Cretaceous quartz vein-fracture altered-type (the Dongping type). 3.3.1.1. The Paleoproterozoic Dongyaozhuang type. This type includes the Dongyaozhuang, Diantou, Xiaobanyu, Hulishan, Kangjiagou, Daiyinzhang, Shangyanghua and Xiaozhongzhui gold deposits in the Wutai Mountain (Fig. 5a) in the central NCC. These deposits occur within Archean greenstones, the protoliths of which are considered to be a suite of intercalated mafic and intermediate to felsic volcanics. Metamorphosed mafic and intermediate dykes also occur in the ore field (Fig. 5b). The greenstones and dykes underwent strong ductile to brittle shearing and metamorphic hydrothermal alteration. From the metamorphosed mafic rocks to the orebody, alteration zoning is observed with carbonate–quartz–chlorite–albite marginal zone grading into quartz–sericite–pyrite intermediate zone, and further to tourmaline–pyrite–quartz core. Most of the orebodies are stratiform and consist of highly silicified and pyritic schist wall-rocks with fine grained albite, sericite, quartz, tourmaline, ankerite, dolomite, calcite and chlorite as common gangue minerals. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite and native gold (occasionally arsenopyrite and chalcocite) are the main ore minerals. The ore is dominated by veinlet-disseminated style with gold grades ranging from 1 to 10 g/t with an average of 3.5 g/t. The fineness of the native gold is greater than 905 (Zhang et al., 2003; our unpublished data). 3.3.1.2. The Permian Bilihe type. The Bilihe porphyry-dominated type gold deposit is a newly found large scale gold deposit in the Sonid Youqi area (Qing et al., 2012). The deposit is located in the Caledonian accretionary orogen along the northern margin of the NCC. The Bainaimiao, Baiyinhe'er, Hedamiao and Baiyinchagan gold deposits are clustered nearby. A suite of Permian intermediate-felsic volcanosedimentary rocks (dated as 281.1 ± 4.3 Ma by zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb method, Qing et al., 2012) are the dominant rocks. I-type

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385

Table 1 Isotopic ages of the major deposits in the NCC.

N. margin W. portion

E. portion

No.

Deposit

Location

Species Age/Ma

Method

Mineral

Reference

1

Shalamiao

Au

266.8 ± 3.9

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Wang et al., 2007

2 3 4 5

Shibaqinghao Bilihe Zhulazhaga Dongping

Baiyun'ebo, Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia Alashan, Inner Mongolia Chongli, Hebei Province

40 Ar–39Ar Re–Os 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar

Biotite Molybdenite Quartz K-feldspar

Chen et al., 1996 Qing et al., 2011 Li et al., 2010 Jiang et al., 2000

6

Hougou

Chicheng, Hebei Province

Bieluwutu Chaganbulagen

Pb–Zn

Li et al., 2010 Wang et al., 1992 Li et al., 2012 Nie et al., 2008 Pan et al., 1990

9

Baiyinnuoer

170/161

Rb–Sr

10

Haobugao

11 12

Caijiayingzi Yingfang

Sunite, Inner Mongolia Xin Barag Left Banner, Inner Mongolia Bairin Left Banner, Inner Mongolia Bairin Left Banner, Inner Mongolia Zhangbei, Hebei Fengning, Hebei

LA-ICP-MS 40 Ar–40Ar LA-ICP-MS Sm–Nd K–Ar

Zircon K-feldspar Zircon

7 8

277 ± 1.73 272.7 ± 1.6 282.3 ± 0.9 187 ± 0.3 188 ± 0.4 177.4 ± 5 140.3 ± 1.4 172.9 ± 5 154.4 ± 1.3 279–481 131.6

13 14

Sadaigoumen Dacaoping

Fengning, Hebei Fengning, Hebei

Mo

15

Yangshugou

Fengning, Hebei

16

Dasuji

17

Zhang et al., 1991

Yanshanian

Dai et al., 2005

130 120.66 ± 3.16

K–Ar K–Ar U-Pb U–Pb

Zircon Zircon

U–Pb

Zircon

Zhuozi, Inner Mongolia

227.1 ± 2.7 220.10 ± 117 ~232.17 ± 115 220.10 ± 117 ~232.17 ± 115 222.5 ± 3.2

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Caosiyao

Xinghe, Inner Mongolia

131–134

U–Pb

Granite porphyry

18

Xishadegai

225.4 ± 2.6

LA-ICP-MS

Zircon

19 20 21 22 23

Jiajiaying Baiyunebo Hongzhaoxiang Niuxinshan Qingchengzi

Wulateqianqi, Inner Mongolia Zhangjiakou, Hebei Baotou, Neimenggu Zhuozi, Neimenggu Kuancheng, Hebei Province Fengcheng, Hebei Province

Lv et al., 2004 Liu et al., 1997, Duan et al., 2008 Shen et al., 2011 Duan et al., 2007; Hu et al., 2010 Duan.,2007 Hu et al., 2010 Zhang et al., 2009; Nie et al., 2012 Li.,2012 Zhang et al., 2009; Nie et al.,2012; Li.,2012 Zhang et al., 2011

24 25

Bajiazi Baiyun

Fuxin, Hebei Province Fengcheng, Hebei

Re–Os U–Pb 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar

Pyrite Zircon Quartz Quartz Quartz Sericite Quartz

Zhang et al., 2008 Liu et al., 2010 Hu et al., 1996 Xue et al., 2003 Xue et al., 2003 Luo et al., 2002 Liu et al., 2000

26 27

Erdaogou Xiaotongjiapuzi

Chaoyang, Liaoning Liaoning

40

28

Wulong

Dandong, Liaoning

Ar–40Ar Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar Rb–Sr

Sericite Sericite Sericite Quartz

Pang et al., 1997 Liu et al., 2002 Liu et al., 2002 Wei et al., 2001

29 30 31 32

Paishanlou Siping Guanmenshan Yangjiazhangzi

Fuxin, Liaoning Siping, Liaoning Kaiyuan, Liaoning Jianchang, Liaoning

439 1929 175.8 ± 3.1 238.8 ± 0.3 239.46 ± 1.13 204.0 ± 0.5 209 ± 2 197 ± 2 140.6 ± 2.8 167.0 ± 2 167.0 ± 4 120 ± 3 112 ± 1 124.2 ± 0.4 187 ± 4 467 155–170

40 Ar–39Ar Rb–Sr Pb–Pb Pb–Pb

Biotite Quartz

33

Bajiazi

Jianchang, Liaoning

177.4–183.8

34 35 36 37

Beichagoumen Qingyanggou Jiaodingshan Xiaodonggou

138.5 ± 1.3 Yanshanian Yanshanian 135.5 ± 1.5

38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Kulitu Chehugou Jiguanshan Nianzigou Hadamengou Xiaojiayingzi Lanjiagou Gangtun Yangjiazhangzi Beisongshumao Dazhuangke Xiaosigou Cu, Mo Shouwangfen Cu, Mo

Longhua, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Keshiketengqi, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Kazuo, Liaoning Liaoning Huludao, Liaoning West of Liaoning West of Liaoning Yanqing, Beijing Pingquan, Hebei Chengde, Hebei

Fe Au

Pb–Zn

Mo

40

Pb–Pb model age U–Pb

Zircon

Yu et al., 2002 Liang et al., 2001 Fang et al., 1991 Chen et al., 2003; Dai et al., 2005 Chen et al., 2003; Dai et al., 2005 Mao et al., 2005

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Nie et al., 2007

210–230 257.5 ± 2.5 242.9 ± 2–256.9 ± 6.9 154.3 ± 3.6 239.76 ± 3.04 177 ± 5 186.5

Sr–Nd–Pb Re–Os U–Pb Re–Os 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar Re–Os

monzogranite Molybdenite Zircon Molybdenite sericite sericite Molybdenite

Wu et al., 2008 Zhang etal.,2009 Zhang etal.,2009 Zhang etal.,2009 Nie et al., 2005 Nie et al., 2005 Huang et al., 1996

190 162 146 134 148

± 6 ~ 191 ± 6

Re–Os

± 11 ±3 ±4

Re–Os Re–Os Re–Os

Molybdenite Molybdenite Molybdenite Molybdenite Molybdenite

Huang et al., 1996 Liu et al., 2009 Huang et al., 1996 Huang et al., 1996 Huang et al., 1996

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued)

E. margin

S. margin

No.

Deposit

Location

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

Huashi Huanggang Zhoutaizi Damiaoheishan Xiaojiayingzi Zabuqi Tiemahabaxin Cangshang Jiaojia

Chengde, Hebei Keerketengqi, Inner Mongolia Luanping, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Kazuo, Liaoning Ximen, Neimenggu Chengde, Hebei Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong

60 61

Wangershan Xincheng

Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong

62

Linglong

Zhaoyuan, Shandong

63 64

Denggezhuang Dongji

Yantai, Shandong Shandong

65

Pengjiakuang

Rushan, Shandong

Luxi

66 67 68 69

Dazhuangzi Rushan Wangjiazhuang Xiaoyao

Longkou, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Fushan, Shandong Yishui, Shandong

Pb–Zn Au

135.31 ± 0.85 2460 396 165.5 ± 4.6 337 ± 1.5 371 ± 11 121.3 ± 0.2 120.5 ± 0.6 120.1 ± 0.2 120.2 ± 0.2 120.6 ± 0.7 120.2 ± 0.3 120.9 ± 0.3 122 ± 11 123 ± 3 123 ± 4 117.5 116.1 ± 0.3 115.2 ± 0.2 118.4 ± 0.3 120.5 ± 0.5 117.5 ± 0.3 117.4 ± 0.6 118.6 ± 0.6 128–130 116 ± 20

Liaodong

70 71 72

Guilaizhuang Yinan Qingchegnzi

Pingyi, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Fengcheng, Liaoning

Fe Pb–Zn

188 ~ 178 133 ± 6.0 1500–1800

73

Zhangjiabaozi

Fengcheng, Liaoning

1640–1764

74 75 76

Lvjiabaozi Dongsheng Xiaoqinling

Fengcheng, Liaoning Xiuyan, Liaoning Henan Province

Yanshanian Yanshanian 128.5 ± 0.2 126.7 ± 0.2 128.3 ± 0.3 126.9 ± 0.3 128–143

Jiaodong

Xiaoqinling

77

Dongchuang

Lingbao, Henan

78 79 80 81 82

Xizaogou Shuidongling Banchang Dahu Au, Mo Quanjiayu

Ruyang, Henan Nanzhao, Henan Neixiang, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan

83 84 85

Majiawa Yechangping Jinduicheng

Henan Sanmenxia, Henan Huaxian, Shanxi

Xiong'ershan 86

Qiyugou

Songxian, Henan

87

Miaoling

Songxian, Henan

88 89 90 91

Xiasongping Shangzhuangping Nannihu Chitudian

Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan

92

Lengshuibeigou

Luanchuan, Henan

93 94

Huanglongpu Sandaozhuang Mo, Wu

Luonan, Henan Luoyang, Henan

95 96

Nannihu Shangfanggou

Luoyang, Henan Luoyang, Henan

Species Age/Ma

Method

Mineral

Reference

Fe

Re–Os U–Pb 40 Ar–39Ar Re–Os U–Pb 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar

Molybdenite Zircon Biotite Molybdenite Zircon Hornblende Sericite Sericite

Mao,2011 Xiang,2010 Zhou et al., 2012 Dai et al., 2007 Deng,2012 Li et al., 2012 Zhang et al., 2003 Li et al., 2003

40 40

Sericite Sericite

Mao et al.,2005 Mao et al.,2005

Rb–Sr

Pyrite

Yang and Zhou,2001

40

Quartz K-feldspar Quartz Quartz Quartz Biotite Quartz Phyllic

Zhao et al., 1993 Li et al., 2003

Au

Au

Pb–Zn

Mo

Au

Pb–Zn

Yanshanian 440–646 148.1 ± 1.6 223 ± 2.8–232.9 ± 2.7 129.1 ± 1.6, 130.8 ± 1.5 232.5 ~ 268.4 129 ± 7, 131 ± 4, 139 ± 3 122 ± 0.4 115 ± 2 125 ± 3 114 ± 4 134.1 ± 2.3 135.6 ± 5.6 121.6 ± 1.2 117.0 ± 1.6 129 ± 45 508–574 141.5 ± 7.8 Pt3 136.13 ± 0.44

Mo

221 144.5 145.0 145.4 141.8 143.8 145.8

± ± ± ± ± ±

2.2, 2.2, 2.0 2.1 2.1, 2.1

Ar–39Ar Ar–39Ar

Ar–39Ar Ar–39Ar

40

40

Ar–39Ar

40 Ar–39Ar Rb–Sr K–Ar LA-ICP-MS, U–Pb 40 Ar–40Ar Rb–Sr Pb–Pb model age Pb–Pb model age

Zhang et al., 2002

Zircon

Zhang et al., 2002 Zhang et al., 1995 Zhang et al., 2008 Li et al.,2009

Hornblende Biotite sulfide

Tan et al., 1993 Hu et al., 2012 Lv et al., 2004

sulfide

Qu et al., 1989

Biotite

Dai et al., 2005 Dai et al., 2005 Wang et al., 2002

Biotite

Wang et al.,2002

Pb age pattern 39 Ar–40Ar Re–Os Re–Os

ore K-feldspar Molybdenite Molybdenite

Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 1997; Nie et al., 2001 Yan et al., 2004 Wei et al., 2003 Li et al., 2008 Huang.2009 Li,2007

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Wang et al., 2010

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Huang,1994

40

39

K-feldspar

Wang et al., 2001

40

39

K-feldspar

Wang et al., 2001

LA-ICP-MS, U–Pb Re–Os 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar Rb–Sr Pb age pattern Re–Os

Zircon

Yao et al., 2009

Molybdenite K-feldspar K-feldspar Pyrite Ore Molybdenite

Yao et al., 2009 Zhai et al., 2012 Zhai et al., 2012 Pang et al., 2011 Chen et al., 2005 Ye et al., 2006 Yan et al., 2002; Dai et al., 2005

39 Ar–40Ar isochron Re–Os Re–Os

Quartz Molybdenite Molybdenite

Huang,1994 Mao et al., 2005

Re–Os Re–Os

Molybdenite Molybdenite

Mao et al., 2005 Mao et al., 2005

40

Ar–39Ar

40

Ar–39Ar

39

40

Ar– Ar

Ar– Ar Ar– Ar

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

387

Table 1 (continued)

Interior

Taihangshan

Hengshan

Wutaishan

Dabieshan

No.

Deposit

Location

97

Leimengou

Songxian, Henan

98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Huangshui'an Qiushuwan Nanzhaozhuang Lianbaling Nanzhaozhuang Yintonggou Dawan Cu, Mo Futuyu Mujicun Puziwan

Songxian, Henan Nanyang, Henan Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Wutai, Shanxi

108 109 110 111

Yixingzhai Shihu Dongyaozhuang Diangou

Fanshi, Shanxi Lingshou, Hebei Wutai, Shanxi Wutai, Shanxi

112 Xiaobanyu

Daixian, Shanxi

113 Yindongling

Tongbo, Henan

monzogranitic porphyry and granodioritic porphyry, dated at 279.9 ± 4.2 Ma by zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb method (Qing et al., 2012), are genetically related with the gold mineralization. An integrated porphyry metallogenic system consisting of porphyry, cryptoexplosive breccia, fracture altered and quartz vein type gold orebodies are recognized with the porphyry type as the dominant

Species Age/Ma 131.6 ± 2.0, 131.1 ± 1.9 209.5 ± 4.2 Pb–Zn

Method

Mineral

Reference

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Mao et al., 2005

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Huang.,2009

Yanshanian Yanshanian Yanshanian

Dai et al., 2005 Dai et al., 2005

Mo

Au

Au

Pb–Zn

144 ± 7

Re–Os

Molybdenite

Huang et al. 1996

142.9 ± 0.5 142.5 ± 0.5 130 140 2451 2456 ± 14 2416 ± 64 2333 ± 10 2317 ± 63 Pz2

40

Quartz

Luo et al., 1999

40

Quartz Quartz Molybdenite

Ye et al., Cao et al., 2012

Ar–39Ar

Ar–39Ar Ar–39Ar Re–Os 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40 Ar–39Ar 40

Yan et al., 2004

one (Qing et al., 2012). The alteration system associated with this deposit is remarkably similar to the classic porphyry deposits. Potassic and silicic alteration zone is developed at the contact zone between the porphyry and the volcano-sedimentary rocks, especially in the lower part of the inner contact zone, with K-feldspar, quartz, magnetite, rutile, barite and anhydrite as its mineralogical assemblage. A

Fig. 5. Regional geology and ore deposit distribution in the Wutaishan region (a) and the geology of the Dongyaozhuang gold deposit (b).

388 S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414 Fig. 6. Regional geology and ore deposit distribution in the Jiaodong region (a), geology of the Linglong gold field (b), vertical profile perpendicular to main gold-veins in the Linglong gold field (c) and vertical profile perpendicular to ore-controlling fault in the Jiaojia gold deposit (d) (modified after Li et al., 2007).

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

quartz–sericite zone is mainly developed at the inner and outer contact zones of the porphyry and the volcanic–sedimentary rocks and partially overprints the potassic and silica alteration zone, with quartz, sericite, calcite, and pyrite as its typical mineralogical assemblage. The propylitic zone is broadly distributed in the volcanic rocks with quartz, calcite, chlorite, epidote and pyrite as its main minerals. Kaolinite alteration locally overprints the potassic and silica zone and the quartz–sericite zone. The low-S, low-Mo, low-Cu and high-Au disseminated-veinlet orebodies are found mainly in the neighboring area of the contact zone. The lentiform orebody 1 in the ore belt II holds 90% of the gold resource with grades averaging 2.73 g/t and bears a bonanza with ca. 10 t of gold reserve with a gold grade >15 g/t (Qing et al., 2012). The orebodies are dominated by altered granodioritic porphyry ore, altered tuff and tuffaceous sandstone ore, and altered andesite ore with veinlet-disseminated mineralization style. The timing of the mineralization was constrained by molybdenite Re–Os method to be 272.7 ± 1.6 Ma (Qing et al., 2012). 3.3.1.3. The Cretaceous Linglong type. The Linglong-type quartz vein gold deposits are developed in the eastern and southern margins as well as the interior of the NCC. In the eastern margin of the NCC, the representatives are the Linglong, Jinqingding and Denggezhuang deposits in the Jiaodong region (Fig. 6a, b, c). In the southern margin of the NCC, the representatives are those in the Xiaoqingling region (Fig. 7a). In the interior of the NCC, Shihu and Yixingzhai deposits in the Taihang Mountains also belong to this type. All these deposits occur in regions with a Precambrian basement and Cretaceous intermediate-felsic intrusions. Their host rocks are Precambrian TTG rocks like those in the Taihang Mountains (Li et al., 2012, 2013), Precambrian metamorphic supracrustal rocks like those in the Xiaoqinling region (Luan et al., 1991), or the Cretaceous granitoids like those in the Jiaodong region (Chen et al., 1989, 1993, 2012; Li et al., 1996). The orebodies are prominantly controlled by vertical to sub-vertical faults with dip angles greater than 65° and show multiple structural features from transpression to transtension. Alteration zoning is recognized with a zone of broad K-feldspar (30–50 m) at the margins, followed towards the auriferous quartz vein by narrow quartz–sericite–pyrite (QSP) zone (b2 m) (Chen et al., 1989, 2012; Li et al., 1996, 2012, 2013; Luan et al., 1991). The hydrothermal mineralization phase can be divided into four main stages: pyrite–quartz, quartz–pyrite, poly-metallic sulfide and quartz–carbonate. The orebodies are dominated by ores of banded and massive structures with gold grade ranging from 3 to 20 g/t with an average of about 6–9 g/t. The ore minerals are mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, native gold, native silver, and various telluride minerals. 3.3.1.4. The Cretaceous Jiaojia type. The Jiaojia fracture-filling and altered type gold deposits are mostly developed in the north-western Jiaodong region in the eastern margin of the NCC (Fig. 6d). These types of gold deposits are also found in the Xiaoqingling region and the Luoning–Songxian region in the southern margin of the NCC. Their geological setting is more or less the same as that of the Linglong type. The orebodies generally exhibit low dip angles (b 45°). Broad K-feldspar zone (10–50 m) in the margins followed towards the main fault by broad quartz–sericite–pyrite (QSP) zone (2–40 m) (Chen et al., 1989). The ore is characterized by highly pyrite–microquartz– sericitized rocks superposed with pyrite–quartz, quartz–pyrite and polymetallic sulfide veinlets. The ore minerals are similar with those of the Linglong type gold deposits. 3.3.1.5. The Cretaceous Qiyugou type. The Qiyugou cryptoexplosive breccia gold deposits are developed in the Xiong'ershan region, southern margin of the NCC, the Wutai–Hengshan region, central NCC and the Luxi region, eastern margin of the NCC. The deposits in these areas occur within Precambrian basement or volcanics, or Paleozoic sediment rocks. In the Xiong'ershan area, three clusters of auriferous explosive

389

breccias are present with large gold reserve in the Archean Taihua Group of gneiss and the Proterozoic Xiong'er Group of meta-andesite in the southeast of the Cretaceous Huashan monzogranitic pluton. Among these, more than 15 breccia pipes were found in the northwesterly extending Qiyugou valley, eight of which are auriferous (Fig. 7b). The lentiform, tube-like or irregular orebodies are controlled by cryptoexplosive breccia pipes or belts (Fig. 7c). Within and surrounding the breccia pipes, the alteration zones are represented by: adularia–biotite–quartz in the core of the ore zone, and silica–chlorite at the margins of the pipe, followed by chlorite–epidote–actinolite–albite–calcite in the andesitic wall rocks. The ore-forming processes can be divided into an early oxide mineral stage represented by quartz, and an iron sulfide stage represented by pyrite, a middle polymetallic sulfide stage represented by chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite, and a late carbonate stage represented by calcite (Chen et al., 2009b; Li and Shao, 1991; Shao et al., 1992). 3.3.2. Molybdenum ore systems Porphyry and skarn types are the two most important molybdenum deposit types in the NCC, especially in the northern and southern margins of the NCC. In the north-western and northern Hebei Province within the central section of the northern margin of the NCC, the Cretaceous Jiajiaying deposit and the Triassic Shadaigoumen deposit are well known large-scale porphyry molybdenum deposits. The Cretaceous Dazhuangke deposit in Yanqing County, Beijing municipality, is a large scale cryptoexplosive type molybdenum deposit in the central section of the northern margin of the NCC. In the south-western Liaoning Province within the north-eastern margin of the NCC, are the Jurassic Lianjiagou and Gangtun porphyry molybdenum deposits. In the southern margin of the NCC, are the Nannihu large scale skarn-porphyry molybdenum deposits. Quartz vein or carbonate vein type molybdenum deposits were also found in the Luoning–Songxian area of the southern margin of the NCC but with small scale resources (Rui et al., 1994). 3.3.2.1. The Triassic Sadaigoumen type. The Sadaigoumen molybdenum deposit is located in the north of Fengning county, Hebei Province (Luo et al., 2010). It is one of the large scale molybdenum deposits in the Yan–Liao Mo (Cu) metallogenic zone along the northern margin of the NCC. The deposit is closely associated with the Triassic reddish monzogranite which occur within the Mesozoic grayish monzogranite and the Archean TTG gneiss. The outcrop of the reddish monzogranite occupies an area of about 0.9 km2. Geochemical studies revealed that the monzogranite is metaluminous high-K calc-alkaline I-type, LREE-enriched with weak Eu negative anomalies (δEu = 0.78). The monzogranite is depleted with Nb, Ta, P, Zr, and Ti and enriched with Rb, Th, K, and Ba. The formation pressure of the monzogranite was estimated to be 1.83 kbar, implying an emplacement depth of 6.78 km (Luo et al., 2010). Typical hydrothermal alteration zones of porphyry type occur with a potassic zone in the core, followed outward by quartz– sericite–pyrite and propylitic alteration zone. The Mo orebody extends for 700 m N–S and 960 m E–W, with vertical extension of 275 m and showing average Mo grade of 0.059% (Shen, 2011). The ore is characterized by veinlets of molybdenite, pyrite and chalcopyrite. The mineralization process can be divided into an early barren magnetite–quartz stage, a pyrite–molybdenite–quartz stage and a late barren fluorite– quartz–calcite stage. Re–Os isotopic dating of the molybdenite yielded an age of 237 ± 4.1 Ma for the mineralization (Shen, 2011). 3.3.2.2. The Jurassic Lanjiagou type. The Lanjiagou porphyry type molybdenum deposits are located in the southwest of Liaoning Province at the north-eastern margin of the NCC, and are closely associated with Yanshanian (189 Ma, Dai et al., 2008) magmatic rocks which intruded into the Mesoproterozoic dolomitic limestone and the Early Paleozoic limestone and shale. The intrusive rocks consist of, according to their order of formation, coarse grained granite (SiO2 71.89%, Na2O/K2O

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S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

0.96, DI 88.5, δEu 0.44, Mo 12.43 ppm), fine grained porphyritic granite (SiO2 76.09%, Na2O/K2O 0.82, DI 89.3, δEu 0.25, Mo 27.13 ppm) and granitic porphyry (SiO2 76.73%, Na2O/K2O 0.39, DI 94.6, δEu 0.11, Mo 56.67 ppm) (Rui et al., 1994). The thick tabular orebodies occur at the top and periphery of the fine grained porphyritic granite and are controlled by fractures and faults in the intrusive rocks. Ores of quartz vein type, quartz veinlet type, and fracture altered type are common with molybdenite and pyrite as the major ore minerals and sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, tetrahedrite, magnetite, argentite and native silver as the minor minerals. The gangue minerals are mainly K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, illite and calcite with minor rhodochrosite, siderite, chlorite and fluorite. K-feldspathization, greisenization (quartz–white mica), silicification, illitization and Fe–Mn carbonitization and chloritization are commonly close to the orebodies. The mineralization period can be divided into an early alteration sub-period, when K-feldspatic and greisen occurred, and a late sulfide sub-period, with three mineralization stages: the early stage characterized by quartz (326 °C) + molybdenite (317 °C) association; the middle stage characterized by quartz (295 °C) + molybdenite (295 °C) + pyrite (265 °C) + galena association; and the late stage characterized by quartz (235 °C) + molybdenite (212 °C) + illite association (Dai et al., 2007; Rui et al., 1994). 3.3.2.3. The Cretaceous Dazhuangke type. This deposit type includes the Dazhuangke and Dongjiagou explosive breccia type molybdenum deposits located at the junction of the E–W Yangyuan–Xifengkou–Jinzhou deep seated fault and the NNE–SSW Zhenglanqi–Fengning–Jurongguan deep seated fault at the northern margin of the NCC. Except for a few outcrops of the Mesoproterozoic carbonate rocks in the neighboring area, the deposits areas are mainly occupied by Late-Jurassic to Early Cretaceous intrusive and extrusive intermediate-felsic rocks. A few cryptoexplosive breccias of about 1200–1700 m length, 200–700 m width and >600 m vertical extension intruded into the quartz– monzonitic porphyry and dioritic porphyrite. The brecciated and hydrothermally altered quartz–monzonite porphyry was dated of 147 Ma, and the unaltered porphyritic monzogranite was dated of 139 Ma (K–Ar, Rui et al., 1994). The orebodies are tube-like or stratiform and occur within the explosive breccias. Molybdenite is the main ore mineral accompanied with rare magnetite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrite, ilmenite, and scheelite. The 2H1 molybdenite occurs as disseminations, fine stockwork, and as cementing material of the breccias with rhenium ranging from 13 to 18.6 ppm. Re–Os isochron dating of the ore constrained the timing of mineralization at 137.6 ± 3.7 Ma (Liu et al., 2012). The gangue minerals consist mainly of the rock-forming minerals of the breccias and the hydrothermal minerals with plagioclase, K-feldspar, quartz, biotite and hornblende as the major ones and zeolite, epidote, apatite, zoisite, fluorite and sericite occurring in subordinate amounts. A zone of potassic and silica alteration is developed within or nearby the molybdenum orebodies, bordered by a quartz–sericite–pyrite zone, and propylitization in the outermost zone. The ore forming process can be divided into three stages: molybdenite–magnetite–pyrrhotite–scheelite–K-feldspar–biotite (460–380 °C); molybdenite–quartz–K-feldspar–biotite (350–280 °C); and quartz–pyrite–carbonate–zeolite–molybdenite (250–150 °C). The salinities of the fluid inclusions are >20% NaCl equiv. and peak at 62% NaCl equiv. Daughter minerals in the polyphase fluid inclusions are halite, sylvite and molybdenite (Ma et al., 2008; Rui et al., 1994). 3.3.2.4. The Cretaceous Nannihu type. The Nannihu skarn–porphyry type Mo (W) is a super-large Mo (W) ore field located in the Luanchuan county, Henan Province at the southern margin of the NCC. This ore field includes the Nannihu porphyry type Mo (W), Sandaozhuang skarn type Mo (W), Shangfanggou porphyry type Mo (Fe) and Majuan, Shibaogou, Yuku, and Huangbeiling skarn or

391

porphyry type Mo deposits. The proven metal reserves exceed 2 Mt of Mo, 0.64 Mt of W, and 111 t of Re. The metal grades range from 0.06‰ to 0.24‰ for Mo and from 0.09‰ to 0.13‰ for W (Li et al., 2003). The deposits are closely associated with Yanshanian (Late Cretaceous) granitic stocks intruding the Neoproterozoic metamorphosed marine clastic and carbonate rocks of the Luanchuan Group. NNW to NW directed fractures are the major ore-controlling structures. The intrusive rocks evolved from granodiorite, monzogranite to granitic porphyry accompanied by mineralization, with Mo and W abundances several hundred times more than those of the average crustal values. The intrusive rocks are of high-K, alkaline-rich and highly acidic nature. The orebodies occur mostly in the contact zone of the intrusive rocks and in the strata-controlled skarn. Besides hornfelsization and skarnification in the contact zone and the weak strata of the carbonate rocks, broadly superposed typical porphyry type alterations are strongly developed in the intrusive rocks. The ore types are dominated by skarn (>50%), hornfels (~40%) and granitic porphyry (~10%) (Li et al., 2003). The metallogenic process is characterized by an early anhydrous skarn stage, hydrous skarn–magnetite– scheelite–molybdenite stage, middle quartz–molybdenite–pyrite– chalcopyrite–sphalerite stage, and late quartz–calcite–fluorite stage. Molybdenite Re–Os isotopes yielded model ages of ~142 Ma for the Nannihu Mo deposit, ~145 Ma for the Sandaozhuang Mo deposit and ~145 Ma for the Shangfanggou Mo deposit. A Re–Os isochron age of 142 Ma was obtained from 6 samples in the three deposits (Li et al., 2003). 3.3.3. Chaijiaying lead–zinc ore systems The Chaijiaying stringer lode type lead–zinc deposit surrounded by gold and molybdenum deposits in the well known Zhang–Xuan region (Fig. 8a), is located to the north of a NEE directed fault of about 100 km length at the central-northern margin of the NCC. The orebodies are controlled by a series of fractures directed NWW, NNE and SWW. The ore-hosting rocks are mainly Paleoproterozoic leptite, granulite and gneiss (Fig. 8b). Part of the host rocks includes Late Jurassic volcanic– sedimentary rocks. Small scale Yanshanian granitic porphyry and quartz porphyry (134 Ma, K–Ar, Rui et al., 1994) dikes and stocks are exposed in the mining area. Two types of ores, early chlorite–sphalerite and late sericite–polymetallic, are recognized. The chlorite–sphalerite type of ore is clustered and densely disseminated, and partially in veinlets, with numerous sphalerite, ferruginous sphalerite and aminor arsenopyrite and marcasite as well as galena, pyrrhotite and hematite. The sericite–polymetallic type of ore occurs as clustered, disseminated or in veinlets with galena, sphalerite and pyrite. The lead grade of the chlorite–sphalerite type of ore ranges from 0.01% to 0.2% with Pb/Zn ratios ranging from 1/18 to 1/100, whereas the lead grade of the sericite– polymetallic type of ore ranges from 0.3% to 4% with Pb/Zn ratios from 1/0.5 to 1/4. Apart from lead and zinc, silver of 10 to 100 g/t and gold of 0.02 to 1 g/t are also estimated. The hydrothermal alteration is characterized by a sericitic zone at the center of the orebody, followed with penetrative sericitic and chloritic alteration zones outwards. The decrepitation temperature of fluid inclusions in the metal minerals shows a range of 200 to 350 °C (Hu et al., 2005; Rui et al., 1994; Wang et al., 2003). 3.4. Mantle contribution 3.4.1. Northern margin of the NCC 3.4.1.1. Northwest of Hebei Province. The Zhang–Xuan (Zhangjiakou– Xuanhua) region, northwest of the Hebei Province, is host to a well known ore district with more than 100 deposits and occurrences of gold, molybdenum and lead–zinc (Wang et al. 2010). The Dongping,

Fig. 7. Regional geology and ore deposit distribution in the Xiaoqinling–Xiong'ershan region (a), geology of the Qiyugou gold deposit (b) and the vertical alteration–mineralization profile of the No.4 explosive breccia pipe (c). Panel a is modified after Luo et al. (2000) and panels b and c are after Shao et al. (1992).

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Fig. 8. Regional geology and ore deposit distribution in the northern margin of the NCC (a) and the geology of the Caijiaying lead–zinc deposit (b). Panel a is modified after Mao et al., 2005a. Panel b is modified from Wang et al., 2010).

the Xiaoyingpan and the Huangtuliang deposits are among the important gold resources in this area. The Chaijiaying lead–zinc–silver, the Xiangguang manganese–silver and the Jiajiaying molybdenum represent large scale polymetallic deposits. Most of the gold deposits occur within Archean metamorphic rocks and the Variscan alkaline complex, whereas most of the polymetallic deposits are found in the Proterozoic cover sequences and the Mesozoic basin. The δ 34S values for the sulfide minerals from the Jurassic gold deposits range from − 24 ‰ to + 5‰ with most of the values clustering between − 16‰ and − 6‰ (Table 2; Fig. 9). Gold deposits of Early Cretaceous age show δ 34S values ranging from − 16‰ to + 6‰ with most values clustering between − 13‰ and − 4‰ (Wang et al., 2010). The δ 34S measurement of 49 sulfide mineral separates from the Chaijiaying lead–zinc deposit yield values ranging from 2.2 to 7.8‰, with an average of 5.2‰. Most of the sulfides from the silver and molybdenum deposits show δ 34S values ranging from − 4‰ to + 8‰. The general trend in variation of the δ 34S values for the sulfide minerals is as follows: δ 34S py > δ 34S cpy > δ 34S sph > δ 34S gn (Wang et al., 2010), suggesting equilibrium sulfur isotopic fractionation during the ore forming process. The average δ 34S value of the sulfide minerals is consistent with the total δ 34S value of the ore-forming fluid. In hydrothermal systems at 250 °C, for an increase in logarithm unit of fO2 or a unit of pH value, the δ 34S value of sulfide

mineral would decrease by 20% (Ohmoto, 1972). Thus, the 32S-rich characteristics of the sulfide minerals in the northwest of the Hebei Province was interpreted to be the result of alkali metasomatism (Wang et al., 1992; Wang et al., 2010). Apart from the alkali metasomatism and K-feldspathization of the wallrocks of some of the gold deposits (the Hougou, Zhongshangou, Huangtuliang, Xiping, Beigou, Taogou, Zhaojiagou, Yujiazhuang, Xiashuangtai and Xialiangjiafang gold deposits, represented by the Dongping gold deposit) in this area, the gold mineralization itself is considered to be genetically related to the syenite. The quartz vein type and fracture-altered type gold deposits in the Jiaodong peninsula, are developed with strong K-feldspathization, but the δ 34S values of the sulfide minerals from the Jiaodong gold deposits range mainly from 5‰ to 10‰ which are predominantly rich in 34S. This implies that the δ 34S values of the sulfide minerals from the northwest of the Hebei Province mainly reflect the source characteristics which are not in favor of mantle origin. Although there is no marked difference in the sulfur isotopes between the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous gold deposits, the δ 34S values show a slight increase, suggesting that deeper sources might have been involved in the gold mineralization during Cretaceous. The sulfur isotope compositions of the sulfide minerals from the Mesozoic gold and polymetallic deposits in the northwest Hebei Province are comparable with those from the Wulashan gold field in the western

Table 2 Sulfur isotopic compositions of the ore deposits in the NCC. No.

Deposit

Location

Age/Ma

Type

S (‰) 34

N. margin

W portion

E. margin

Jiaodong

δ S

Range

2.6

−2.9–4.0

Houshihua Au

Bayannur, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia

3 4

Songshubei Au Donghuofang Au

Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia

−3.7 3.1

−3.3 to −4.1 2.6–3.7

5 6 7 8

Bayinhanggai Au Dayingzi Au Jinjiazhuang Au Dongping Au

Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Zhangbei, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei

−6.1 −0.5 1.9 −8.1

−8.3 to −0.5 –1.4–5.0 −5.5 to −13.5

9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5

Shuijingtun Au Zhongshangou Au Huangtuliang Au Hougou Au Haolaibao Au Wunuketushan Au Badaguan Au Huashi Au Dongzigou Au

Chongli, Hebei Chongli, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Hulun Buir, Inner Mongolia Hulun Buir, Inner Mongolia Chengde, Hebei Chengde, Hebei

−10.4 −16.1 −5.0 −10.4 4.6 2.8 2.6 3.7 1.3

−23.8 to −11.1 −1.6 to −7.4 −3.5 to −15.95 4.1–4.8 −0.2–4.2 0.5–4.8 3.0–4.3 −0.5–4.9

6 7 8 9 10

Xiajinbao Au Tianjiacun Au Malanguan Au Jinchangyu Au Yu'erya Au

Pingquan, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Qianxi, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei

11

Tangzhangzi Au

Kuancheng, Hebei

12 13 14 15 16

Huzhangzi Au Shapoyu Au Baimiaozi Au Sajingou Au Maoshan Au

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 1

2

1

Jiawula Au

2

−3.3

181.9 187 ± 0.3, 188 ± 0.4, 177.4 ± 5, 140.2 ± 1.3 155.47, 115.1 120.63 172.9 ± 5, 154.4 ± 1.3

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

Quartz vein Quartz vein

2.8 1.9 3.3 −1.8 2.7

1.1–6.7 −6.3–3.1 1.6–4.5

Breccia

2.9

0.7–5.7

Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Zunhua, Hebei

−11.3 2.6 3.3 1.9 6.4

−15.3 to −7.3

Niuxinshan Au Maojiadian Au Wangjiadagou Au Hongshi Au Erdaogou Au Jinchanggouliang Au Shuiquan Au Dongwujiazi Au Qinglonggou Au Jiaojia Au

Qinhuangdao, Hebei Lingyuan, Liaoning Qingyuan, Liaoning Yixian, Liaoning Beipiao, Liaoning Beipiao, Liaoning Beipiao, Liaoning Chaoyang, Liaoning Huludao, Liaoning Jiaodong, Shandong

5.5 −6.2 3.6 0.6 0.8

Linglong Au

Zhaoyuan, Shandong

2661, 2391, 2190 ± 58

0.3

120.5 ± 0.6, 120.1 ± 0.2, 120.2 ± 0.2

Fracture altered

122 ± 11, 123 ± 3, 123 ± 4

Quartz vein

0.4–7.4

5.2–8.3 4.3–6.3 2.1–6.1 −32.7–17.4 −2.2–5.1 −5.0–1.5 −7.6–1.9 1.9–3.1

7.7 10.3

7.8–11.8

15.7 5.8 6.9

7.9–11.8 2.9–8.2 4.5–8.5

Guan et al., 2004 Xu et al., 1998; Xu,1991 Xu et al., 1998 Xu et al., 1998; Xu et al., 1991 Chen et al., 2001 The third geological team of Heibei Province (1998), Wang etal, 1992; Jin and Dui,1991; Song et al., 1994; Peng et al., 1992; Wang et al., 2010; Bao et al., 1996;Yu et al., 1989

(continued on next page)

393

Wang et al., 2010 Guan et al., 2004 Guan et al., 2004 Wang et al., 2010; Niu et al., 2001 Wang et al., 2010; Yang et al., 1996; You Se Pu Cha Da Dui,1996 Shao et al., 1987;Luan et al., 1996 Wang et al., 2010 Song et al., 1994 Lin et al., 1985; Yu, 1989; Zhang, 1996 Chai et al., 1989; Song et al., 1994; Wang et al, 2010; Lin et al,1985; Zhang et al, 1996 Wang et al., 2010; Song et al., 1994; Niu et al., 2001 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Bai et al., 1990; Shao et al., 1987; Luan et al., 1996 Xu et al., 1987; Song et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2010 Yu et al., 2005 Yin et al., 1994 Xu et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2002 Li et al., 1990; Liu et al, 2002 Wang et al., 2009 Xu et al., 2010 Yao et al., 2004 Wang et al., 2001; Wang et al., 1991; Ding et al., 1998; Lin et al., 1999; Wen et al., 1990; Yao et al., 1990 Cui et al., 2012 Wang et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2000; Yang et al., 1998; Guan et al., 1997; Yao et al,1990; Liu et al,1987; Wen et al, 1990

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

E portion

Ref.

394

Table 2 (continued) No.

Deposit

Location

Age/Ma

118.4 ± 0.3, 120.5 ± 0.5, 117.5 ± 0.3

Type

S (‰)

Ref. Range

Strata-bound

11.2

9.7–11.5

Fracture-altered Strata-bound Strata-bound Quartz vein Strata-bound

7.4–8.0

Fracture-altered

7.8 10.6 5.5 9.7 13.1 5.7 7.1

Quartz vein

4.9

1.4–8.6

Quartz vein Quartz vein

7.8 7.4

6.7–10.0

7.4 5.9 6.2 7.0

7.0–7.9

3

Pengjiakuang Au

Jiaodong, Shandong

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Xiadian Au Dazhuangzi Au Dujiaya Au Denggezhuang Au Fayunkuang Au Penglai–Qixia Au Yigezhuang Au

Zhaoyuan, Shandong Longkou, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

12

Majiayao

Qixia, Shandong

13 14

Wang'ershan Au Lingshangou Au

Laizhou, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

15 16 17 18

Liukou Au Bailidian Au Panzijian Au Fushan Au

Qixia, Shandong Qixia, Shandong Qixia, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz

19 20 21

Jinchiling Au Taishang Au Qibaoshan Au

Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Wulian, Shandong

Quartz vein Fracture-altered

4.0 8.0 2.5

22 23 24 25

Hexi Au Congjia Au Daliujia Au Jiudian Au

Penglai, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Qixia, Shandong Pingdu, Shandong

Fracture-altered

8.2 0.3 −9.5 7.6

7.4–8.8 −5.7–6.3 −9.7–9.3 4.9–9.3

26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Xincheng Au Sanshandao Au Cangshang Au Cangshang Au Dongji Au Longbu Au Matang Au

Laizhou, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong

7.9–10.7 10.0–12.6 9.6–12.0

Fracture-altered

9.5 11.5 10.8 11.6 11.3 9.8 9.4

33 34

Hongbu Au Hexijin Au

Laizhou, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

8.9 8.0

4.8–10.9

35 36 37 38 39 40

Jiehe Au Shangzhuang Au Wangjiagou Au Hedong Au Fujia Au Wasunjia Au

Jiaodong, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

9.4 9.9 9.2 10.3 10.1 4.8

8.7–10.3 9.1–10.5

117.4 ± 0.6 117.5

120.6 ± 0.7

vein vein vein vein

Quartz vein 120.2 ± 0.3, 120.9 ± 0.3 121.3 ± 0.2

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

116.1 ± 0.3, 115.2 ± 0.2

Fracture-altered

−14.0–15.1 8.0–10.8 −14.2–9.9 5.9–8.9

5.6–10.7

9.3–10.8 −0.2–6.8

Sun et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 1999; Zhao et al,2000; Zhang et al,2001; Chen et al,1997; Chen et al., 1989; Deng et al., 2000 Zhang et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 1999 Yan et al., 2012 Ying et al., 1994; Yang et al., 2000 Zhang et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2002 Huang et al., 1994; Chen et al., 1989; Deng et al., 2000 Chen et al, 1989; Wang et al, 2002; Li et al., 1990 Wang et al., 2002 Wang et al., 2002; Lin et al., 1999; Yao et al, 1990 Chen et al., 1989 Wang et al., 2002 Wang et al., 2002; Yao et al., 1990 Wang et al., 2002; Lin et al., 1999; Yao et al,1990 Wang et al., 2002; Yao et al., 1990 Chen et al., 1989; Deng et al., 2000 Qiu et al., 1996; Chen et al., 1992; Wang et al., 1991 Hou et al., 2004 Wen et a,1990 Yao et al., 1990 Wang et al., 1982; Lin et al., 1990; Qiu et al., 1988 Wang et al., 2002; Yao et al., 1990 Wang et al., 2002 Huang et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2002 Huang et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2002 Huang et al., 1994; Wang et al., 2002 Huang et al., 1994 Huang et al., 1994; Wang et al., 2002; Hou et al., 2004 Wang et al., 2002

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

δ34S

S. margin

Xiaoqinling

Xiong'ershan

Qiansunjia Au Huangbuling Au Beijie Au Longhudou Au Luanjiahe Au Dongqujia Au Caogoutou Au Caojiawa Au Jianli Au Chijia Au Tengjia Au Chengkuo Au Nanshu Au Xilin Au Lingnan (Taishang) Au Heilangou Au Jinqingding Au Dayigezhuang Au Canzhuang Au Lingqueshan Au Jinchang Au Buwa Au Guilaizhuang Au Mofanggou Au Jinlongshan Au Qiuling Au Xiong'ershan Au Dongtongyu Au Xitongyu Au Chengjiagou Au Bayuan Au Tongyu Au Wenyu Au Dongchuang Au Jindongcha Au Yangzhaiyu Au Lianggancha Au Qiangmayu Au Linghu Au Dahu Au Tonggou Au Shenjiayao Au Bankuan Au Hongtuling Au Qianhe Au Xiaonangou Au Qiyugou Au

Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Pingdu, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Rongcheng, Shandong

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

Laixi, Shandong Qixia, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Penglai, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Mengyin, Shandong Pingyi, Shandong Pingyi, Shandong Zhen'an, Shaanxi Zhen'an, Shaanxi Shangluo, Shaanxi Tongguan, Shaanxi Province Tongguan, Shaanxi Tongguan, Shaanxi Lam Tin, Shaanxi Tongguan, Shaanxi Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Shanxian, Henan Yingxian, Henan Lingbao, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan

Fracture-altered

Fracture-altered Quartz vein Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz vein

188–178

Fracture-altered Explosive-breccia Explosive-breccia

Quartz vein

132.16 ± 2.64, 132.55 ± 2.65 113.72 ± 2.27, 114.26 ± 2.29

122 ± 0.4, 115 ± 2, 125 ± 3, 114 ± 4, 134.1 ± 2.3, 135.6 ± 5.6

Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Fracture-altered Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Fracture-altered Explosive-breccia

5.3 7.8 9.1 6.8 2.4 4.9 6.3 7.0 8.4 3.7 5.8 3.7 6.7 6.9 8.0 6.7 8.6 6.4 6.8 7.8 2.8 2.4 9.5 15.3 2.4 6.5 −7.7 −6.1 3.7 2.7 3.0 1.1 −0.9 2.4 0.6 5.7 1.8 −3.3 −4.7 3.6 2.0 0.5 −13.3 −13.1 −0.8

7.0–8.8 7.6–9.7 −1.3–6.0

5.8–7.8 6.8–9.7 5.9–7.0 5.3–7.6 1.9–3.5 2.1–4.1 2.0–3.0 −0.7–3.0 −4.2–19.8 11.1–19.8 −5.0–5.0 3.5–12.9 −11.4 to −0.2 −9.3 to −2.4 2.3–4.6 −8.7–5.7 5.4–6.6 −2.8–5.8 −12.5–8.2 −14.7–7.1 −7.6–5.5 −0.7–9.2 −8.7–15.3 −8.1–1.3 −28.5–3.6 0.4–5.9 −12.1–8.5 −2.8–2.7 −11.9 to −14.6 −16.6 to −9.5 −3.5–1.7

Chen et al., 1989 Chen et al., 1989 Chen et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2012 Yan et al., 2012 Zhen et al., 2006 Qiu et al., 1996 Zang et al., 1998 Liu et al., 1994 Hu et al., 2004 Lv et al., 2012 Shen et al., 1996 Lu et al., 2003; Chen et al., 1995 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Yu et al., 1989 Xu et al., 1992 Fan et al., 2012 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Li et al., 1999 Zhu et al., 1998 Wang et al., 1996

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Luxi

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3

(continued on next page)

395

396

Table 2 (continued) No.

Interior

Taihangshan

Wutaishan

Hengshan

Other

W. margin

Location

Pasigou Au Xiaogongyu Au Huanxiangwa Au Dianfang Au Yaogou Au Beiling Au Shagou–Yuelianggou Au Songpinggou Au Jinjiawan Au Qinggangping Au Hugou Au Qiliping Au Tieluping Au Shanggong Au Hongzhuang Au Kangshanxingxingyin Au Laowan Au Baguamiao Au Linxiang Au Shihu Au Qiubudong Au Xishimen Au Jiujizhuang Au Luanmuchang Au Konggezhuang Au Chounikou Au Beiyingxigou Ag, Pb, Zn Qitu Au Diantou Au Dongyaozhuang Au

Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan Luoning, Henan Luoning, Henan Luoning, Henan Luoning, Henan Luoning, Henan Luoning, Henan Luoning, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Tongbai, Henan Fengxian, Henan Xunyang, Henan Lingshou, Hebei Pingshan, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei North Taihangshan Yixian, Hebei Yixian, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Wutai, Shanxi Wutai, Shanxi Wutai, Shanxi

Xiaobanyu Au Yixingzhai Au

Wutai, Shanxi Fanshi, Shanxi

7 1

Majiacha Au Gengzhuang Au

Fanshi, Shanxi Fanshi, Shanxi

2 3 4 5

Tainashui Au Lugou Au Hulishan Au Gaofan Au

Lingqiu, Shanxi Lingqiu, Shanxi Yuanping, Shanxi Daixian, Shanxi

6 7 1

Xishandi Au Diaoquan Ag, Au, Cu Puziwan Au

Yuanping, Shanxi Lingqiu, Shanxi Yanggao, Shanxi

2

Dongfengding Au

Xiangfen, Shanxi

1 2

Niutougou Au Jinchangzi Au

Shizhuishan, Ningxia Zhongwei, Ningxia

Age/Ma

Type

S (‰) Range

−0.4

−2.0–2.7 4.9–8.4 −1.0–2.1 −16.8–0.6 −6.4–9.2 −9.7–1.8 −10.2 to −0.6 −8.1–6.1 −9.4–9.8 −10.9 to −9.1 −8.7–4.2 −28.2–7.9 8.5–10.7 −8.8 to −1.4 −19.2–6.7 −2.2–7.6 −7.4–7.3 −0.1–5.3 7.4–15.4 14.0–18.2 −0.4–3.0

2456 ± 14, 2416 ± 64

−9.1 4.8 −4.3 −6.8 0.7 1.5 −10.0 −1.1 −10.1 9.4 −5.0 −8.4 4.0 4.1 4.0 10.7 16.0 2.4 4.4 0.6 2.3 0.7 6.1 1.6 −4.5 2.9 4.2

2333 ± 10, 2317 ± 63 131.4 ± 1.3

Quartz vein

2.7 −0.1 1.4

Explosive-breccia

3.2 2.5 0.5 2.5

Explosive-breccia Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz vein Fracture-altered

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz vein Fracture-altered Quartz vein 132, 121.08, 119.93

Quartz vein

Quartz vein

142.9 ± 0.5, 142.5 ± 1.5

Skarn Explosive-breccia

Fracture-altered

Ref.

δ34S

3.9 0.2 −0.1 0.3 1.5 0.7 3.7 3.4 −0.1 3.9 0.0 4.2 6.9 −1.0

−0.3–1.4 1.7–5.0 0.3–1.1 4.3–7.2 −11.4–2.2 2.3–3.6 3.9–4.6 1.0–2.4 1.0–5.7 −0.2–0.1 −2.1–3.4 −0.9–4.4 −0.8–5.6 2.0–3.0 −8.1–2.4 0.2–3.7 0.5–3.6 1.6–4.5 −4.2–2.7 −3.7–5.6 −3.3–2.7 −5.4–3.5 0.5–5.7 −3.2–5.3 2.2–5.2 −3.2–1.5 2.7–5.7 −1.9–29.4 −9.4–5.7 4.9–6.8 3.8–6.7

Shao et al., 1996 Xu et al., 2005 Guo et al., 2008 Gao et al., 2010 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Lu et al., 2004 Chen et al., 2009 Wu et al., 1999 Zou et al., 2001 Ao et al., 2009 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Geng et al., 1997 Chen et al., 1990 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2012 Yang et al., 2001 Tian et al., 1991 Tian et al., 2000 Tian et al., 1998 Wang et al., 1996 Luo et al., 2009 Jing et al., 1992 Tian et al., 1991 Zhang et al., 2009 Tian et al., 1991 Huang et al., 2004 Li et al., 1988 Li et al., 1994 Tian et al., 1991 Tian et al., 1991 Chang et al., 1998 Tian et al., 1991 Gao et al., 2004 Yang et al., 2001 Li et al., 1994 Cao et al., 2000 Long et al., 2011 Zhang et al., 2001 Yao et al., 2004 Wang et al., 2009 Zeng et al., 1991 Li et al., 2010 Zhou et al., 1993; Zhong et al., 2012

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Other

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

Deposit

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

397

Fig. 9. Sulfur isotopic composition histograms of sulfide minerals from the ore deposits in the NCC.

Baotou area within the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region along the north-western margin of the NCC, where the gold deposits yield δ 34S values ranging from − 7.9‰ to − 18.4‰ with an average of − 14.98‰ (Wei et al., 1993). The lead isotopes of the Jurassic to Cretaceous gold, silver and lead–zinc deposits in the northwest of Hebei Province show a relatively large variation with 207Pb/ 204Pb ranging from 15.13 to 15.54. 206 Pb/ 204Pb and 208Pb/ 204Pb values show limited ranges of 16.31– 17.64 and 36.22–37.72, respectively (Table 3; Fig. 10). Plotting of the data on the Zartman's diagrams suggests that lead of the ores was derived from multiple sources including mantle and the lower as well as upper crust, although most of the data plot in the orogenic field. Source tracing with silicon isotope systematics has also been attempted. Molini-Velsko et al. (1986) obtained the isotopic composition of silicon in meteorites which shows a δ 30Si range of − 1.8‰ to 0.3‰ with an average of − 0.5‰. Ding and Jiang (1994) compared the silicon isotopic composition of the granites from China and North America, which show δ 30Si values ranging from − 0.4‰ to 0.4‰, peaking at − 0.1‰, and with an average of − 0.12‰. Analyses of 23 siliceous sediment samples from the black chimney in the Mariana trench yielded δ 30Si values ranging from − 0.4‰ to 3.1‰ averaging − 1.6‰ (Wu, 1995). Analyses of 27 quartz, intrusive rocks and gneiss samples from the northwest of Hebei Province yielded δ 30Si values of − 0.2‰ to 0.3‰ with an average − 0.05‰ for the ore-bearing quartz vein (Table 4; Wang et al., 2010; Lu and Wang, 1992; Yin, 1995), − 0.3‰ to 0.4‰ with an average of 0.05‰ for the intrusive rocks, and 0.6‰ for an Archean gneiss sample (Lu and Wang, 1992). The δ 30Si data of the quartz and intrusive rocks from the study area are consistent with those of the granitoids in China and elsewhere. The δ 30Si data of the quartz from the study area are also within the δ 30Si range of the meteorite, implying that at least part of the silicon was derived from magmas sourced from the mantle. Since only one analysis is available for the Archean gneiss, its contribution to the hydrothermal silicon cannot be excluded. The mean values of the hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of fluids trapped in the quartz from various ore deposits in the northwest of

Hebei Province show a relatively large range with δ 18Osmow varying from 4.9‰ to 18.77‰, δ 18OH2O from −3.14‰ to 7.31‰, and δDsmow from − 109.5‰ to − 80.5‰ (Table 5). The oxygen isotopic compositions of the fluid δ 18OH2O were calculated from that of quartz δ 18OSMOW with the equation 1000lnαQ–W = 3.38 × 10 6T −2 − 3.40 (Clayton et al., 1972), where T represents the homogenisation temperature of fluid inclusions. It is noted that the δDSMOW values are markedly lower than that of the typical metamorphic water (− 65‰ to − 20‰, Hugh and Taylor, 1974). In the δD versus δ 18O diagram for fluids from various ore deposits in the northwest of Hebei Province (Fig. 11), all the plots fall below the primary magmatic water and shift slightly towards the region for meteoric water, suggesting that magmatism played an important role in the mineralization (Hugh and Taylor, 1974). The δ13CPDB data of the carbonate minerals from the ore deposits in the northwest of Hebei Province range between −6.0‰ and −2.5‰ (Table 5). The δ13CPDB value of mantle carbon is around −5‰ and that of magmatic carbon is within the range of −9‰ to −3‰ (Taylor and Bucher-Nurminen, 1986). The carbon from sedimentary carbonate rocks or from the interaction between brine and argillite is characterized by heavy carbon isotope with the δ13CPDB values in the range of −2‰ to +3‰; the δ13CPDB data of marine carbonate rocks are ca. 0‰ (Veizer et al., 1980). Organic carbon is characterized by lighter carbon enrichment with δ 13CPDB values varying from −30‰ to −15‰ and an average of −22‰ (Ohmoto, 1972). Comparing the δ13CPDB data from different sources, the carbon isotope values reported from the ore deposits in the northwest of Hebei Province is close to those mantle-derived magmatic sources. Wang et al. (2010) measured the helium and argon isotopic compositions of 23 pyrite, galena, sphalerite, and quartz samples from underground levels of 10 gold, silver, and lead–zinc deposits and 2 granite samples from the Dongping gold field in the northwest of Hebei Province (Table 6). The 3He/ 4He values of the sulfide minerals and quartz are in the range of 0.38 × 10 −6 to 9.47 × 10 −6 (0.27Ra to 6.81Ra, where Ra is the 3He/ 4He ratio of air = 1.39 × 10 −6), much higher than those of the granite samples (0.007 × 10 −6 to 0.008 × 10 −6, 0.005 Ra–0.006 Ra). With the equation formulated by

398

Table 3 Lead isotopic compositions of the ore deposits in the NCC. No.

Deposit

Location

Age/Ma

Type

Pb 206

N.margin

W-M.portion

Au

E.portion

Mo Au

Mo E. margin

Jiaodong

Au

Ulantolgoi Saiwusu Wulashan Shibaqinghao Houshihua Donghuofang Bayinhanggai Bainaimiao Xiaoyingpan Dongping

Bayannao'er, Inner Mongolia Baotou, Inner Mongolia Baotou, Inner Mongolia Guyang, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Zhangjiakou, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei

Porphyry

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Hanjiagou Shuijingtun Zhongshangou Huangshanliang Hougou Wunugetushan Caijiaying Yueshanyin Laochang Yangshugou Reshui Anjiayingzi Xiajinbao Tianjiacun Jinchangyu Yuerya Tangzhangzi Huzhangzi Shapoyu Baimiaozi Maoshan

Zhangjiakou, Hebei Chongli, Hebei Chongli, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Xin Barag Yougi, Inner Mongolia Caijiaying, Hebei Lujiang, anhui Laochang, shanxi Fengning, Hebei Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Pingquan, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Qianxi, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Zunhua, Hebei

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Qingheyan Xiazhangzi Niuxinshan Erdaogou Jinchanggouliang Hadamengou Huashi Jiaojia

Chinhuangtao, Hebei Chinhuangtao, Hebei Chinhuangtao, Hebei Chinhuangtao, Hebei Chinhuangtao, Hebei Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chengde, Hebei Northern Shandong, Shandong

179.5 105.4 175.8 ± 3.1 140.6 ± 2.8 125.5 239.76 ± 3.04 120.1 ± 0.2

40

Linglong

Zhaoyuan, Shandong

123 ± 3

300 180 177.4 ± 5

120 230 172.9 ± 5 178.1 ± 0.6

Pb/204 Pb

208

Pb/204 Pb

18.48 16.84 17.69 17.93 17.09 18.93 18.11 18.72 17.39 17.64

15.66 15.39 15.59 15.57 15.56 16.01 15.55 15.57 15.43 15.47

38.33 37.24 38.11 38.66 37.58 39.73 38.11 38.67 37.46 37.43

17.33 17.18 17.30 17.38 17.54 18.38 16.74 18.20 17.98 16.05 17.59 17.20 16.30 16.35 15.88 15.86 16.16 16.25 14.99 16.30 16.13

15.35 15.39 15.46 15.39 15.38 15.53 15.40 15.63 15.54 15.17 15.46 15.42 15.14 15.27 15.26 15.16 15.41 15.22 14.96 15.30 15.23

37.34 37.10 37.26 37.19 37.39 38.11 37.52 38.53 37.98 37.03 37.84 37.44 36.03 36.70 35.87 35.68 36.79 36.23 34.83 36.49 36.13

Fracture-altered

16.17 16.50 16.06 17.58 17.04 17.08 15.83 17.25

15.06 15.24 15.26 15.76 15.46 15.38 15.19 15.43

35.95 36.30 36.15 38.91 36.93 37.06 35.92 37.82

Quartz-vein

17.31

15.49

37.95

230 277 ± 1.73 237

207

Ductile shear zone Far contact zone Contact zone Fracture-altered

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

160 120 155.73

Far contact zone Contact zone

230 180 180

Disseminated quartz-vein Quartz-vein Cryptoexplosive breccia

Qiu et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2010 Xu et al., 1991 Xu et al., 1991 Shi et al., 1993 Xu et al., 1998 Yang et al., 2001 Li et al., 2003 The third Geological Team of Hebei,1998; Wang et al., 1992;Song et al., 1994; Peng et al., 1992;Wang et al., 2010 Xu et al., 1998;Xu et al., 1991 The third Geological Team of Hebei,1998; Wang et al., 1992;Song et al., 1994; Peng et al., 1992;Wang et al., 2010 Tan et al., 2011 Huang et al., 1997 Cha et al., 2002 Xu et al., 2009 Wang et al., 2010 Liu et al., 1991 Ye et al., 1997 Wang et al., 2000 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010;Zhang et al., 1996; Wang et al., 2010;Zhen et al., 1988 Niu et al., 2001 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2011 Wang et al., 2012 Bai et al., 1990;Shao et al., 1987; Luan et al., 1996 Li et al., 1997 Yao et al., 2004 Wang et al., 2010;Yang et al., 1996

Hou et al., 2011 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2001; Wang et al., 1991; Ding et al., 1998;Lin et al., 1999; Wen et al., 1990;Yao et al., 1990 Wang et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2000; Yang et al., 1998; Guan et al., 1997; Yao et al., 1990;Liu et al., 1987; Wen et al., 1990

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Cu Pb–Zn

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ref. Pb/204 Pb

S. margin

Xiaoqinling

Au

Fe Au

Mo Xiong'ershan

Au

Dujiaya

Northern Shandong, Shandong

129

Strata-bound

19.95

15.85

43.04

42 43 44 45

Hexi Fayunkuang Denggezhuang Xiadian

Penglai, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Northern Shandong, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong

120 120 117.5 120

Fracture-altered Strata-bound Quartz-vein Fracture-altered

17.42 17.16 17.16 16.79

15.54 15.42 15.46 15.31

38.26 37.65 35.03 37.08

46 47 48 49 50 51

Yigezhuang Lingshangou Fushan Jinchiling Taishang Dayingezhuang

Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Northern Shandong, Shandong

120 120 120–80 120 118.5

Fracture-altered Quartz-vein Quartz-vein Quartz-vein Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

16.95 17.33 17.50 17.13 17.70 17.33

15.52 15.47 15.52 15.35 15.80 15.52

38.39 37.88 38.08 37.54 38.94 38.13

52 53 54 55 56 57

Canzhuang Xincheng Majiayao Liukou Panzijian Jinguanding

Northern Shandong, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Qixia County, Shandong Qixia County, Shandong Qixia County, Shandong Qixia County, Shandong

120 120 125 71.86 120

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz-vein Quartz-vein Quartz-vein Quartz-vein

17.29 17.75 16.56 16.55 16.17 16.92

15.48 15.37 15.24 15.33 15.16 15.31

37.92 37.58 37.07 37.66 36.82 37.28

58 59

Daliujia Jiudian

Qixia County, Shandong Pingdu, Shandong

120 120

Quartz-vein

16.75 17.59

15.32 15.74

37.30 38.57

60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

Pengjiakuang Congjia Dazhuangzi Qibaoshan Jinqingding Xinanyu Yuejiazhuang Yinan Tongjing Yinan Jinlongshan Qiuling Xiongershan Xiajiadian Tongyu Wenyu Dongchuang Jingduicheng

Northern Shandong, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Longkou, Shandong Wulian, Shandong Northern Shandong, Shandong Taian, Shandong Xintai, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Zhenan county, Shanglou, Shaanxi Zhenan county, Shanglou, Shaanxi Shanglou, Shaanxi Shanyang county, Shanglou, Shaanxi Tongguan County, Weinan, Shaanxi Lingbao County, Henan Lingbao County, Henan Huaxian, Shaanxi

120.5 ± 0.5 120 120 120 120

17.11 17.21 17.28 16.97 17.02 18.88 21.63 18.84 17.44 19.25 18.35 18.27 17.57 18.41 17.25 17.18 17.02 17.13

15.42 15.41 15.52 15.37 15.48 15.54 16.08 15.56 15.50 15.69 15.68 15.68 15.50 15.58 15.57 15.58 15.36 15.35

37.63 37.92 37.95 37.16 37.55 39.02 47.52 42.59 37.52 39.13 38.44 38.44 37.94 38.29 38.02 38.33 37.41 38.36

78 79

Qianhe Xiaonangou

Songxian, Henan Songxian, Henan

17.94 17.08

15.56 15.44

37.84 37.67

120 120 133 ± 6.0 230 120

120 120 131 ± 4 127

Strata-bound Fracture-altered Explosive-breccia Quartz-vein Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Skarn Skarn Skarn Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz-vein Carlin Quartz-vein Quartz-vein Quartz-vein

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

Sun et al., 1995; Wang et al., 1999; Zhao et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2001; Chen et al., 1997; Ying et al., 1994;Yang et al., 2000 Wen et al., 1990 Wang et al., 2002 Chen et al., 1989; Wang et al., 2002; Li et al., 1990 Zhang et al., 2002;Zhu et al., 1999 Lin et al., 1990 Chen et al., 1989 Wang et al., 2002;Yao et al., 1990 Chen et al., 1989;Deng et al., 2000 Qiu et al., 1996;Chen et al., 1992; Wang et al., 1991 Zhen et al., 2006 Wang et al., 2002 Wang et al., 2002 Wang et al., 2002 Wang et al., 2002; Lin et al., 1999; Yao et al., 1990 Yao et al., 1990; Wang et al., 1982; Lin et al., 1990; Yuan et al., 1988 Wang et al., 2002; Yao et al., 1990 Chen et al., 1989; Deng et al., 2000 Yao et al., 1990; Li et al., 1990 Ying et al., 1994 Hou et al., 2004 Zhang et al., 1999 Zhang et al., 1999 Hu et al., 2004 Li et al., 2010 Hu et al., 2010;Qiu et al., 1996 Lv et al., 2012 Shen et al., 1996 Lu et al., 2003:Chen et al., 1995 Zhou et al., 2004 Yu et al., 1989 Xu et al., 1992 Fan et al., 2012 Taylor et al., 1986; Li et al., 1984; Guo et al., 2009 Zhang et al., 2003 Shao et al., 1996

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Luxi

41

(continued on next page)

399

400

Table 3 (continued) No.

Deposit

Location

Age/Ma

Type

Pb 206

Pb–Zn

Interior

Others Taihangshan

Au Au

Cu Fe

Mo

Wutaishan

Au

Hengshan

Au

Others

Au

Jinchangzi Huachanggou Ganshuao Hugou Yaogou Dianfang Hongzhuang Pasigou Xiasongping Shanggong Kangshan Laowan Yangshuao Lengshuibeigou Xigou Sandaozhuang Nannihu

Songxian Henan

Luoning, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Tongbai, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan

97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Shangfanggou Qiushuwan Linxiang Konggezhuang Jiujizhuang Shihu Xishimen Chounizhuang Mujicun Fushan

Luanchuan, Henan Nanyang, Henan Xunyang, Shaanxi North of Yi County, Hebei North of Yi County, Hebei Lingshou County, Hebei Middle of Taihang Mountains Middle of Taihang Mountains Laiyuan, Hebei Wuan, Hebei

107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127

Jiazhuang Baishabei Beiandong Hongshan Pingshun Jiulongshan Dawan Yindonggou Futuyu Mujicun Qitu Yixingzhai Shangyanghua Majiacha Chakou Xiaozhongzui Gengzhuang Tainashui Diaoquan Puziwan Dongfengding

Shahe, Hebei Wuan, Hebei Wuan, Hebei Wuan, Hebei Changzhi, Shanxi Shunping, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Lingshou County, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Wutai County, Shanxi Fanshi, Shanxi Fanshi, Shanxi Fanshi, Shanxi Fanshi, Shanxi

Songxian, Songxian, Songxian, Songxian, Songxian, Songxian,

180 230

Henan Henan Henan Henan Henan Henan

Fanshi, Shanxi Lingqiu, Shanxi Lingqiu, Shanxi Yanggao, Shanxi Xiangfen, Shanxi

129 ± 45 242

Fracture-altered

120

Fracture-altered

145.0 ± 2.2 141.8 ± 2.1

Porphyry Porphyry

145.8 ± 2.1

Porphyry

121 122 140 135.1 120 142.5 ± 1.4 128.8 ± 1.9

Skarn

144 ± 7

Skarn Skarn Skarn Skarn Skarn Skarn Porphyry–Skarn

182.9 130

Skarn Porphyry Strata-bound Quartz-vein

180

Explosive breccia

120 120 120

Skarn Explosive breccia

Quartz-vein

207

Pb/204 Pb

208

Pb/204 Pb

18.20 18.20 17.14 17.23 17.26 17.06 17.28 17.13 17.47 17.12 17.77 18.05 17.58 17.69 17.29 17.53 17.57

15.55 15.50 15.40 15.47 15.40 15.37 15.38 15.44 15.51 15.41 15.51 15.50 15.49 15.55 15.35 15.48 15.48

38.04 38.20 37.72 37.63 37.55 37.50 37.77 38.06 38.21 37.63 38.19 38.55 38.38 38.57 38.74 38.36 38.22

17.12 17.78 18.33 17.05 16.73 16.34 16.30 16.02 16.51 17.25

15.23 15.45 15.75 15.24 15.31 15.33 15.23 15.17 15.26 15.39

37.57 37.64 38.70 37.26 37.42 37.44 37.26 36.88 36.60 37.34

17.80 17.77 17.71 17.71 18.30 17.85 16.63 18.32 15.92 36.29 19.31 16.72 19.15 16.71 16.56 15.09 17.34 16.73 17.11 16.92 18.33

15.42 15.48 15.46 15.45 15.55 15.40 15.26 15.65 15.31 15.20 15.57 15.31 15.71 15.25 15.28 15.07 15.35 15.33 15.36 15.41 15.58

37.92 38.02 28.05 37.76 37.94 37.76 36.87 38.74 37.01 36.29 37.68 36.83 39.34 36.77 36.66 34.99 37.88 36.82 37.28 36.96 38.85

Chen et al., 1992 Chen et al., 1996 Fan et al., 1994 Ren et al., 1993 Yan et al., 2005 Xu et al., 2005 Pang et al., 2011 Chen et al., 1996 Zhu et al., 1998 Lu et al., 2002 Lu et al., 2002 Wen et al., 1996 Luo et al., 1991 Xu et al., 1999;Zhou et al., 1993; Zhang et al., 1987;Li et al., 1994; Luo et al., 1991 Luo et al., 1991 Zhu et al., 1998 Zou et al., 2001 The Taihang research team,1994 Geng et al., 1997 Wang et al., 2010;Yang et al., 1991 The Taihang research team,1994 Gao et al., 2011 Wang et al., 2012;Zhang et al., 1996; Cai et al., 2004;Zhang et al., 2007 Zhang et al., 1995

Yan et al., 2000 Zhang et al., 200 Tu et al., 1985;Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010;Wang et al., 2007 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Yang et al., 2001 Jing et al., 1992 Tian et al., 1991 Tian et al., 1992 Tian et al., 1993 Li et al., 1994 Luo et al., 2009 Tian et al., 1998 Li et al., 1994 Long et al., 2011 Wang et al., 2009

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Mo

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

Ref. Pb/204 Pb

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

401

Fig. 10. Lead isotopic composition diagrams of sulfide minerals from the ore deposits in the NCC.

Tolstikhin (1978) and Kendrick et al. (2001), the mantle helium in the ore-forming fluid was calculated to be in the range of 3.3% to 86.1% with an average of 31.5%, and mostly in the range of 13% to 26%. Combining all the data from the S, Pb, Si, H, O, C, and He isotopic analyses, it can be concluded that materials and fluid derived from the mantle cannot be excluded as an important contribution to the formation of the gold, silver, lead and zinc as well as the molybdenum deposits in the northwest of Hebei Province. 3.4.1.2. Eastern Hebei Province. The eastern part of Hebei Province is located within the north-eastern margin of the NCC. More than 100 Mesozoic gold deposits and occurrences and 40 copper (gold), silver– lead–zinc polymetallic deposits occurrences were reported from this area. Most of the gold deposits are located in the Archean metamorphic rocks whereas the majority of the polymetallic deposits are hosted in the Jurassic strata. Almost all the deposits are associated spatially and temporally with the Yanshanian granitic intrusions (Wang et al., 2010). The emplacement of the Yanshanian granitic intrusions was coeval with the formation of the deposits. The REE patterns of the intrusive rocks are characterized by negative Eu anomaly (ΣREE varies 66.75 ppb to 317.55 ppb; δEu varies from 0.12 to 0.85; LREE/HREE varies from 1.66 to 24.04). ( 87Sr/ 86Sr)i values for the intrusive rocks vary from 0.704 to 0.708 (Zhang and Chen, 1996). Trace element analyses of the small stocks (with an outcrop area of b2 km 2) yielded high gold contents ranging from 11 ppb to 92 ppb. These

characteristics of the intrusive rocks suggest that the magmas were derived from the lower crust with some contribution of mantle materials. The large sulfur isotopic data base (>260 samples from 19 deposits) from previous studies display δ34S values of the sulfide minerals from −6.3‰ to 8.3‰ with most of the values falling within the range of − 1‰ to 3‰ and an average of −1.9‰ with a few exceptions (Table 2). The sulfur isotopes of the sulfide minerals from most of these deposits show equilibrium fractionation trend. These sulfur isotopic compositions are comparable with those from the Jinchanggouliang gold deposit in Chifeng City of Inner Mongolia (δ34S = −5.0 to 1.1 average −0.1; Wei et al., 1993), the Lanjiagou molybdenum deposit in Jinxi County (δ34S = −0.3 to 7.9 average −3.3 for 11 samples; Rui et al., 1994) and the Xiadabao gold deposit in Qingyuan County (δ 34S = −2.0 to 1.9 average −0.4; Wei et al., 1993) of Liaoning Province. The lead isotopic compositions of 67 samples from 13 deposits in east Hebei Province vary within narrow ranges with 206Pb/ 204Pb values varying from 14.986 to 16.304, 207Pb/ 204Pb from 14.961 to 15.408, and 208Pb/ 204Pb from 34.834 to 36.787 (Table 3). In Zartman's diagrams, most of the data cluster around the mantle line, suggesting that the lead of the ores were mainly derived from the mantle and the lower crust (Fig. 10). These data are remarkably consistent with those from the Xiadabao gold deposit of Qingyuan County, Liaoning Province where the 206Pb/ 204Pb vary from 15.912 to 16.177, 207Pb/ 204Pb vary from 15.154 to 15.373, and 208Pb/ 204Pb vary from 36.107 to 36.671 (Wei et al., 1993). The lead isotopic systematics of the ore

402

Table 4 Silicon isotopic compositions of the ore deposits in the NCC.

N. margin

W–M portion

E.margin

S.margin Interior

Luxi

Taihang

Deposit

Location

Mineralization type

Age/Ma

Type

δ30Si_NBS-28

Reference

1 2

Dongping Xiaoyingpan

Zhangjiakou, Hebei Xuanhua, Hebei

Au Au

140.2 ± 1.3 171.45

Fracture-altered Quartz-vein

−0.3–0.4 −0.3–0.1

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Wanquansi Shuijingtun Zhongshangou Huangtuliang Hougou Yangshugou Dacaoping Fengning Huashi Dongzigou Xiajinbao Malanguan Jinchangyu Yuerya Tangzhangzi Jianbaoshan Maoshan

Wuanquan, Hebei Chongli, Hebei Chongli, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Fengning, Hebei Fengning, Hebei Fengning, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Pingquan, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Qianxi, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Zunhua, Hebei

Au, Ag Au Au Au Au Mo, Ag Mo Au Au, Mo Ag, Au Au Au Au Au Au Au Au

20 21 22

Sanjia Huajian Niuxinshan

Qinhuangdao, Hebei Qinhuangdao, Hebei Qinhuangdao, Hebei

Au Au Au

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Jinchangyu Buwa Guilaizhuang Baguamiao Lianbaling Beiyingxigou Qiubudong Xishimen Chounikou Shanggang

Yinan, Shandong Mengyin, Shandong Pingyi, Shandong Baoji, Shaanxi Laiyuan, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Pingshan, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Laishui, Hebei

Au Au Au Au Au, Pb, Zn Ag, Pb, Zn Ag, Au Au Au Au

Wang et al., 2010;Lu et al., 1992 Wanget al., 2010; Yin et al., 1995 Wanget al., 2010 Wanget al., 2010 Wanget al., 2010 Wanget al., 2010 Wanget al., 2010 Wanget al., 2010 Guo et al., 2011 Wang et al., 2010 Xiao et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2000 Song et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 1996 Wang et al., 2010; Zheng et al., 1988 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Bo et al., 1990; Shao et al., 1987; Luan et al., 1996 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010; Yang et al. 1996; Luo et al., 2001 Zang et al., 1998; Hu et al., 2010 Liu et al., 1994 Zhang et al., 1999; Tan et al., 1993 Chen et al,2009; Shao et al,2001 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010;Ke et al., 2012 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010

115.1 120.63 154.4 ± 1.3 140.10 ± 213 220.10 ± 117

2190 ± 58 175 ± 1 172 ± 2

Fracture-altered Far contact Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Porphyry Porphyry Fracture-altered Quartz-vein Quartz-vein

Fracture-altered Quartz-vein Quartz-vein Explosive-breccia Stata-bound Quartz-vein Contact

172 ± 2

Contact

133 ± 6 188–178 131.91 ± 0.89

Skarn Fracture-altered Explosive-breccia Quartz-vein

153 ± 1

Fracture-altered

−0.2 to −0.1 −0.2–0.3 −0.2–0.2 −0.3–0.0 −0.2 −0.3 0.07 −0.2 0.92 1.31 2.66 3.0 −0.3 −0.2 1.45 −0.3 to −0.1 1.03 −0.1 −0.3 0.46 1.9–3.5 2.05–4.06 2.000–2.990 −0.33 0.1 0.0 0.0–0.1 −0.2 0.0 0.1

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

E. portion

No.

Table 5 Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of the ore deposits in the NCC.

N.margin

W-Mportion

Deposit

Location

Wanquansi Zhongshan'gou Shuijingtun Huangtuliang Fengning Dongping Xiaoyingpan Hougou Zhangquanzhuang Hanjiagou Jinjiazhuang Dayingzi Bainaimiao Bayinhanggai Liangqian Donghuofang Houshihua Jinchanggouliang Wulashan Dongkalaqin Caijiayingzi Zhaojiagou Sadaigoumen Dacaoping

Wanquan, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Fengning, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Xuanhua, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Xuanhua, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Zhangxuan, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Wulanchabu, Inner Mongolia Bayannaoer, Inner Mongolia Guyang, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Baotou, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Zhangbei, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Fengning, Hebei Fengning, Hebei

Yangshugou Baiyun'ebo Jingchangyu Shapoyu Malanguan Tianjiacun Yuerya Huzhangzi Sajingou Banbishan Maojidian Huashi Tangzhangzi Xiacaonian Xiaojinggou Xiajinbao Honghuagou Erdaogou Anjiayingzi Zhaojiagou Reshui Hongshi Xiazhangzi Sanjia Bajiazi

Fengning, Hebei Baotou, Inner Mongolia Qianxi, Hebei Xinglong, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Zunhua Kuancheng, Hebei Qingyuan, Liaoning Kuancheng, Hebei Qinglong, Hebei Qingyuan, Liaoning Xinglong, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Qinglong, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Pingquan, Hebei Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Beipiao, Hebei Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Chicheng, Hebei Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Yixian, Liaoning Qinglong, Hebei Qinhuangdao, Hebei Jianchang, Liaoning

Xiaodonggou Nianzigou

Keshetengqi, Inner Mongolia Chifeng, Inner Mongolia

Pb–Zn Mo

E. portion

Fe Au

Pb–Zn Mo

Age/Ma 120± 230 180± 180± 180±

180± 300

230 130 198.7 227.1 ± 2.7 220.10 ± 117 224.10 ± 115 232.17 ± 115 439 132

Type

OSMOW (‰) D (‰)

13.3 12.67 12.3 Fracture-altered 10.02 4.9 Fracture-altered 8.76 13.17 Fracture-altered 11.24 13.01 11.74 Fracture-altered 11.75 11.73 3.69 13.6 10.7 12.7 Ductile shear zone 12.9 13.22 12.91 9.38 13.76 12.4 Porphyry 10 Porphyry

16 13.2 12.36 12.6 12.78 11.24 13.112 14.1 12.2 10.36 13.9

−109.5 −87.33 −70.5 −83.75 −98 −91.2 −93.17 −96.58 −109.1 −115 −92.9 −80.5 −85 −79 −80 −96 −83.33 −82.92 −77.16 −94 −94 −89.8

177.4–183.8 135.5 ± 1.5 154.3 ± 3.6

−128.8 to −109.2

175

Quartz vein

12.4 24.05 13.53 1700 900 800

18 12.8

C (‰)

−4.1 −6 −2.49

−7.87 −1.16 −3.67

−66 −79.71 −61 −72.5 −73 −88.45 −76 −79 −78.8 −87 −84.67 −56 −63 −71.07 −70.15 −88 −92 −109 −96 −88 −116 −85.1 −48.9 −74.3

Quartz vein

13

−3.9 −3.77

18

OH2O (‰)

2.57 0.81 3.47 0.38 −3.14 1.49 7.31 3.87 5.99 5.71 2.87 3.76 3.98 5.79 6 4.635 6.18 6.07 4.58 5.23 5.43 0.1–6.2

2.76 −4.75

6.03

−5.25

3.42

−4.18

7.029

−5.1 −2.36

−2.07

12.15 4.63 5.8 6.1 5.2 0.3 9.2 1.1 6.01 5.11 3.27–7.85 −5.6–6.8

Ref. Wang et al., 1992 Wang et al., 1992 Shi et al., 1993 Song et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2010 Fan et al., 2001 Mao et al., 2001 Wang et al., 2010 Mao et al., 2001 Song et al., 1994; Peng et al., 1992; Yao, 2000 Ye, 1997 Chen et al., 2001 Xu et al., 1998 Shi et al., 1993 Wang et al., 2010 Zhang et al., 2002 Lang, 1997 Wang et al., 2010 Lv et al., 2004 Song et al., 1994; Wang et al., 2010 Shen, 2001 Guo et al., 2011

Wang et al., 2010; Zhang et al.,2008; Wei et al., 1994 Song et al., 1994 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Chai et al., 1989 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Shao et al., 1987 Wang et al., 1993 Wang et al., 1992 Wang et al., 1993 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Wang et al., 2010 Song et al., 1994 Bi et al., 1989, Yang et al., 1990, Chen et al., 2003 Nie, 2007, 2007 Zhang, 2010

403

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S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Type Au

404

Table 5 (continued) Type

Luxi

S. margin Xiaoqinling

Hadamengou Xiaojiayinzi Lanjiagou Dazhuagke Xiaoshigou Huashi Fe Zhangjiagou Huanggang Zhoutaizi Damiaoheishan Xiaojiayinzi Pb–Zn Dongsheng Au Majiayao Sanshandao Xincheng Jiaojia Changshang Lingshan'gou Shilipu Linglong Taishang Dayin'gezhuang Rushan Denggezhuang Yuan'gezhuang Dongdaokou Dazhuangzi Qixia Qibaoshan Pengjiakuang Au Lifanggou Jinchang Au–Cu–Fe Yinan Au Dongchuang Wenyu Chucha-luanshigou Yangzhaiyu-S60 Zhuyu Xichang'an-dongman Dongtongyu-Q8

Location

Age/Ma

Chifeng, Inner Mongolia Kezuo, Liaoning Gongchangling, Liaoning Yanqing, Beijing Pingquan, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Dandong, Liaoning Province kesheketengqi, Inner Mongolia Kuanping, Hebei Province Chengdeshi, Hebei Province Kezuo, Liaoning Province Xiuyan, Liaoning Qixia, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Laizhou, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Pingdu, Shandong Qixia, Shandong Wulian, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Pingyi, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Yinan, Shandong Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Lingbao, Henan Tongguan, Shaanxi

239.76 ± 3.04 177 ± 5 186.5 146 ± 11 134 ± 3

135.31 ± 0.85 2460 39 165.5 ± 4.6 Yanshanian 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120± 120±

133 ± 6.0

Type Skarn Quartz vein

OSMOW (‰) D (‰) 11.6 10.1

13

C (‰)

102 −87.7

Skarn

−91.93 −84.67 6.2

−83

Skarn Quartz vein Frature-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz vein Quartz vein Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Fracture-altered Quartz vein Explosive-breccia Strata-bound

Skarn Quartz vein Quartz vein

13.2 12.44 14.17 13.15 13.17 9.25 12.99 13.23 9.07 10.23 12.4 7.64 11.66 11.45 12.39 11.54 7.4 19.94 4.1 4.3 10.81 9.5 10.25 11.1 10.8 11.48 12.37

−76 to −83 −64.6 −76.54 −85 −84.26 −78.67 −79.79 −89.67 −69.34 −84.67 −78 −82.8 −77.78 −73.5 −82.13 −64.93 −77.85 −68.76 −93.59 −66.25 −87 −52.58 −87.41 −62.7 −47.62 −47.62 −57.73 −48.63

OH2O (‰)

−5.3

−5.44

−2.37

−1.5

−4.27

−4.41 −3.45

Ref.

Hou, 2011 Tang, 1979 Dai, 2008 Dong et al., 1992 7.03 Zhang et al., 1994; Quan et al., 1992 Wang et al., 2010 −2.19–3.09 Xia, 1997 7.4 Mao, 2011 Xiang et al., 2010 7.98 Zhao et al.,2012; Sun et al., 2009 Dai, 2007 −2.1–4.3 Jiang et al., 1991 4.14 Yang et al., 1991 4.16 Zhang et al., 1994 5.41 Zhang et al., 1994 3.02 Ding et al., 1998 5.1 Zhang et al., 1994 2.44 Yang et al., 1996 −4.2 Yang et al., 1996 4.66 Yang et al., 1996 4 Yang et al., 1996 2.7 Yang et al., 1996 3.36 Yang et al., 1996 4.95 An et al., 1988 2.88 An et al., 1988 2.71 An et al., 1988 3.11 Mao et al., 2002 0.87 Zhai et al., 1996 4.21 Qiu et al., 1996 1.3 Sun et al., 1995 9.34 Hu et al., 2004 7.78 Qiu et al., 1996 10.8 Wang et al., 2010 6.42 Li et al., 1998 2.43 Xu et al., 1992 2.52 Xu et al., 1992 5.2 Yu et al., 1997 5.16 Li et al., 1998 4.89 Wang , 1987 6.31 Zhou et al., 1993 6.5 1.9

10.42 Porphyry-Skarn

18

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E. margin Liaodong Jiaodong

Deposit

Mo

Xiong'ershan Au

Pb–Zn 2006 Mo

Interior

Taihang

Au

Au Au–Mo Au–Mo Au

Pb–Zn Fe

Songxian, Henan Tongbo, Henan Weinan, Shaanxi Sanmenxia, Henan Huaxian, Shaanxi

Shanggong Funiushan Kangshan Qinggangping Putang Qiyugou Bailugou Lengshuibeigou Sandaozhuang Nannihu

Luoning, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Nanyang, Henan Songxian, Henan Lunachuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan Luanchuan, Henan

Qiubodong Yangshugou Xishimen Beiyingxigou Chounikou Yingdonggou Yindong Shihu Au Dawan Futuyu Konggezhuang Shangmingyu Lianbaling Luanmuchang Dashiyu Xiaolinggen Lianbaling Beiluohe Fuzhan

Pingshan, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Yixian, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Yixian, Hebei Tangxian, Hebei Yixian, Hebei Laiyuan, Hebei Wuan, Hebei Wuan, Hebei

−74 −70 −59.5

0.1 1.78 7.62

129 ± 7, 131 ± 4

10.5 11.95 10.45 9.12–9.59 2.86

−76.11 to −100.20 −5

120±

12.98 12.42 14.94 10.14 5.2 10.27

−81.77 −82 −80.5 −83.3 −50.3 −73.99 −90 −81

−4.14–7.29 Taylor et al., 1986; Li et al., 1984; Guo et al., 2009 6.1 Chen et al., 1992 1.34 Zhang et al., 1998 4.82 Wang et al., 2001 5.35 Chen et al., 1996 −6.85 1995 2.87 Xie et al., 1991 Yan et al., 2002, Ye, 2006 0.81 Wang et al., 2007 Luo et al., 1991 5.09 Xu et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 1993; Zhang et al., 1987; Li et al., 1994; Luo et al., 1991 1.49 Wang et al., 2010 2.76 Wang et al., 2010 5.4 Wang et al., 2010 4.56 Wang et al., 2010 1.24 Wang et al., 2010 5.13 Wang et al., 2010 1.19 Geng et al., 1999 3.11 Wang et al., 2010 −5.6 Tu, 1995 0.74 Wang et al., 2010 4.6 Wang et al., 2010 1.7 Zhu et al., 1999 1.2 Wang et al., 2010 12.25 Wang et al., 2010 −1.5 Wang et al., 2010 −5.99 Wang et al., 2010 1.2 Wang et al., 2007 6.7 Ying, 2012 2.78 Wang, 2012; Zhang et al., 1996; Cai et al., 2004; Zheng, 2007

Fracture-altered

Explosive breccia

136.13 ± 0.44 145.0 ± 2.2 141.8 ± 2.1

−0.8 −1.09 −3.12 −3.5

9.96 −74.5

120±

Quartz vein

Yanshanian 137 128.8 ± 1.9

Skarn Skarn

9.7 16 13.1 14.3 12.2 10.2 14.38 12.45 2.86 6.77 11.65 9.3 5

8.4 6

−64 −66 −83 −87 −77 −87 −71.5 −89 −101.72 −115 −93.28 −80.33 −90 −74 −72.69 −56.09 −90 −100.1 −100

−4.2 −3.5

−4.9 −3.5 −4.47

Li et al., 2004 Xie et al., 2001 Wang et al., 2010

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Au–Mo

Gongyu Laowan Taoyuan Yechangping Jinduicheng

405

406

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

Fig. 11. D–O isotopic composition diagrams of fluid inclusions in quartz from the ore deposits in the NCC.

and associated granitoids show consistence from both regions (Table 3; Wei et al., 1993) suggesting a close genetic link between the granitic magmatism and the gold and polymetallic mineralization. Data from 49 samples representing 10 gold and copper–molybdenum deposits show that in each deposit, the average δ18OH2O values vary from 3.4‰ to 7.5‰ with one exception (Table 5). Thus, the Jinchanggouliang gold deposit in Chifeng area (δ18OH2O = 5.6‰ to 7.03‰; Wei et al., 1993), the Nanlongwangmiao gold deposit (δ 18OH2O = 4.26‰ to 6.69‰; Wei et al., 1993) and the Xiadabao gold deposit (δ18OH2O = 4.03‰; Wei et al., 1993) in Qingyuan County, Liaoning Province, show values close to that of primary magmatic water (5‰ to 10‰, Sheppard, 1977). The average δDsmow values for each of the 19 deposits range from − 88‰ to − 56‰, close to the − 80‰ to − 40‰ value for primary water (Sheppard, 1977; Fig. 11). The average δ 13CPDB for each of the 7 deposits ranges from − 5.25‰ to − 2.07‰ within the range for mantle carbon (− 2‰ to − 5‰; Taylor and Bucher-Nurminen, 1986) and close to the range for magmatic carbon (− 9‰ to − 3‰; Taylor and Bucher-Nurminen, 1986). Wang et al. (2010) measured the helium and argon isotopes of 14 pyrite, 1 galena, 1 gneiss and 2 granite samples from the gold and silver deposits in the East Hebei Province (Table 6). The result shows that the 3He/ 4He values vary in the range of 2.5 × 10 −6 to 9.39 × 10 −6 with an average at 5.43 × 10 −6, much higher than those of the granite and gneiss. Calculation with a mantle–crust binary model shows that the mantle helium varies from 23% to 85% with an average at 53% (Wang et al., 2010). The measured 40Ar/ 36Ar varies from 308 to 1304 with a mean at 742, prominently higher than the 295.5 value of air saturated water (ASW). The 3He/ 4He vs. 40Ar/ 36Ar diagram suggests marked contribution of mantle gas to the mineralization (Fig. 12).

3.4.2. Eastern margin of the NCC There are three ore cluster regions in the eastern margin of the NCC: the Jiaodong peninsula, the Liaodong peninsula and the Luxi area (west of Shandong Province). Among these, the Jiaodong peninsula is the most important gold district in China. Sulfur isotope data on 68 pyrite samples from 13 quartz vein-type and fracture alteration-type gold deposits in the Jiaodong peninsula show δ34S values ranging from 2.4‰ to 12.6‰ with an average of 7.6‰ and most of the values lying in the range of 6‰ to 9‰. The results are consistent with those from the Cretaceous Gujialing granodiorite and the Archean Jiaodong Group of rocks (Table 2), as well as those of the Miaoling gold deposit in Gaizhou City, Liaodong peninsula (from 6.2‰ to 10.9‰ averaging 8.9‰, Wei et al., 1993). Although a few δ34S data from the strata-bound gold deposits show marked difference

from those mentioned above, most of the values are broadly similar. These data suggest that the sulfur in the gold deposits in the Jiaodong peninsula was mainly derived from the Cretaceous igneous intrusions which probably scavenged the sulfur from Archean basement. Table 3 shows the 206Pb/ 204Pb data of 72 samples of sulfide minerals from the quartz vein type and fracture-alteration type gold deposits where the values range from 16.40 to 17.92 with an average of 17.13. Those of 7 pyrite samples from the strata-bound gold deposits vary from 16.92 to 22.15 with an average of 18.78 (Table 3), distinctly different from those mentioned above. The 206Pb/ 204Pb data of 13 K-feldspar, 2 whole-rock and 1 galena from the Cretaceous and Jurassic intrusive rocks and the Archean Jiaodong Group of rocks vary from 16.4 to 17.87 with an average at 17.17, consistent with those of the quartz vein type and fracture altered type gold deposits. The 207Pb/ 204Pb data of 72 samples of sulfide minerals from the quartz vein type and fracture altered type gold deposits range from 15.20 to 15.72 with a mean at 15.45, which are different from those of 7 pyrite samples from the strata-bound gold deposits (from 15.35 to 16.15; average 15.74) and consistent with those of 13 K-feldspar, 2 whole-rock and 1 galena from the Cretaceous and Jurassic intrusive rocks and the Archean Jiaodong Group of rocks (from 15.35 to 15.83, average 15.47). The 208Pb/ 204Pb data for the quartz vein-type and fracture-alteration type gold deposits range from 37.26 to 38.60 with an average at 37.70, distinct from those of the strata-bound gold deposits (from 37.08 to 49.05; average 39.81) and consistent with those of the Cretaceous and Jurassic intrusive rocks and the Archean Jiaodong Group of rocks (from 36.96 to 37.92; average 37.51). The consistence in the lead isotopic composition of the quartz vein-type and fracture alteration-type gold deposits with the Mesozoic intrusions and the Jiaodong Group of rocks imply a close genetic linkage among these. On Zartman's diagrams, the data show that the lead of the gold ores was derived from different sources including mantle and the basement (Fig. 10). A group of 47 δ 18OH2O and δDSMOW data on quartz from 8 quartz vein type and fracture altered type gold deposits show a range of values from − 8‰ to 9.69‰ with an average of 3.91‰ and − 95.8‰ to − 33.0‰ with an average of − 77.3‰ respectively (Table 5). A group of 9 δ 18OH2O and δDSMOW data on quartz from 2 altered gold deposits show values from 0.59‰ to 4.03‰ with an average1.81‰ and − 97.9‰ to − 79.0‰ with an average − 89.3‰, respectively (Table 5). Except for a few data, all the δDSMOW values are lower than that of the typical metamorphic water (−65‰ to −20‰, Hugh and Taylor, 1974) and close to the primary magmatic water (− 80‰ to − 40‰, Hugh and Taylor, 1974). Most of the δ 18OH2O data are close to the primary magmatic water (5‰ to 10‰, Hugh and Taylor, 1974; Fig. 11), suggesting that the water associated with mineralization was closely related with the magmatism. Fifty three δ13CPDB data of the calcite and siderite from 6 quartz vein type and fracture altered type gold deposits show values from −6.5‰ to −0.6‰ with an average of −4.6‰, well within the range of magmatic carbon (from −9‰ to −3‰; Table 5). The majority of the data fall within the range of mantle carbon (from −5‰ to −2‰, Taylor and Bucher-Nurminen, 1986). Nineteen δ13CPDB data on the calcite and dolomite from 2 strata-bound gold deposits show variation from −4.8‰ to 1.6‰ with an average −2.0‰ and the majority of the values corresponds with mantle carbon whereas a few fall in the range of sedimentary carbonate rocks (from −2‰ to +3‰, Veizer et al., 1980). The data clearly reflect the involvement of the wall rocks of the Proterozoic Jingshan Group of dolomite, especially in the Dujiaya gold deposit. Helium and argon isotopic data on 25 fresh pyrite samples from underground levels of 5 quartz vein type gold deposits in the Jiaodong peninsula (Table 6; Fig. 12) show that the mantle helium involved in the quartz vein gold mineralization vary from 0 to 42% with an average of 6% (the negative values are taken as 0). The mantle helium involved in the strata-bound type of gold mineralization varies from 0 to 12% with an average value of 4% (8 samples from 3 deposits),

Table 6 Helium and argon isotopic compositions of the ore deposits in the NCC.

N. margin

W. portion

E. margin

Interior

Jiaodong

Luxi Taihengshan

Deposit

Location

Age/Ma

Type

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Hougou Au Huangtuliang Au Xiaoyingpan Au Dongping Au Zhongshangou Au Yangshugou Mo Jinchangyu Au Huzhangzi Au Huashi Au Shapoyu Au Yuerya Au Tanjiacun Au Huajia Au Tangzhangzi Au Malanguan Au Xiaoyingzi granite Au Huashi Mo Jiaojia Au Canzhuang Au Denggezhuang Au Jinchiling Au Linglong Au Jinqingding Au Zhaodaoshan Au Pengjiakuang Au Dujiaya Au Fangyunkuang Au Fushan Fe Xishimen Au Shihu Au Chounikou Au Shanggang Au Shangmingyu Au Mujicun Cu Au Yintonggou Mo Au

Chicheng, Hebei Chicheng, Hebei Xuanhua, Hebei Zhangjiakou, Hebei Chongli, Hebei Fengnin, Hebei Qianxi, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Qinhuangdao, Hebei Kuancheng, Hebei Tangshan, Hebei Qinhuangdao, Hebei Chengde, Hebei Laizhou, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Zhaoyuan, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Jiaodong, Shandong Rushan, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Yantai, Shandong Wu'an, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei Laishui, Hebei Taihang Mountain Laiyuan, Hebei Lingshou, Hebei

180 230 180 180 120

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered

Quartz vein

175

Quartz vein

173

Explosive-breccia

179.5

120

Fracture-altered Fracture-altered Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Quartz vein Strata-bound Strata-bound Strata-bound skarn

140

Quartz vein

120 120

120

He

4

He

Fracture-altered

132

120

3

952.15 532 399.25 62.4 265.35 156.87 1264.56 14.08 91.72 7553.32 0.44 62.4 222.66 2.842 63.71 4.13 2.045 2.257 2.066 92.87 8.209 8.196 1.6 4419.2 193.3 307.8 1108 2782

68.94 106.4 159.7 9.6 91.5 58.1 287.4 3.06 14.11 804.4 441.6 0.96 7.37 20.3 2.29 3.69 3.29 3.43 36.9 8.98 47.4 13.66 26.4 283.28 32.21 9.16 460 231.9

2405.7

235.85

3

He/4He (Rc/Ra)

40

2.1 0.93 2.2 4.05 0.38 1.77 5 2.5 6.5 2.9 2.7 4.4 4.6 6.5 9.39

Ar/36Ar

40

Ref.

678 1238 2073 464 430 797 653 817 308 1304 575 886 1007 365 1166

2500 5000 714.2857 5.6275 1.8811 0.06 0.1504 0.0764 0.0525 0.1567 0.0233 0.0436 7.1429 10 0.0163

Wang et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 1996; Cai et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2007

6.5 2.87 0.1

308 775.67 1636.5

0.05 0.1779

0.8 0.4428 0.47 0.04 1.05 0.1237 0.4286 8.504 1.56 0.6 3.36 2.41 1.2

383.7 5905 474.6 428.9 380.5 509.5 314 871 920 879 511 2361 365

0.4815

1.02

468

140

Ar/4He

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

E. portion

No.

1.282

0.0461 0.1497 0.4219 0.0285 0.0122 0.1089 0.58

Gao et al., 2011 Wang et al., 2010

407

408

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Fig. 12. He and Ar isotopic composition diagrams of the fluids trapped in sulfide minerals from the ore deposits in the NCC.

whereas those from the fracture altered gold mineralization varies from 26% to 100% with an average of 63% (8 samples from 2 deposits). All the above data show substantial input of mantle materials in the gold mineralization in Jiaodong peninsula during the Early Cretaceous. 3.4.3. Southern margin of the NCC The Xiaoqinling and the Xiong'ershan areas are the two most important ore cluster regions characterized by predominantly Early Cretaceous gold and few silver–lead–zinc deposits related with coeval magmatic rocks in the southern margin of the NCC. The Xiaoqinling region is recognized as the second largest gold district in China after the Jiaodong peninsula. Wang et al. (2010) collected 261 δ 34S data from 17 deposits of the Xiaoqinling and Xiong'ershan areas (Table 2) which show a range of − 19.2‰ to 7.2‰ with the average for each deposit ranging from − 13.1‰ to 6.22‰. Most of the values are concentrated in the range of − 4‰ to 6‰, comparable with those of the northwest of Hebei Province. The average 206Pb/ 204Pb, 207Pb/ 204Pb, and 208Pb/ 204Pb data from 265 samples of sulfide minerals from 27 deposits in the southern margin and the nearby areas vary from 16.92 to 18.32, 15.31 to 15.65 and 37.26 to 39.00 (Wang et al., 2010). Plots of the data on the lead isotope evolution diagrams (Zartman and Doe, 1981; Fig. 10) show that most of the values fall in the orogenic line/region. This feature suggests that the lead was mainly derived from an environment similar to the orogenic belt, comparable with that in the northwest of Hebei Province. A group of 138 H–O isotopic data from 17 deposits in the Xiaoqinling and Xiong'ershan regions shows that, except the Putang gold deposit, the average δ 18OH2O and δDSMOW values for each deposit vary from 0.10‰ to 6.42‰ and from − 87.41‰ to − 52.58‰ for the two regions respectively, consistent with the role of primary magmatic water (Table 5; Fig. 11). Thirty δ 13CPDB data on the carbonate minerals from 9 deposits in the southern margin of the NCC show variation from − 4.41‰ to − 0.80‰ with most of the values clustering in the range of −4‰ to − 2‰ (Table 5). The data suggest that the carbon might have been derived from the mantle (δ 13CPDB from − 5‰ to −2‰; Taylor and Bucher-Nurminen, 1986). 3.4.4. Western margin and central NCC Whereas only few data are available for the western margin of the NCC, there is adequate data from the central NCC, particularly from the Taihang Mountain region for a statistical evaluation. The northern Taihang Mountains host numerous gold, molybdenum, lead–zinc and silver deposits. The southern Taihang Mountain region is characterized by skarn type iron deposits. A comparison of the chronology

and geochemical characteristics of the two areas (Li et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013) has brought out prominent differences between the two areas. The δ 34S data on 169 sulfide samples from 17 gold, silver, molybdenum, and lead–zinc deposits in the northern Taihang Mountains show variation from − 3‰ to 5‰ with a few exceptions (Table 2; Fig. 9), whereas 23 δ 34S data on pyrite from 13 iron deposits in the southern Taihang Mountains vary from 11.6‰ to 18.7‰ with a mean at 15.2%. The lead isotopic compositions of 76 sulfide minerals from 17 deposits in the northern Taihang Mountains show the following variation in the average value for each deposit: 206Pb/ 204Pb from 15.77 to 17.42, 207Pb/ 204Pb from 15.09 to 15.45 and 208Pb/ 204Pb from 36.29 to 38.74 (Table 3). Five pyrite samples from the Beiminghe iron deposit in the southern Taihang Mountains (Shen et al., 2013) show 206 Pb/ 204Pb values of 17.84–18.79 (average 18.42); 207Pb/ 204Pb values of 15.46–15.62 (average 15.56) and 208Pb/ 204Pb values of 37.93–39.75 (average 38.73). In the lead isotope evolution models (Fig. 10), most of the data from the northern Taihang plot on the area between the lower crust line and the mantle line, and the five analyses of the iron deposit from the southern Taihang Mountains fall between the orogen and the mantle lines, mainly clustering near the orogen line. A set of 48 data on H–O isotopes from 17 deposits in the northern Taihang Mountains (Table 5) shows that, except in the case of three deposits, the average δ 18OH2O and δDSMOW values for each deposit range from −1.50‰ to 7.62‰ and from −101.72‰ to −56.09‰, fairly close to that of the primary magmatic water (Fig. 11). Another group of 13 samples from 9 deposits in the northern Taihang Mountains shows δ 30SiNBS-28 values in the range of −0.3‰ to 0.5‰ with a mean at 0.08‰ (Table 4), consistent with the δ 30SiNBS-28 values of granite (−0.4‰ to 0.4‰, Ding and Jiang, 1994). Thirty one helium and argon isotopic data (Table 6) from 11 deposits show mantle helium ranging from 0 to 38.52% with a mean of 15% suggesting the involvement of mantle helium in the mineralization of the northern Taihang Mountains during the early Cretaceous (Li et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2010). Helium and argon isotope data on the pyrite from the iron deposit in the southern Taihang Mountains indicate that most of the ore-forming fluid was derived from the crust, with no more than 3% of helium (0.17% to 2.98%, average 1.43%) contribution from the mantle (Li et al., 2013; Shen et al., 2013). 3.5. Link between metallogeny and the evolution of the NCC 3.5.1. Metallogeny in response to the formation of the NCC The formation of the NCC involved complex and multistage processes during the early Precambrian, among which the two main events are

S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Ore Geology Reviews 56 (2014) 376–414

the assembly of microblocks to construct the fundamental architecture of the NCC by 2500 Ma and the final cratonization through the collision of the major crustal blocks by 1850 Ma (Santosh, 2010; Wang and Liu, 2012; Zhai and Santosh, 2011; Zhang et al., 2011; Z. Zhang et al., 2012). During Neoarchean collision of the microblocks, around eight Dongyaozhuang-type of gold deposits formed in the Wutaishan area in the northern Taihang Mountains. At the same time, in the Wutaishan area and Lvliangshan area of the central NCC, more than 21 large- to medium scale BIF type of iron deposits and meta-ultramafic rockhosted rutile deposits formed, which include the Shanyangping iron deposit, Jingangku iron deposit and the Nianzigou Ti (rutile) deposit (Jia et al., 2006; Shi et al., 2012) in the Wutaishan area, the Yuanjiachun iron deposit in the Lvliangshan area. In the Zhongtiaoshan area, southern Shanxi Province, 4 large Paleoproterozoic porphyry type copper deposits and 50 minor occurrences also formed during the amalgamation stage of the NCC (Zhang et al., 2003). After the Neoarchean amalgamation, in the early Paleoproterozoic rifting stage, around 17 VMS type copper deposits such as those of the Hujiayu and Bizigou formed in the Zhongtiaoshan area (Zhang et al., 2003). Except for the mineralization in the central NCC, gold deposits similar to the Dongyaozhuang type, such as the Shibaqinghao in Inner Mongolia, the Paishanlou and Nanlongwangmiao, and the Gongchangling BIF type iron deposits in Liaoning Province, also formed during late Neoarchean at the northern margin of the NCC. Large scale SEDEX and VMS types copper–(lead– zinc) and gold deposits, the Bayan Obo REE–Nb–Fe deposit, the Dongshengmiao, Tanyaokou, Huogeqi polymetallic deposits in the Langshan area and the Jiashengpan polymetallic deposit in the Cha'ertaishan area of Inner Mongolia, formed in the Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic at the northern margin of the NCC (Zhai et al., 2004). Large SEDEX and VMS type deposits were also generated in the north-eastern margin of the NCC, including the Qingchengzi Pb– Zn–(Ag–Ag) deposit, the Wengquangou B deposit, two of the well known SEDEX type deposits, and the Hongtoushan Cu–Zn deposit which is a VMS type deposit in Liaoning Province. In addition, BIF type deposits are also found in the interior of the NCC, such as the Shuichang Fe deposit in the eastern Hebei Province (Zhai et al., 1999). In the Mesoproterozoic, V–Ti–Fe and Cu–Ni–Pt deposits formed in the northern margin (the Damiao–Heishan Fe–Ti–V–P deposit in Hebei Province) and in the western margin (the Jinchuan Cu–Ni–Pt deposit in Gansu Province, 1508–1511 Ma, Tang and Li, 1995) of the NCC. The amalgamation of the unified Eastern and Western Blocks within the NCC followed a prolonged subduction–accretion history prior to the final collision in late Paleoproterozoic (Santosh, 2010; Santosh et al., 2013). A series of BIF, porphyry and Dongyaozhuang types of gold and polymetallic deposits were generated during this period (Zhang et al., 2003). During the extension period after the collision, a number of VMS and SEDEX types of polymetallic deposits formed in the aulacogens. It is interesting to note that such mineralization not only occurred in the central zone but also broadly along the northern margin of the NCC. More importantly, BIF deposits also developed in the interior of the craton, such as the Shuichang area in Hebei Province, but a closer examination shows that this region defines the boundary between the Jiaoliao microblock and the Qianhuai microblock. Thus, the location of the suturing between the microblocks, as well as the zones of extension could mark important sites for economic mineralization. The Mesoproterozoic mineralization can be correlated to the global rifting stage of the supercontinent Columbia (Deng et al., 2004a; Hou et al., 2008; Rogers and Santosh, 2009; Santosh et al., 2009). In a recent work, Zhai and Santosh (2013) correlated the various types of metallogeny in the NCC to secular changes associated with global tectonics in the evolving Earth. 3.5.2. Metallogeny in response to the destruction of the NCC After the major mineralization events associated with the Neoarchean micro-block assembly, Paleoproterozoic cratonization and Mesoproterozoic rifting, the NCC remained stable for a long

409

time without any major tectonic events or large scale mineralization until the Jurassic. Nevertheless, some small scale Permian and Triassic mineralization occurred as mentioned in previous sections. The Hongqiling gabbro type Ni–Cu deposit in Jilin Province along the deep-seated fracture at the northern margin of the NCC is recognized to be of Triassic age (LÜ et al., 2011; Zhai et al., 1999). Surrounding the craton, the Paleozoic marked the timing of subduction of the paleo Asian ocean, and the late Paleozoic was the period of the closure of the paleo-Asian ocean. Both these processes were important for mantle input into continental crust and mineralization. Targets for prospecting Paleozoic and early Mesozoic mineralization should focus on the Caledonian and Hercynian accretionary belts surrounding the northern margin of the NCC. The Triassic was the period when the NCC amalgamated with the Yangtze craton. During this process, the Yangtze plate subducted underneath the NCC, and some of the mineral deposits in the southern margin of the NCC are correlated to this event. However, only weak mineralization occurred during Triassic. From Jurassic to Cretaceous, the eastern part of the NCC and the whole of east China witnessed a major tectonic transformation from N–S compression to NNE–SSW shearing. Accompanying the early transformation and the onset of extension, adakitic lower crust-derived granitic batholiths were emplaced which uplifted the Precambrian basement rocks. In the Jiaodong peninsula, for instance, the Linglong and Kunyushan granitic batholiths were emplaced at ca. 150 Ma within metamorphic basement represented by the Archean Jiaodong Group and Proterozoic Jingshan Group (Yang et al., 2011 and our unpublished data). A series of intermediate and basic dikes and intermediate-felsic plutons with mixed lower crust–mantle features formed during the early Cretaceous accompanied by the widespread formation of numerous ore deposits. The Jiaodong gold deposits and the coeval Guojialing and Sanfoshan granodioritic plutons and numerous intermediatemafic and lamprophyre dikes (ca. 120 Ma, Cai et al., 2012; and our unpublished data) in the eastern margin of the NCC, and the Shihu and Yixingzhai gold deposits and the Mapeng and Sunzhuang plutons in the Taihang Mountains in the central NCC (ca. 130 Ma, Li et al., 2012, 2013) are among the products of the early Cretaceous magmatism-mineralization events. Most of the ore deposits were formed in a transitional compression to extensional tectonic regime. The NE–SW ore-controlling fractures in Jiaodong peninsula show complex sinistral and dextral shearing during the ore-forming events, with dominant sinistral movement in the early stages and dextral in the later stages (Li et al., 1996). Large scale inhomogeneous lithosphere thinning beneath the NCC has been regarded as a direct geodynamic consequence of the extensive ore-forming events (e.g., Li et al., 2012, 2013). Since the magmatism and mineralization are mostly concentrated in the early Cretaceous, rapid and large scale inhomogeneous delamination would also be a feasible model for the thinning of the NCC. It is interesting to correlate the isotopic data on the mineral deposits in different domains within the NCC with the contour map of the lithosphere thickness of the NCC (Fig. 3, Zhu et al., 2011). The lithosphere thickness beneath northwest of Hebei Province in the northern margin is > 120 km, and the ore deposits here show characters of a reactivated orogenic belt with broad δ 34S variation range, orogenic lead isotopes, low to high mantle helium and carbon contribution, and relatively high meteoric water involvement. There are no precise data available on the lithosphere thickness beneath the Xiaoqinling and Xiong'ershan areas in the southern margin of the NCC, but the contour trend shows similar lithosphere thickness around 120 km, and the characteristics of the ore deposits here are more less the same as those of the north-western Hebei. Beneath the Jiaodong peninsula, the lithosphere has been significantly eroded to a thickness of about 70–80 km. The geochemical data of the ore deposits here are similar with those in the southern margin and suggest reactivated orogenic belt characteristics, suggesting a relation with the features

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of deposits in the south-eastern margin. Although the northern Taihang Mountain region is located within the Trans-North China Orogen in the central domain of the NCC, the ore geochemistry also shows reactivated orogenic features. Most of the deposits show clear meteoritic sulfur isotopic character. Compared with those in the north-western Hebei and the southern margin, this might be related with a relatively thinner lithosphere (b 110 km). The lithosphere thickness beneath the eastern Hebei and Luxi areas of the central NCC is about 75 to 80 km, and the deposits here show reactivated craton characters with meteoritic-like sulfur isotopes, more mantle lead, helium and carbon, and less meteoric water.

3.5.3. Metallogeny linked with plate motion and mantle plume activity Eastern China became part of the Pacific margin tectonic domain during Jurassic to Cretaceous when the tectonic system transformation was gradually completed. This region was recognized as a continental margin orogenic belt by Deng et al. (2004a,b) and Goldfarb et al. (2007). Its landward boundary was the 100-km-wide, NNE-trending N–S Gravity Lineament (NSGL, e.g., Griffin et al., 1998). The Taihang Mountains are part of the cryptic NSGL in the central NCC. Although the Cretaceous mineralization in the NCC was considered as a product of post-collisional orogeny from north by the Siberian block and the south by the Yangtze block (Chen et al., 2009b), nearly all the deposits of the early Cretaceous age are distributed on the eastern side of the NSGL, and almost all the N–S or NNE–SSW ore-controlling fractures are characterized by early sinistral and late dextral shearing (Li et al., 1996 and authors' unpublished research reports), which is consistent with the cessation of Jurassic shortening and onset of continent-scale northwest–southeast extension at ca. 130 to 120 Ma (Davis, 2003; Webb et al., 1999). A geophysical study of the E–W δvp section along the 37°N (Zhu et al., 2011) showed that the crust–mantle δvp structure on the east side of the NSGL was strongly disturbed with a seismically anomalous zone (δvp = 1%–2%), suggesting steep subduction under the eastern part of the Japanese arc, that changed to largely horizontal beneath the Japanese trough and terminated beneath the NSGL (Fig. 13). The highly disturbed present day crust–mantle structure can be traced to the late Jurassic–early Cretaceous. The lithosphere thinning of the NCC is closely related with the Pacific plate subduction under the Asian plate, and the ‘staggered’ subduction is considered to have triggered the drastic thinning and a surge in mineralization events in the eastern NCC. Previous studies documented changes in relative plate motion which suggest that prior to ca. 135 Ma, the now-extinct Izanagi plate was undergoing orthogonal convergence with the Asian continental margin, whereas by ca. 115 Ma, its motion was parallel to the margin (Maruyama et al., 1997). The rapid change in the direction of plate motion is correlated with the upwelling of the large Ontong– Java plume beneath the Pacific plate at ca. 124 Ma, causing a far-field instantaneous reorganization of the plates, such that the Izanagi plate

could spread to the north and was no longer pulled southwest by the “captured” Phoenix plate (Goldfarb et al., 2007). 4. Ore systems in the NCC: theoretical considerations and prospecting targets The distribution of the major ore deposits in the NCC after the formation of the craton shows that the margins of the craton are the most potential domains, as these regions are more prone to be involved in tectonic regimes of subduction and collision and to channeling of ore fluids. However, before the destruction, the rigidity and large thickness of the NCC's lithosphere could resist relatively weak collisions from smaller plates, and thus until the end of Paleozoic, no large scale mineralization appeared. Theoretically, regions that are involved in multiple tectonomagmatic events are the most potential sites for widespread metallogeny. The margins both in the north and south (as well as the west) of the NCC have witnessed subduction and collision (the Siberian Plate in the north and the Yangtze Plate in the south) from the Caledonian to Variscanian and even to the Indosinian (Zhai et al., 1999). These major tectonic activities would have destabilized the craton margins, allowing deep sourced fluids to migrate upward forming important ore deposits. Since the NCC had a thick keel with its lithosphere extending downwards for more than 200 km, the formation of ore deposits during the period when the craton was stable should be confined to the accretionary belts along the craton margins. When the east side of the NSGL became tectonically active in the Yanshanian, parts of the craton including the eastern NCC were transformed into orogenic belts (Goldfarb et al., 2007). The margins of the eastern NCC, where the Caledonian and Variscan mineralization are represented, would be areas superposed by the Yanshanian mineral events. In addition, in the interior of the NCC, the boundaries between the basement microblocks served as weak zones along which lithospheric thinning might have occurred during the Yanshanian. Furthermore, trans-lithospheric faults developed along these boundaries and served major pathways for ore fluid migration. Thus, in addition to the margins of the craton, the regions marking the boundaries between the basement microblocks and the domains surrounding fault zones that mark major fluid pathways should also be targeted for future ore-prospecting. 5. Conclusions Based on an overview of the geological, tectonic and metallogenic events in the North China Craton, we come to the following general conclusions. 1. At least six microblocks were amalgamated by 2.5 Ga, defining the fundamental Precambrian architecture of the North China Craton. The boundaries between the micro-blocks and the margins of the NCC remained as weak zones, which were prone for destruction

Fig. 13. E–W δVp profile along the 37°N showing the nature of crust–mantle structure (after Zhu et al., 2011).

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since then. Almost all these zones record the major tectonic, magmatic and metallogenic events, such as the mafic, alkaline and rapakivi magmatism and orogeny related gold, copper, iron and Ti (rutile) metallogeny during the early to middle Proterozoic with ages ranging from 2.5 to 1.8 Ma. The Early Ordovician kimberlite and diamond mineralization of ca. 480 Ma, the Late Carboniferous and Early to middle Permian calc-alkaline, I-type granitoids and gold deposits of 324–300 Ma, and the Triassic alkaline rocks and gold–silver–polymetallic deposits occur in these boundaries and margins, correlated with the rise of a small mantle plume (?), southward subduction of the paleo Asian plate and the northward subduction of the Yangtze plate, respectively. The large volume of Jurassic granitoids and Cretaceous felsic and mafic igneous rocks and gold, molybdenum, copper, lead and zinc deposits occur in these boundaries and margins, although most of these are concentrated in the eastern part of the NCC, related with the westward subduction of the Pacific Ocean plate. 2. The geodynamics of the Ordovician kimberlite and diamond mineralization was dominated by a few rapidly rising small plumes derived from the deep mantle which had no effect on the basic architecture of the NCC. The magmatism and mineralization during Carboniferous to Triassic were prominently caused by the subduction of the Siberian plate and the Yangtze plate which led to both destruction and accretion along the northern and southern margins of the NCC. No magmatism and mineralization were recorded in the interior of the NCC during this period, implying that the subduction from both the north and south might have been at high angles, and hence most part of the NCC was not destructed or affected. Although magmatism and mineralization were recorded in the Jurassic along the margin and few places in the interior of the NCC, their peak occurred in the Cretaceous in the eastern part of the NCC, with large scale destruction of the craton. After the Cretaceous, no prominent event occurred that affected the tectonic framework of the NCC. 3. The metallogeny of the NCC during its decratonization is characterized by a few large and super large gold and molybdenum deposits, and minor copper, lead–zinc deposits. Although the subduction of the peripheral plates was the main geodynamic mechanism, the mantle contribution to the Cretaceous peak metallogeny, especially in the interior of the NCC, was directly related with lithosphere thinning. Although a gradual variation in the present lithosphere thickness of the eastern NCC is observed from west to east, inhomogeneous thinning is also noticed at the junction of two or three boundaries of the basement microblocks where cratonic thinning is most extensive. We emphasize that, in addition to the margins of the NCC, such boundaries, especially their junction, should be focused in future prospecting activities for ores in the NCC. Acknowledgments We are grateful to Prof. Franco Pirajno, Editor-in-Chief and two anonymous referees for constructive comments and corrections which greatly helped in improving our paper. This work is supported by the Key Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 90914002), Scheduled Program of China Geological Survey (grant no. 1212011220926), the China State Administrative Office of Ore-Prospecting Project for Critical Mines (grant nos. 200714009, 20089937) and the 111 Project under the China Ministry of Education (B07011). This is a contribution to the 1000 Talent Award to M. Santosh from the Chinese Government. Our special thanks are due to Academicians Peng-Da Zhao, Yu-Sheng Zhai and Xuan-Xue Mo for their constructive comments. Appendix A. References for Tables 1 to 6 Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.03.002.

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Zhou, X.H., 2009. Major transformation of subcontinental lithosphere beneath North China in Cenozoic–Mesozoic: revisited. Geol. J. China Univ. 15, 1–18 (in Chinese with English abstract). Zhu, R.X., Chen, L., Wu, F.Y., Liu, J.L., 2011. Timing, scale and mechanism of the destruction of the North China Craton. Sci. China Earth Sci. 54, 789–797. Sheng-Rong Li is Professor at the China University of Geosciences Beijing (China). B.Sc. (1981) from Hebei Institute of Geology, Visiting scholar (1986) from Geological Survey of India Traning Institute, D.Sc. (1992) from China University of Geosciences Beijing, and Postdoctorial fellow (1994) from Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Research fields include genetic mineralogy, petrology, geochemistry and ecomomic geology. Published over 200 research papers and several monographs and textbook. Recipient of Beijing Municipality Outstanding Teacher Award.

M. Santosh is Professor at the China University of Geosciences Beijing (China) and Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Japan. B.Sc. (1978) from Kerala University, M.Sc. (1981) from University of Roorkee, Ph.D. (1986) from Cochin University of Science and Technology, D.Sc. (1990) from Osaka City University and D.Sc. (2012) from University of Pretoria. Founding Editor of Gondwana Research as well as the founding Secretary General of the International Association for Gondwana Research. Research fields include petrology, fluid inclusions, geochemistry, geochronology and supercontinent tectonics. Published over 350 research papers, edited several memoir volumes and journal special issues, and co-author of the book ‘Continents and Supercontinents’ (Oxford University Press, 2004). Recipient of National Mineral Award, Outstanding Geologist Award, Thomson Reuters 2012 Research Front Award, Global Talent Award.