- Email: [email protected]
Methodology for end user computing in development administration
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Methodology for End User Computing in Development Administration Mukul
Introduction
Sanwal
Indian Administrative Seruice, Uttar Pradesh Academ_v of Adminrstration, Nainital 263001, India
Initiating
the
microcomputers
process
for
ogy, both at the conceptual information paper
technology
a comparison
developed cluding
the
in developing
and practical
into
and of
efforts
computing.
The criteria
and
for priority
spread awareness
end
user
decisions
setting
administration,
requires
developing
at various
a process
up a knowledgeable
services
to build
the necessary need
for
strategy
use of
analysis
of
to match
and setting
the this
up sup-
end user to design
organizational
training
a need
or look at
that strategic
of planning
port
the
benefits
levels in development
technology
stresses
has been identified;
a conceptual
with the information and implement
in in-
technology
and goes beyond
of the potential
that must be taken
countries.
information
itself. The paper concludes
computing
In the
the experience
at the local level with end user
this looks at the role of the key actors the technology
functions.
in developing
industrial
and also of change
of
a methodol-
level, for integrating
administrative
innovation,
to merely
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successful
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to develop
The paper
a knowledgeable
end-user.
Keywords: ment,
Development
administration,
End user, Managing
change,
Application
Attitudes,
develop-
Support.
Mukul Sanwal is Director of the Academy of Administration, Nainital, India, and a member of the Task Force set up by the Government of India on District level data bases for Decentralised Planning.
North-Holland Information
& Management
037X-7206/89/$3.50
0 1989,
17 (1989)
Elsevier
117-126
Science
Publishers
Microcomputers have a revolutionary effect everywhere. User needs can be quite adequately served by microcomputers using standard software; they are within the reach of even the least developed nations. But despite this, there is limited spread of the applications, possibly because the dynamics of computing usage is complex. Information technology innovation is very different from industrial innovation just as end user computing is different from local level computing. Similarly. the priorities in system development for developing countries will be different from the experience of developed countries. The term ‘end user’ needs clarification. It is not limited to an administrator or manager sitting before a screen and interacting directly with a microcomputer. David De Long of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Centre for Information Systems Research estimates that no more than lo-15% of senior executives in large American companies have computers on their desks, and only half are using them properly. Britain’s Institute of Manpower Studies found in 150 heavy users of information technology that only one-quarter of the managers use screen based systems (Economist, 1988). An audit of EDP in Government in Sweden found that only 10% of the personal computers were cost effective, because no clear strategy for administrative development by the end users was carried out (IDRC, 1987). The essential issue is not where the microcomputer is placed or even who programmes or operates it, but who is responsible for it (Emery, 1987). This personalisation of computing raises organizational concerns since decisions regarding purchase, applications and operational and maintenance activities now need to be taken by the
B.V. (North-Holland)
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end-users. Microcomputers, due to their versatility. have not only complicated the selection process but also made it difficult to decide how to use and introduce them when there are diverse needs. The brirricrh are more human and territorial than technical. This paper provides guidelines to administrators on the introduction of microcomputers into organizations and how to initiate change. Training will play an important role in this transition; the content will have to include more than merely providing a basic vocabulary and tips aboat choosing hardware, and equip administrators to deal with the organizational implications. The paper is based on our action research efforts over tht2 last three years.
Application
Development
In developing countries, microcomputers are now being introduced to improve management, rather than as a labour saving device or as a link with central data bases, as has been the case in developed countries. Therefore, introduction of microcomputers does not require a scaled down mainframe approach. Studies in developed countries primarily look at interactive computing carried out on mainframes and minis; therefore, they report few operational problems and only benign effects on the work environment. Their data also has limitations; they do not include evaluation of recent innovations like decentralisation, networks, and fourth generation languages. One of the most significant study in the USA uses data collected in 1975 for the mainframe environment (Danziger and Kraemer, 1986). The conceptual model for evaluating the impact of computing on end-users in developing countries requires a recognition of three categories of variables: issues involving various actors at different levels, organizational implications of the change, and determining the data structures for the application package. The Agriculture Project Monitoring, Evaluation, & Planning Unit (Apmepu) in Nigeria introduced multiple microcomputers to Sierra Leone and Jamaica. The Jamaicans very early took over the responsibility for their project and the computer has been fully institutionalised, but in Sierra Leone the transfer
has taken some time (Bureau of the Census, 1983). The Government of Sri Lanka launched an lnformation Technology Application Project at Kalutara with ESCAP assistance to develop a methodology for village level planning. Five years later, the system is only handling pension payments: this was the most pressing problem and an activity for which the flow of information could be easily achieved (APDC, 1988). Avoidable problems have also arisen in the way end user computing has evolved in other developing countries; the experience of lndia provides important clues: - The introduction of microcomputers in all nationalized banks, where 3800 machines have already been ordered, has run into I;:oblems because: micros are seen as job replacement devices; applications developed by different vendors are not compatible; upgradability has been ignored and the micros ordered cannot be connected to one another and will remain stand-alone machines; and maintenance charges of as much as lo-15 percent of the hardware cost are not justified by the post installation services provided. A common complaint is the lack of vendor training and bank managements have also not developed the required infrastructure for installing micros. _ The Natural Resource Data Management System (NRDMS) of the Department of Science and Technology, the District Information Network (DISNIC) of the National Informatics Centre (NIC), and the Resource Allocation and Processing of Information for Districts (RAPIDS) of the Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) of the Department of Electronics and the National Natural Management Resource System (NNMRS) of the Department of Space are using different operating systems and software for microcomputers in the Districts. Formats and codes are also different, making it difficult for the different work groups to share data, adopt a coordinated approach, and learn from each other’s experience. Thus, in the same State, Gujarat, three different projects are underway in Kheda, Surendranagar & Baroda Districts with no compatibility. A proposal has now been made to integrate the projects. - Computerisation of foreign trade statistics was started in 1983-84 and has run into difficulties. This is probably because the different systems of classification in use by the Departments of Revenue and Commerce were not standardised.
Information & Management _ The computerization of Treasury Accounts has been implemented in Gujarat State. The States of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Orissa are contemplating a similar exercise, each with its own consultant, formats, and logic. This will make national level aggregation difficult while duplicating costs. _ In Sultanpur district, Uttar Pradesh, the vendor has prepared a very detailed format for data collection. Not only is data collection, input, and updating time consuming but also most of the data is not needed in decision making; the District Administration is now revising the format on its own. _ The department of Social Welfare paid a large sum to a Management Institute to prepare a monitoring system, which took six months to develop. Only to find that a standard Data Base Management Package had been used, and an officer subsequently improved it considerably himself. _ A State Government increased its training budget five times in one year to send officers to learn skills in using microcomputers, only to find that hands-on experience was limited to a two-hour visit to a computer centre; also standard packages were being used. The unanimous response was that, in the absence of specific applications, using available tutorials provided with the packages would have been more effective. _ The National Informatics Centre (NIC) is supplying PC-AT’s to all districts in India; but equipment in Quilon, Kerala State, developed a fault in its first week of operation. Since the district officals had no contact with the vendor, they had to approach the NIC in Delhi. The result: a down time of two months. Such problems are only partly avoidable. Products will proliferate, incompatibility will be there, training & maintenance budgets will grow, more information will be generated than used. When end-users develop their own applications, much of the learning is by trial and error. The process can be well managed if a small beginning is made with a knowledgeable end user and some support in the form of standardization in hardware, application packages, and data structures. The Indian experience also provides a number of such lessons: _ A standard monitoring format, common to all administrative levels and departments in the State of Karnataka, has had a noticeable impact on coordination by focussing on exception reporting
M. Sanwal / Methodology for End User Computlnr:
119
rather than target monitoring, requiring only poor performers to attend the monthly meetings. - Openness in dealing with information improves administrative efficiency as well as service effectiveness. _ Administrative innovations also emerge. _ Before microcomputers can be introduced at the local level, the political executive also needs training to reduce their apprehension, particularly of the dangers of loss of control. _ The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Bombay found that decentralising purchase to user departments lead to quicker adoption of the technology. _ The Academy of Administration, Nainital, has shown that with hands-on experience stenographers can learn enough wordprocessing, data-base management systems, and spreadsheets in a month for applications in administration; outside help is not then needed. _ A micro computer was introduced in Udaipui District, Rajasthan, in 1984; their experience has been that the major bottleneck is in inputting and updating the data rather than its collection and reliability. _ In Rajasthan, young officers have formed an informal user group which meets every Saturday to discuss application problems. They were ahle to improve upon the grievance handling system of the Computer Maintenance Corporation. They also helped the State Education Department (with 4 lakh employees), who were being advised by a vendor to buy nine data entry machines to augment the input capacity of a PC by pointing out that the configuration itself was inadequate. - Orissa State is using the opportunity of introducing micro computers in Treasuries to affect administrative reform by changing over to the pay and accounts system, because they have a knowledgeable administrator in charge of the process. These experiences demonstrate that actor-oriented approaches are needed to determine how to introduce microcomputers into organizations. since innovation theories based on mass production technology are not valid for high technology. The problems in the introduction of microcomputers continue to be motivation, interface, and sustenance concerns. The solutions that are then suggested - user involvement, role of information analysts, and organization development intervention are essentially remedies for dealing with the
l-able
1
Initiating
Successful
2. Understanding of needs 3. S> stem
developmrnt 4. Widespread involvement 5. Sustained development
End User Computing. Industrial innovation Normal approach
I.T. innovation Recommended approach
Focus on hardware speclficati( 3nb Provide technical guidance Introduce specialists Central direction separate computer sxtor
Focus on operational requirements Prototype using standard software Determine training plans User Groups for knowledge sharing Integrate into existing functions
symptoms and not the organizational changes fostered by microcomputers. The secondary effects of computing are more important than its primary ones (Table I ). Since use of microcomputers is more widespread in business than in government, it is all too common for administrators to seek remedies drawn from general management, seemingly applicable to all organizations. Actually, managing change in large organizations requires balancing short term and long term concerns. Long term improvements in government depend upon securing a firm commitment. Securing support at the top level is only the first stage of implementation. Even this requires capacity to initiate structural change; reorganization of powers and responsibilities is involved. Government is composed of several interdependent organizations and not of neatly structured organizational hierarchies with well defined tasks and clearly allocated responsibilities. Innovation in administration requires three overlapping phases: catching attention, establishing legitimacy. and mobilizing support. Overcoming resistance to change depends on showing that it can work; implementation is an adaptive and not a programmed process.
Experience
Evidcncc across developed sistent: experience is driven
countries is not conby many forces. in
addition to the dispositions of organizational leaders and organizational factions (Kraemer and King, 1985). In the same way that stand alone microcomputers gave way to integrated decision making and information technology, the limitation of a piece-by-piece approach is apparent. The approach of the governmental information project in Japan is systematically to plan for a data base system (Ohashi. 1988). The new technology is affecting both the way organizations work and the way people work within them, i.e., it is influenced by the context as well as content of the change. The major issue is of a sociological nature (Druker, 1988). The implication of change has not yet been seen in developing countries, because their microcomputer applications have largely followed trends in the USA. where the impetus came from the finance department and top management did not intervene in the process. Most of the activities of aid-agencies involving micro computers in developing countries have focussed upon coordinating projects, maintaining inventory and distribution systems. budgetting, and processing a population census (BOSTID, 1986). Micro computer development projects for these activities generally have three major components: provision of expert services, supply of equipment. and training of local staff. As the impetus for computerization is from the outside, applications are limited to low-information intensive decisions involving internal operations without significant structural change. They consequently remain isolated projects; their evolution comes to a standstill after a few years (Sanwal, 1987). Administrators often assume that the only organizational change needed is that the person in charge of computers report at the highest level; this is inapplicable in organizations implementing end user computing. A general purpose position of an information resources manager (IRM) operating at the highest level, as required in the Paperwork Reduction Act of the USA, is suitable for centralised planning and control of information. Similar prescriptions are being proposed for developing countries (Bhatnagar, 1986) ignoring the fact that even in the USA their success in developing information as a strategic resource has been limited (Bozeman & Bretschneider, 1986). The major findings of a study of information management at the federal level in the US Government
Information
&
Managemenr
are that the oversight role prevails, while the need is for developing “value added” applications (Caudle, 1988). The information centre concept developed by IBM in Canada in 1976 also has similar limitations, because it addresses the use of the resource rather than the management of the technology (Madnick, 1987). It is important to recognise the dichotomy between management of information resources - hardware, software, professionals, and space - and management of the process of supporting decision-making by those who manage organizations, i.e. the enduser.
Knowledgable
End User
In developed countries, computerization evolved through mainframes, with emphasis on communication technology; local and primarily end-user oriented capabilities were not needed. Developing countries that follow the microcomputer route can accumulate capabilities at the local user level, once a conscious effort is made to use the technology to facilitate decision making. Rather than rely on outsiders, the essential organizational requirement is to develop knowledgable end users. Judgement regarding design of applications, concommitant change in structure, and procedures, and development of standard formats, codes, and programmes that are integrated into existing administrative functions requires end users who are experienced administrators as well as knowledgeable about their applications and the strengths and weaknesses of micro computer systems. Information analysts and computer specialists find it difficult to identify worthwhile applications, because they do not understand organization structures, functions, decisionmaking processes, and the seemingly diffuse goals of administration. Standard software (e.g. spreadsheet, data base management, statistics, and project management packages) can provide for almost all the applications in administration. Users only need to be given orientation in the use of available software for a wide variety of administrative tasks. All the applications discussed at a recent regional seminar on microcomputers for rural development were based on DBase IIIPlus and Lotus l-2-3 (APDC, 1988).
M. Sanwal ,’ Method&R)? for End C’.wr Computing
121
The standard professional procedure is to labour for months to produce a sophisticated nearly flawless version of a programme that will require little or no change for some time. This approach must give place to prototyping, where a simple model is computerized, tested, enhanced, and retested. Despite its limitations, the model often produces useful results quickly because it ensures committment. The decision support system developed at the ATI, Nainital. has gone through three updates in the last year, to make it more open ended: this is also the case with standard application packages. Apex bodies, inevitably dominated by professionals, must replace the us versus thqv mentality and encourage experimentation in an integrated manner, guiding rather than regulating inexperienced users. Top level involvement is necessary, not just to provide support but also to use the decisions, because they will affect strategy, redefining jobs. functions, and methods of working. The Government of India, in April 1988 shifted the National Informatics Centre from a technical ministry, the department of Electronics. to the user organization. the national Planning Commission, and the first meeting in June focussed on bringing together professionals and end users to determine data and training needs.
Prototyping
Since end-user computing, unlike local level computing, is goal directed and prescriptive rather than descriptive, the steps in prototyping will include a clear understanding of the respective roles of the end-user and the computer professional. Experience with microcomputers will be the best guide of how to determine these roles. Users must be actively involved in the development process, not merely consulted because of the structural change that will result. Adoption of a prototyping approach allows for major revision at low cost: user understanding of their information needs will evolve at the same time as the system’s development. This flexibility leads to effective continuing utilization (Table 2). Administration is getting things done through other organizations. One of the myths of reform is that it is possible to create an organized division of labour which virtually eliminates the need for
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Table 1 Roles in Developing
Information
Applications.
End user
LT. professional
\pecifymg Information requirements identifying decision parameters system analysis design of processing logic link with transaction data base dbms prototype training implementation administrative reform
coordination. This ignores the game - like qualities of hudgetting and planning as a system of multilateral bargaining: decentralisation provides a new framework for inter-departmental negotiation. Effective administration depends upon managing interdependence where improvements are dependent on experimentation and innovation (Metcalfe and Richards, 1987). Computerization should enable the required flexibility rather than put the organization in an electronics straitjacket.
data structures for the development of common systems to realise benefits through economies of scale and standardisation of products and procedures. Secondly, the technical criteria for choice of software package will determine the implementation process and set clear goals. Thirdly, there are effects on organizational arrangements, particularly on relationships, to be considered. Nearly two-thirds of the time and staff resources should be spent in analysis and design in the beginning rather than in the actual construction of the system. It is important to define the use to which information is put by decision makers; this determines its contribution towards effectiveness, by determining how well data and technology supports decisionmaking. Certain guidelines for application development emerge: 1. The
2. System
Design
Development Administration is not merely physical handling of records and correspondence, storage of data. retrieval of reports or timeliness of outputs. but has a behavioural aspect very different from Western corporate requirements: ~ it looks at locational choices rather than performance of people, it is concerned with linkages within the system rather than the functioning of an organization, and, the information intensity for decision making increases at the implementation rather than the policy end of the hierarchy.
3.
4.
5.
6. Studies of municipal government in the USA also show a similar trend in databased mode of use: searching specific facts, linking files, and developing meaningful patterns (Danzier and Kraemcr. 1986). There are three issues in the learning curve of such end user computing efforts. Firstly, there is the managerial context, determining the design of
& Management
objective should be to evaluate applications from an organizational perspective rather than costs and benefits, avoid duplication of development of similar systems in other offices and apply common standards of data dictionary to facilitate sharing. The application should provide a meaningful solution to widely accepted problems, the input and output of the system should be within one department, the data should be of high quality, and users should have a need to automate their functions, The technical staff should be minimal in number, responsive in providing solutions, with good communication skills and headed by someone who is more of a manager than a technician. The pilot application requires hand-holding and support by constant presence of a professional so that problems can be resolved promptly, The system should have the capacity to evolve to accomodate behavior styles, capabilities, and changing requirements. As the computerized application area expands, social and organizational changes need to be resolved in a consistent and coordinated manner.
A payroll package admirably meets these conditions. It is simple, its input and outputs are predetermined, the data are available in the office and of reasonably good quality, and benefits
M. Sanwal / MethodoloD for End User Computing
Information & Management
accrue immediately in the form of updated deductions and accounts; it demonstrates that there were serious shortcomings in existing arrangements. The State Government of Uttar Pradesh is considering initiating computerization with this application. It needs to be stressed that the introduction of microcomputers in developing countries is often the initiation of computerization, and payroll applications have been the first everywhere.
Managing
Change
A decision support system for administrators at the local level has to satisfy certain criteria. System designers must be aware of the decision parameters for different functions and levels (Table 3):
1. Dealing with diversified needs and unstructured problems across horizontal and vertical Table 3 Criteria for a DSS for Development Design characteristics 1. Objective 2. Process
3. Decision
4. Information need 5. Nature of relations 6. Strategic direction 7. Effect
8. Level of integration 9. Level of Planning 10. Opportunity
Administration.
Decisions Planning
Budgetting
Operations
Remove disparities Optimise to determine objectives Spatial location in a village Not well structured, predictive Supporting
Manage funds Monitor programme activities Sectoral allocation for a department Some stages prespecified, diagnostic Controlling
Follow norms General management functions Beneficiary selection through a transaction Pre-set procedure, descriptive Checking
Outcomes
outputs
Inputs
Change in decision making process Full
Better understanding of problems
Provision of relevant information
Partial
Limited
Policy
Strategic
Tactical
Provide new alternatives
Aid repetitive decisions
Increase efficiency
123
levels rather than individual sectors requires information sharing across departments for synergy between individual systems. The data base has to be developed from systematically and routinely collected information, this requires the data structure be carefully designed. Information on operations is to be the basis for budgetary allocation and planning decisions, requiring microcomputers at the field level to facilitate input and ensure data quality. The system has to be interactive; this requires a menu driven package so that it can be used by noncomputer professionals. The emphasis in programming queries has to be on flexibility, adaptability, and quick response to accomodate specific requirements and the approach of the end user at different levels. Placing microcomputers where data is generated and where it is utilised,makes it possible to provide local applications which have high impact. There is a need to convert present ad-hoc statistical compilation and large volume transactions processing into coherent systems that support local level planning and directly contribute to the implementation process. A package developed at the Academy of Administration balances objectives of government. It blends the capacity of models with intuitive judgement. In addition to inter-organizational sharing of data, it provides for quick recognition of trends and highlights exceptional conditions. The package has been used in meetings for District Planning to integrate the various departments involved in rural development and also expand the range of strategic alternatives considered in taking locational decisions. In this manner, public pressure has been put on local leaders and officials to improve performance, negotiation, and the quality of decisions. The distinguishing feature of participatory local level planning is the use of percentage distributive indicators rather than per capita indicators, with the village as the unit of analysis: this was not possible in the manual system because data is kept on a sectoral basis.
Top Level
Support
The experience gained indicates certain practical rules for success. It requires top level participa-
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tion, direction, and support; an understanding of the process of managing change, so managers can spot and correct errors and make improvement as well as be aware of the implications of the choices made, otherwise decisions will occur by default:
1. Budget - operating costs per computer unit increase as systems become widespread, while hardware costs to total costs decrease appreciably. 2. Personnel - System engineers and programmers rather than operators and key punchers increase in number; while existing clerks should be trained for data input, some additional posts are needed for specialised functions. processing pre3. Office Automution - document sently takes up most of the time involved in office work; this will remain the major application for some time because the bulk of the work comprises non-formalised information whose storage and retrieval will continue to rely on clerical office techniques. 4. Decentrulisation ~ each ministry or department will need to set up its own steering group with responsibility for implementation, operation, and maintenance of its system. including hardware: a bottom-up approach is essential for the spread of computerization. 5. Flexibility ~ a separate fund to facilitate development of prototypes and their transfer for mutual use and to provide a forum to discuss problems is useful in developing applications. 6. Data Buses - gathering information requires a great deal of effort and money; it will need to be standardized, limited for specific usage, evaluated for consistency and quality with procedures for mutual utilization and sharing. 7. Implementation - while it is important to start with individual applications and needs, the efforts should be part of a plan with definite priorities. 8. Reform ~ as the computerized application area administrative reforms become imexpands portant, needing separate guidelines for information sharing, promotion of application development and training.
Provision of microcomputers will not itself lead to any benefits unless end users and professionals jointly anticipate and deal with these management issues.
Impact
on the Middle
Level
It is important to distinguish between the roles of the top level sponsor of the project and the middle level administrator who will implement the change. The most important factors in determining successful use of micro computers in developing countries are the management philosophy of those planning the system and the effect of the application on middle level administrators. All administrators should be aware of the need to equate microcomputers with improvement: it does not merely imply more or better work. It is also difficult to train or pursuade the top level; and Development Board of e.g., the Housing Singapore had to wait for four months to get an appointment to make the initial presentation. Top level seminars will be the most appropriate to further understanding at this level. Managerial efforts should be concentrated at the middle level administrators, particularly in local government, because these are the persons who will be handling data. They are also the ones who will be the most affected. The payoff is then likely to be greater, because more timely information allows these administrators to gain feedback on the actual work situation and to analyse alternatives and understand the implications of their decisions. Terminals, also, become status symbols (everyone wants one). Unless a number of application packages are available at the operational level, the process can then come to a standstill. Management requirements are much more than awareness of potential benefits.
Attitudes
Managing the change to computerization in administration is a measure of administrative reform and requires positive attitudes, particularly from key groups at the middle level. The process includes a set of data and human resources, as well as procedures to collect, enter, retrieve and use data: 1. The objective should be benefits to the end-user, consequently the choice of applications will need to facilitate service rather than better control.
InJormation & Managemm
Some officers at the middle level who were the repositories of data will lose power and their resistance must be considered. The location of the resource and the manpower to enter data also become points of contention; distributed data entry by the existing staff rather than fresh recruitment or transfer ensures data quality and facilitates institutionalisation. It is important to establish communication with users for feedback to sort out problems as they arise: to determine what is feasible and to develop consensus. Delay, when data are not available and maintenance not prompt, is an important cause of failure. It is important to have a set of guidelines to increase useability, enable transfer of design and personnel from one project to another and help administrators.
Since the introduction of microcomputers involves structural changes, support services are areas that need special attention. In the work at the Academy of Administration, four steps have been found to be particularly useful. Firstly, since administrators (as well as managers) in developing countries do not do their own typing, personal secretaries will be the persons who will be, at least initially, using the micros. The difference in training is in the need for longer and simpler explanations for stenographers & clerks. They both need similar training, both in standard operating system procedures and in the software packages. A committed and competent clerk managing the operation, can help ensure success. Reorganization will affect people, structures and processes and often cause resistance to change, though it is not apparent what is being resisted. A favourable attitude, and even leadership at the data entry level, is vital for husbanding support within the organization. This is also the experience in Kenya (Ministry, 1987). Secondly, the value of information to decision makers must be considered. An application that is personally useful to the head of the office (e.g.
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/ Methodology for End User Computing
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time-planner as well as storage and retrieval of important statistics, legislation, and orders), and to the staff (payroll) provides better motivation than the standard applications for budget and planning which affect organizational performance. Rather than train people to use a classroom exercise, this approach shows them how to use it in their day to day work. Training also makes users more demanding; without specific applications, knowledge of advanced features of the package and how to do debugging of their own work, they can become dissatisfied. Training Institutes will need to identify applications, impart problem solving skills and provide adequate facilities for learning (adequate number of machines) for endusers so that they need less support. Thirdly, initial inputting of the basic data is a time consuming task that requires additional staff, as well as frequent technical debugging. This should be done by the agency responsible for supporting computerization. The Training Institute is a good place: officials learn while they input the data. Fourthly, updating the know-how of users and providing a forum for exchange of experiences by repeated training sessions, seminars, library services, formation of user groups, and regular information dissemination and assistance to cover the entire development process is also required. For institutionalization of the use of microcomputers what is done is as important as how it is done. At the first user group meeting held at the Academy, in May 1988, nine prototype applications were demonstrated, shared and are being implemented. An ‘End User Digest’ sent to all District Officers has evoked a number of responses for these application packages, particularly from administrators in remote field assignments. This has helped to encourage a “anybody can computerise culture”, promote data sharing, and standardisation of applications.
Conclusion
It is necessary to share experience so that policy makers, aid agencies and development administrators avoid costly mistakes. Three critical success factors emerge for ensuring end user commitment
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needed for integrating information development administration:
technology
into
A framework for planning organizational changes and an action plan to seize the new opportunities, A strategic application with a well thought out data structure which will determine the actual impact, and A training path to develop and support a knowledgeable end user. The strategic issues for end user computing involve organizational concerns that can no longer be left to information analysts; they must be dealt with by the administrators themselves. The enduser must play a greater role in prototyping applications because the required expertise concerns the decision situation rather than technology. It is also necessary that the choice of applications is prioritised within the national planning framework. Training Institutes will need to play a vital role to develop commitment for supporting the process by providing service, staff and software. The critical success factor for introducing microcomputers in developing countries is the knowledgeable end-user.
References [l] APDC (1988). ‘New IT Applications for Local Level Development in Asian and Pacific Countries’. Asia and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (mimeo). [2] Anderson. Jeffrey L., and Charles W. Rice, Jr. (1969). ‘Attitudes of Country Government Officials in the North Towards Computer Utilization’. Bureau of Public Research, University of Idaho, USA (mimeo). [3] Attewell, Paul and James Rule, (1984). ‘Computing and Organizations: what we know and what we don’t know’. Communicatmns of the ACM, Vol. 21 (Dec.), pp. 1184-1192. [4] Bhatnagar. SC. (1986). ‘Computerization in Public Administration: Manpower and Training needs’. Data for Development: New letter, No. 21 (Dec.) pp. 35542.
I51 Bostid, (1986). Mtcro computers and their applications for Developing Countries: Report of cm Ad Hoc Panel on the use of Micro computers for Developing Countries (West View Press. Boulder). 161Bozeman. Barry and Stuart Bretschneider (1986). ‘Public Management Information Systems: Theory and Prescriptions’, Public Administrution Review, Vol. 46. Special Issue (Nov.) pp. 475-488. [71 Bureau of the Census, (1983). ‘Considermoms fir use of Microcomputers m Developing Country Stotistictil O/fices’. International Statistical Program Office, USA. Resource ISI Caudle. Sharon L. (1988). ‘Federal Information Management After the Paperwork Reduction Act’. Puhlrc Administrufion Reoieu, Vol. 48, No. 4, July/August, pp. 790-799. James N. and Kenneth L. Kraemer (1986). [91 Danziger, People and Computers: The Impacts of Computing on End Users WI Organizations (Columbia University Press, New York). [lOI Economist (1988). ‘Bringing up Bosses in the IT Age’. The Economist. April 23, 1988. London. 1111 Emery. James C. (1987). ‘Management Informatron Svsterns: The Critical Strategtc Resource (Oxford University Press, New York). 117-l Druker, Peter F. (1988). ‘The coming of the New Organization. Haroard Busrnexs Review,. Jan.-Feb.. 1988, No. 1. pp. 45-54. Development Research Centre (1987). ’ In[I31 International crease of Productivity in Public Administration: the Role of Information Technologies’. Proceedings of the international meeting held in Dakar. Senegal, June 1986 (mimeo). [I41 Kraemer, Kenneth L. and John Leslie King (1986). ‘Computmg in Public Organizations’. Public Administration Rec’tew, Vol. 46. Special Issue (Nov.), pp. 488-496. on the Effective I151 Madnick. Stuart E. (19X7). ‘Perspectives Use, Planning. and Impact of Information Technology’ in The Strategic Use of lnformution Technology (Oxford University Press. New York). [161 Metcalfe. Les and Sue Richards (1987). Improoing Puhhc Munrrgement (Sage Publications, London). (171 Ministry (1987) ‘Semi Annual Report No. 3, Resource Management for Rural Development Project. March 1987 through August 1987’. Ministry of Planning and National Development. Nairobi, Kenya (mimeo). Infor[181 Ohashi. Tomohiro (1988). ‘Japan: A Governmental mation ProJect Along the Administrative Reform’. Dato For Dwelopment Newsletter. No. 23. Feb. Marseille, France. u91 Sanwal, M. (ed.) (19X7). Micro computer.? rn Development Administrotron (Tata Mcgraw Hill, New Delhi).
SOS
Methodology for End User Computing in Development Administration Mukul
Introduction
Sanwal
Indian Administrative Seruice, Uttar Pradesh Academ_v of Adminrstration, Nainital 263001, India
Initiating
the
microcomputers
process
for
ogy, both at the conceptual information paper
technology
a comparison
developed cluding
the
in developing
and practical
into
and of
efforts
computing.
The criteria
and
for priority
spread awareness
end
user
decisions
setting
administration,
requires
developing
at various
a process
up a knowledgeable
services
to build
the necessary need
for
strategy
use of
analysis
of
to match
and setting
the this
up sup-
end user to design
organizational
training
a need
or look at
that strategic
of planning
port
the
benefits
levels in development
technology
stresses
has been identified;
a conceptual
with the information and implement
in in-
technology
and goes beyond
of the potential
that must be taken
countries.
information
itself. The paper concludes
computing
In the
the experience
at the local level with end user
this looks at the role of the key actors the technology
functions.
in developing
industrial
and also of change
of
a methodol-
level, for integrating
administrative
innovation,
to merely
introduction
requires
has been made between
countries the effect
successful
countries
changes.
to develop
The paper
a knowledgeable
end-user.
Keywords: ment,
Development
administration,
End user, Managing
change,
Application
Attitudes,
develop-
Support.
Mukul Sanwal is Director of the Academy of Administration, Nainital, India, and a member of the Task Force set up by the Government of India on District level data bases for Decentralised Planning.
North-Holland Information
& Management
037X-7206/89/$3.50
0 1989,
17 (1989)
Elsevier
117-126
Science
Publishers
Microcomputers have a revolutionary effect everywhere. User needs can be quite adequately served by microcomputers using standard software; they are within the reach of even the least developed nations. But despite this, there is limited spread of the applications, possibly because the dynamics of computing usage is complex. Information technology innovation is very different from industrial innovation just as end user computing is different from local level computing. Similarly. the priorities in system development for developing countries will be different from the experience of developed countries. The term ‘end user’ needs clarification. It is not limited to an administrator or manager sitting before a screen and interacting directly with a microcomputer. David De Long of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Centre for Information Systems Research estimates that no more than lo-15% of senior executives in large American companies have computers on their desks, and only half are using them properly. Britain’s Institute of Manpower Studies found in 150 heavy users of information technology that only one-quarter of the managers use screen based systems (Economist, 1988). An audit of EDP in Government in Sweden found that only 10% of the personal computers were cost effective, because no clear strategy for administrative development by the end users was carried out (IDRC, 1987). The essential issue is not where the microcomputer is placed or even who programmes or operates it, but who is responsible for it (Emery, 1987). This personalisation of computing raises organizational concerns since decisions regarding purchase, applications and operational and maintenance activities now need to be taken by the
B.V. (North-Holland)
11X
SOS
end-users. Microcomputers, due to their versatility. have not only complicated the selection process but also made it difficult to decide how to use and introduce them when there are diverse needs. The brirricrh are more human and territorial than technical. This paper provides guidelines to administrators on the introduction of microcomputers into organizations and how to initiate change. Training will play an important role in this transition; the content will have to include more than merely providing a basic vocabulary and tips aboat choosing hardware, and equip administrators to deal with the organizational implications. The paper is based on our action research efforts over tht2 last three years.
Application
Development
In developing countries, microcomputers are now being introduced to improve management, rather than as a labour saving device or as a link with central data bases, as has been the case in developed countries. Therefore, introduction of microcomputers does not require a scaled down mainframe approach. Studies in developed countries primarily look at interactive computing carried out on mainframes and minis; therefore, they report few operational problems and only benign effects on the work environment. Their data also has limitations; they do not include evaluation of recent innovations like decentralisation, networks, and fourth generation languages. One of the most significant study in the USA uses data collected in 1975 for the mainframe environment (Danziger and Kraemer, 1986). The conceptual model for evaluating the impact of computing on end-users in developing countries requires a recognition of three categories of variables: issues involving various actors at different levels, organizational implications of the change, and determining the data structures for the application package. The Agriculture Project Monitoring, Evaluation, & Planning Unit (Apmepu) in Nigeria introduced multiple microcomputers to Sierra Leone and Jamaica. The Jamaicans very early took over the responsibility for their project and the computer has been fully institutionalised, but in Sierra Leone the transfer
has taken some time (Bureau of the Census, 1983). The Government of Sri Lanka launched an lnformation Technology Application Project at Kalutara with ESCAP assistance to develop a methodology for village level planning. Five years later, the system is only handling pension payments: this was the most pressing problem and an activity for which the flow of information could be easily achieved (APDC, 1988). Avoidable problems have also arisen in the way end user computing has evolved in other developing countries; the experience of lndia provides important clues: - The introduction of microcomputers in all nationalized banks, where 3800 machines have already been ordered, has run into I;:oblems because: micros are seen as job replacement devices; applications developed by different vendors are not compatible; upgradability has been ignored and the micros ordered cannot be connected to one another and will remain stand-alone machines; and maintenance charges of as much as lo-15 percent of the hardware cost are not justified by the post installation services provided. A common complaint is the lack of vendor training and bank managements have also not developed the required infrastructure for installing micros. _ The Natural Resource Data Management System (NRDMS) of the Department of Science and Technology, the District Information Network (DISNIC) of the National Informatics Centre (NIC), and the Resource Allocation and Processing of Information for Districts (RAPIDS) of the Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) of the Department of Electronics and the National Natural Management Resource System (NNMRS) of the Department of Space are using different operating systems and software for microcomputers in the Districts. Formats and codes are also different, making it difficult for the different work groups to share data, adopt a coordinated approach, and learn from each other’s experience. Thus, in the same State, Gujarat, three different projects are underway in Kheda, Surendranagar & Baroda Districts with no compatibility. A proposal has now been made to integrate the projects. - Computerisation of foreign trade statistics was started in 1983-84 and has run into difficulties. This is probably because the different systems of classification in use by the Departments of Revenue and Commerce were not standardised.
Information & Management _ The computerization of Treasury Accounts has been implemented in Gujarat State. The States of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Orissa are contemplating a similar exercise, each with its own consultant, formats, and logic. This will make national level aggregation difficult while duplicating costs. _ In Sultanpur district, Uttar Pradesh, the vendor has prepared a very detailed format for data collection. Not only is data collection, input, and updating time consuming but also most of the data is not needed in decision making; the District Administration is now revising the format on its own. _ The department of Social Welfare paid a large sum to a Management Institute to prepare a monitoring system, which took six months to develop. Only to find that a standard Data Base Management Package had been used, and an officer subsequently improved it considerably himself. _ A State Government increased its training budget five times in one year to send officers to learn skills in using microcomputers, only to find that hands-on experience was limited to a two-hour visit to a computer centre; also standard packages were being used. The unanimous response was that, in the absence of specific applications, using available tutorials provided with the packages would have been more effective. _ The National Informatics Centre (NIC) is supplying PC-AT’s to all districts in India; but equipment in Quilon, Kerala State, developed a fault in its first week of operation. Since the district officals had no contact with the vendor, they had to approach the NIC in Delhi. The result: a down time of two months. Such problems are only partly avoidable. Products will proliferate, incompatibility will be there, training & maintenance budgets will grow, more information will be generated than used. When end-users develop their own applications, much of the learning is by trial and error. The process can be well managed if a small beginning is made with a knowledgeable end user and some support in the form of standardization in hardware, application packages, and data structures. The Indian experience also provides a number of such lessons: _ A standard monitoring format, common to all administrative levels and departments in the State of Karnataka, has had a noticeable impact on coordination by focussing on exception reporting
M. Sanwal / Methodology for End User Computlnr:
119
rather than target monitoring, requiring only poor performers to attend the monthly meetings. - Openness in dealing with information improves administrative efficiency as well as service effectiveness. _ Administrative innovations also emerge. _ Before microcomputers can be introduced at the local level, the political executive also needs training to reduce their apprehension, particularly of the dangers of loss of control. _ The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Bombay found that decentralising purchase to user departments lead to quicker adoption of the technology. _ The Academy of Administration, Nainital, has shown that with hands-on experience stenographers can learn enough wordprocessing, data-base management systems, and spreadsheets in a month for applications in administration; outside help is not then needed. _ A micro computer was introduced in Udaipui District, Rajasthan, in 1984; their experience has been that the major bottleneck is in inputting and updating the data rather than its collection and reliability. _ In Rajasthan, young officers have formed an informal user group which meets every Saturday to discuss application problems. They were ahle to improve upon the grievance handling system of the Computer Maintenance Corporation. They also helped the State Education Department (with 4 lakh employees), who were being advised by a vendor to buy nine data entry machines to augment the input capacity of a PC by pointing out that the configuration itself was inadequate. - Orissa State is using the opportunity of introducing micro computers in Treasuries to affect administrative reform by changing over to the pay and accounts system, because they have a knowledgeable administrator in charge of the process. These experiences demonstrate that actor-oriented approaches are needed to determine how to introduce microcomputers into organizations. since innovation theories based on mass production technology are not valid for high technology. The problems in the introduction of microcomputers continue to be motivation, interface, and sustenance concerns. The solutions that are then suggested - user involvement, role of information analysts, and organization development intervention are essentially remedies for dealing with the
l-able
1
Initiating
Successful
2. Understanding of needs 3. S> stem
developmrnt 4. Widespread involvement 5. Sustained development
End User Computing. Industrial innovation Normal approach
I.T. innovation Recommended approach
Focus on hardware speclficati( 3nb Provide technical guidance Introduce specialists Central direction separate computer sxtor
Focus on operational requirements Prototype using standard software Determine training plans User Groups for knowledge sharing Integrate into existing functions
symptoms and not the organizational changes fostered by microcomputers. The secondary effects of computing are more important than its primary ones (Table I ). Since use of microcomputers is more widespread in business than in government, it is all too common for administrators to seek remedies drawn from general management, seemingly applicable to all organizations. Actually, managing change in large organizations requires balancing short term and long term concerns. Long term improvements in government depend upon securing a firm commitment. Securing support at the top level is only the first stage of implementation. Even this requires capacity to initiate structural change; reorganization of powers and responsibilities is involved. Government is composed of several interdependent organizations and not of neatly structured organizational hierarchies with well defined tasks and clearly allocated responsibilities. Innovation in administration requires three overlapping phases: catching attention, establishing legitimacy. and mobilizing support. Overcoming resistance to change depends on showing that it can work; implementation is an adaptive and not a programmed process.
Experience
Evidcncc across developed sistent: experience is driven
countries is not conby many forces. in
addition to the dispositions of organizational leaders and organizational factions (Kraemer and King, 1985). In the same way that stand alone microcomputers gave way to integrated decision making and information technology, the limitation of a piece-by-piece approach is apparent. The approach of the governmental information project in Japan is systematically to plan for a data base system (Ohashi. 1988). The new technology is affecting both the way organizations work and the way people work within them, i.e., it is influenced by the context as well as content of the change. The major issue is of a sociological nature (Druker, 1988). The implication of change has not yet been seen in developing countries, because their microcomputer applications have largely followed trends in the USA. where the impetus came from the finance department and top management did not intervene in the process. Most of the activities of aid-agencies involving micro computers in developing countries have focussed upon coordinating projects, maintaining inventory and distribution systems. budgetting, and processing a population census (BOSTID, 1986). Micro computer development projects for these activities generally have three major components: provision of expert services, supply of equipment. and training of local staff. As the impetus for computerization is from the outside, applications are limited to low-information intensive decisions involving internal operations without significant structural change. They consequently remain isolated projects; their evolution comes to a standstill after a few years (Sanwal, 1987). Administrators often assume that the only organizational change needed is that the person in charge of computers report at the highest level; this is inapplicable in organizations implementing end user computing. A general purpose position of an information resources manager (IRM) operating at the highest level, as required in the Paperwork Reduction Act of the USA, is suitable for centralised planning and control of information. Similar prescriptions are being proposed for developing countries (Bhatnagar, 1986) ignoring the fact that even in the USA their success in developing information as a strategic resource has been limited (Bozeman & Bretschneider, 1986). The major findings of a study of information management at the federal level in the US Government
Information
&
Managemenr
are that the oversight role prevails, while the need is for developing “value added” applications (Caudle, 1988). The information centre concept developed by IBM in Canada in 1976 also has similar limitations, because it addresses the use of the resource rather than the management of the technology (Madnick, 1987). It is important to recognise the dichotomy between management of information resources - hardware, software, professionals, and space - and management of the process of supporting decision-making by those who manage organizations, i.e. the enduser.
Knowledgable
End User
In developed countries, computerization evolved through mainframes, with emphasis on communication technology; local and primarily end-user oriented capabilities were not needed. Developing countries that follow the microcomputer route can accumulate capabilities at the local user level, once a conscious effort is made to use the technology to facilitate decision making. Rather than rely on outsiders, the essential organizational requirement is to develop knowledgable end users. Judgement regarding design of applications, concommitant change in structure, and procedures, and development of standard formats, codes, and programmes that are integrated into existing administrative functions requires end users who are experienced administrators as well as knowledgeable about their applications and the strengths and weaknesses of micro computer systems. Information analysts and computer specialists find it difficult to identify worthwhile applications, because they do not understand organization structures, functions, decisionmaking processes, and the seemingly diffuse goals of administration. Standard software (e.g. spreadsheet, data base management, statistics, and project management packages) can provide for almost all the applications in administration. Users only need to be given orientation in the use of available software for a wide variety of administrative tasks. All the applications discussed at a recent regional seminar on microcomputers for rural development were based on DBase IIIPlus and Lotus l-2-3 (APDC, 1988).
M. Sanwal ,’ Method&R)? for End C’.wr Computing
121
The standard professional procedure is to labour for months to produce a sophisticated nearly flawless version of a programme that will require little or no change for some time. This approach must give place to prototyping, where a simple model is computerized, tested, enhanced, and retested. Despite its limitations, the model often produces useful results quickly because it ensures committment. The decision support system developed at the ATI, Nainital. has gone through three updates in the last year, to make it more open ended: this is also the case with standard application packages. Apex bodies, inevitably dominated by professionals, must replace the us versus thqv mentality and encourage experimentation in an integrated manner, guiding rather than regulating inexperienced users. Top level involvement is necessary, not just to provide support but also to use the decisions, because they will affect strategy, redefining jobs. functions, and methods of working. The Government of India, in April 1988 shifted the National Informatics Centre from a technical ministry, the department of Electronics. to the user organization. the national Planning Commission, and the first meeting in June focussed on bringing together professionals and end users to determine data and training needs.
Prototyping
Since end-user computing, unlike local level computing, is goal directed and prescriptive rather than descriptive, the steps in prototyping will include a clear understanding of the respective roles of the end-user and the computer professional. Experience with microcomputers will be the best guide of how to determine these roles. Users must be actively involved in the development process, not merely consulted because of the structural change that will result. Adoption of a prototyping approach allows for major revision at low cost: user understanding of their information needs will evolve at the same time as the system’s development. This flexibility leads to effective continuing utilization (Table 2). Administration is getting things done through other organizations. One of the myths of reform is that it is possible to create an organized division of labour which virtually eliminates the need for
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122
Table 1 Roles in Developing
Information
Applications.
End user
LT. professional
\pecifymg Information requirements identifying decision parameters system analysis design of processing logic link with transaction data base dbms prototype training implementation administrative reform
coordination. This ignores the game - like qualities of hudgetting and planning as a system of multilateral bargaining: decentralisation provides a new framework for inter-departmental negotiation. Effective administration depends upon managing interdependence where improvements are dependent on experimentation and innovation (Metcalfe and Richards, 1987). Computerization should enable the required flexibility rather than put the organization in an electronics straitjacket.
data structures for the development of common systems to realise benefits through economies of scale and standardisation of products and procedures. Secondly, the technical criteria for choice of software package will determine the implementation process and set clear goals. Thirdly, there are effects on organizational arrangements, particularly on relationships, to be considered. Nearly two-thirds of the time and staff resources should be spent in analysis and design in the beginning rather than in the actual construction of the system. It is important to define the use to which information is put by decision makers; this determines its contribution towards effectiveness, by determining how well data and technology supports decisionmaking. Certain guidelines for application development emerge: 1. The
2. System
Design
Development Administration is not merely physical handling of records and correspondence, storage of data. retrieval of reports or timeliness of outputs. but has a behavioural aspect very different from Western corporate requirements: ~ it looks at locational choices rather than performance of people, it is concerned with linkages within the system rather than the functioning of an organization, and, the information intensity for decision making increases at the implementation rather than the policy end of the hierarchy.
3.
4.
5.
6. Studies of municipal government in the USA also show a similar trend in databased mode of use: searching specific facts, linking files, and developing meaningful patterns (Danzier and Kraemcr. 1986). There are three issues in the learning curve of such end user computing efforts. Firstly, there is the managerial context, determining the design of
& Management
objective should be to evaluate applications from an organizational perspective rather than costs and benefits, avoid duplication of development of similar systems in other offices and apply common standards of data dictionary to facilitate sharing. The application should provide a meaningful solution to widely accepted problems, the input and output of the system should be within one department, the data should be of high quality, and users should have a need to automate their functions, The technical staff should be minimal in number, responsive in providing solutions, with good communication skills and headed by someone who is more of a manager than a technician. The pilot application requires hand-holding and support by constant presence of a professional so that problems can be resolved promptly, The system should have the capacity to evolve to accomodate behavior styles, capabilities, and changing requirements. As the computerized application area expands, social and organizational changes need to be resolved in a consistent and coordinated manner.
A payroll package admirably meets these conditions. It is simple, its input and outputs are predetermined, the data are available in the office and of reasonably good quality, and benefits
M. Sanwal / MethodoloD for End User Computing
Information & Management
accrue immediately in the form of updated deductions and accounts; it demonstrates that there were serious shortcomings in existing arrangements. The State Government of Uttar Pradesh is considering initiating computerization with this application. It needs to be stressed that the introduction of microcomputers in developing countries is often the initiation of computerization, and payroll applications have been the first everywhere.
Managing
Change
A decision support system for administrators at the local level has to satisfy certain criteria. System designers must be aware of the decision parameters for different functions and levels (Table 3):
1. Dealing with diversified needs and unstructured problems across horizontal and vertical Table 3 Criteria for a DSS for Development Design characteristics 1. Objective 2. Process
3. Decision
4. Information need 5. Nature of relations 6. Strategic direction 7. Effect
8. Level of integration 9. Level of Planning 10. Opportunity
Administration.
Decisions Planning
Budgetting
Operations
Remove disparities Optimise to determine objectives Spatial location in a village Not well structured, predictive Supporting
Manage funds Monitor programme activities Sectoral allocation for a department Some stages prespecified, diagnostic Controlling
Follow norms General management functions Beneficiary selection through a transaction Pre-set procedure, descriptive Checking
Outcomes
outputs
Inputs
Change in decision making process Full
Better understanding of problems
Provision of relevant information
Partial
Limited
Policy
Strategic
Tactical
Provide new alternatives
Aid repetitive decisions
Increase efficiency
123
levels rather than individual sectors requires information sharing across departments for synergy between individual systems. The data base has to be developed from systematically and routinely collected information, this requires the data structure be carefully designed. Information on operations is to be the basis for budgetary allocation and planning decisions, requiring microcomputers at the field level to facilitate input and ensure data quality. The system has to be interactive; this requires a menu driven package so that it can be used by noncomputer professionals. The emphasis in programming queries has to be on flexibility, adaptability, and quick response to accomodate specific requirements and the approach of the end user at different levels. Placing microcomputers where data is generated and where it is utilised,makes it possible to provide local applications which have high impact. There is a need to convert present ad-hoc statistical compilation and large volume transactions processing into coherent systems that support local level planning and directly contribute to the implementation process. A package developed at the Academy of Administration balances objectives of government. It blends the capacity of models with intuitive judgement. In addition to inter-organizational sharing of data, it provides for quick recognition of trends and highlights exceptional conditions. The package has been used in meetings for District Planning to integrate the various departments involved in rural development and also expand the range of strategic alternatives considered in taking locational decisions. In this manner, public pressure has been put on local leaders and officials to improve performance, negotiation, and the quality of decisions. The distinguishing feature of participatory local level planning is the use of percentage distributive indicators rather than per capita indicators, with the village as the unit of analysis: this was not possible in the manual system because data is kept on a sectoral basis.
Top Level
Support
The experience gained indicates certain practical rules for success. It requires top level participa-
124
SOS
tion, direction, and support; an understanding of the process of managing change, so managers can spot and correct errors and make improvement as well as be aware of the implications of the choices made, otherwise decisions will occur by default:
1. Budget - operating costs per computer unit increase as systems become widespread, while hardware costs to total costs decrease appreciably. 2. Personnel - System engineers and programmers rather than operators and key punchers increase in number; while existing clerks should be trained for data input, some additional posts are needed for specialised functions. processing pre3. Office Automution - document sently takes up most of the time involved in office work; this will remain the major application for some time because the bulk of the work comprises non-formalised information whose storage and retrieval will continue to rely on clerical office techniques. 4. Decentrulisation ~ each ministry or department will need to set up its own steering group with responsibility for implementation, operation, and maintenance of its system. including hardware: a bottom-up approach is essential for the spread of computerization. 5. Flexibility ~ a separate fund to facilitate development of prototypes and their transfer for mutual use and to provide a forum to discuss problems is useful in developing applications. 6. Data Buses - gathering information requires a great deal of effort and money; it will need to be standardized, limited for specific usage, evaluated for consistency and quality with procedures for mutual utilization and sharing. 7. Implementation - while it is important to start with individual applications and needs, the efforts should be part of a plan with definite priorities. 8. Reform ~ as the computerized application area administrative reforms become imexpands portant, needing separate guidelines for information sharing, promotion of application development and training.
Provision of microcomputers will not itself lead to any benefits unless end users and professionals jointly anticipate and deal with these management issues.
Impact
on the Middle
Level
It is important to distinguish between the roles of the top level sponsor of the project and the middle level administrator who will implement the change. The most important factors in determining successful use of micro computers in developing countries are the management philosophy of those planning the system and the effect of the application on middle level administrators. All administrators should be aware of the need to equate microcomputers with improvement: it does not merely imply more or better work. It is also difficult to train or pursuade the top level; and Development Board of e.g., the Housing Singapore had to wait for four months to get an appointment to make the initial presentation. Top level seminars will be the most appropriate to further understanding at this level. Managerial efforts should be concentrated at the middle level administrators, particularly in local government, because these are the persons who will be handling data. They are also the ones who will be the most affected. The payoff is then likely to be greater, because more timely information allows these administrators to gain feedback on the actual work situation and to analyse alternatives and understand the implications of their decisions. Terminals, also, become status symbols (everyone wants one). Unless a number of application packages are available at the operational level, the process can then come to a standstill. Management requirements are much more than awareness of potential benefits.
Attitudes
Managing the change to computerization in administration is a measure of administrative reform and requires positive attitudes, particularly from key groups at the middle level. The process includes a set of data and human resources, as well as procedures to collect, enter, retrieve and use data: 1. The objective should be benefits to the end-user, consequently the choice of applications will need to facilitate service rather than better control.
InJormation & Managemm
Some officers at the middle level who were the repositories of data will lose power and their resistance must be considered. The location of the resource and the manpower to enter data also become points of contention; distributed data entry by the existing staff rather than fresh recruitment or transfer ensures data quality and facilitates institutionalisation. It is important to establish communication with users for feedback to sort out problems as they arise: to determine what is feasible and to develop consensus. Delay, when data are not available and maintenance not prompt, is an important cause of failure. It is important to have a set of guidelines to increase useability, enable transfer of design and personnel from one project to another and help administrators.
Since the introduction of microcomputers involves structural changes, support services are areas that need special attention. In the work at the Academy of Administration, four steps have been found to be particularly useful. Firstly, since administrators (as well as managers) in developing countries do not do their own typing, personal secretaries will be the persons who will be, at least initially, using the micros. The difference in training is in the need for longer and simpler explanations for stenographers & clerks. They both need similar training, both in standard operating system procedures and in the software packages. A committed and competent clerk managing the operation, can help ensure success. Reorganization will affect people, structures and processes and often cause resistance to change, though it is not apparent what is being resisted. A favourable attitude, and even leadership at the data entry level, is vital for husbanding support within the organization. This is also the experience in Kenya (Ministry, 1987). Secondly, the value of information to decision makers must be considered. An application that is personally useful to the head of the office (e.g.
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/ Methodology for End User Computing
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time-planner as well as storage and retrieval of important statistics, legislation, and orders), and to the staff (payroll) provides better motivation than the standard applications for budget and planning which affect organizational performance. Rather than train people to use a classroom exercise, this approach shows them how to use it in their day to day work. Training also makes users more demanding; without specific applications, knowledge of advanced features of the package and how to do debugging of their own work, they can become dissatisfied. Training Institutes will need to identify applications, impart problem solving skills and provide adequate facilities for learning (adequate number of machines) for endusers so that they need less support. Thirdly, initial inputting of the basic data is a time consuming task that requires additional staff, as well as frequent technical debugging. This should be done by the agency responsible for supporting computerization. The Training Institute is a good place: officials learn while they input the data. Fourthly, updating the know-how of users and providing a forum for exchange of experiences by repeated training sessions, seminars, library services, formation of user groups, and regular information dissemination and assistance to cover the entire development process is also required. For institutionalization of the use of microcomputers what is done is as important as how it is done. At the first user group meeting held at the Academy, in May 1988, nine prototype applications were demonstrated, shared and are being implemented. An ‘End User Digest’ sent to all District Officers has evoked a number of responses for these application packages, particularly from administrators in remote field assignments. This has helped to encourage a “anybody can computerise culture”, promote data sharing, and standardisation of applications.
Conclusion
It is necessary to share experience so that policy makers, aid agencies and development administrators avoid costly mistakes. Three critical success factors emerge for ensuring end user commitment
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SOS
needed for integrating information development administration:
technology
into
A framework for planning organizational changes and an action plan to seize the new opportunities, A strategic application with a well thought out data structure which will determine the actual impact, and A training path to develop and support a knowledgeable end user. The strategic issues for end user computing involve organizational concerns that can no longer be left to information analysts; they must be dealt with by the administrators themselves. The enduser must play a greater role in prototyping applications because the required expertise concerns the decision situation rather than technology. It is also necessary that the choice of applications is prioritised within the national planning framework. Training Institutes will need to play a vital role to develop commitment for supporting the process by providing service, staff and software. The critical success factor for introducing microcomputers in developing countries is the knowledgeable end-user.
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