Microalgal Biorefineries for Industrial Products

CHAPTER 12

Microalgal Biorefineries for Industrial Products SABEELA BEEVI UMMALYMA • DINABANDHU SAHOO • ASHOK PANDEY

INTRODUCTION The shortage of conventional energy along with global warming effect throughout the world leads to a search for renewable energy sources as an alternative for fossil-based fuels. Microalgae are reported as green microscopic unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic plants and used as renewable fuels. Most of the published studies on microalgae are their exploitation for bioenergy such as biodiesel and bioethanol due to high photosynthetic efficiency, growth, year-round availability, noncompetitive with food, and possibility of mass cultivation in degraded land. Commercial exploitation of microalgae is still challenging due to the high cost associated with biomass processing. Another opportunity of algal biomass is exploitation of high-value product. High-value metabolite along with lipids and carbohydrates for biofuels can be economically viable. Several industries cultivate microalgae for food supplements and antioxidants [1]. Any of novel developed bioprocess technology is only sustainable if the process can able to answer the questions such as i) whether the technology is feasible ii) if it is economically profitable process: can the novel technology be produced at lower cost than its market values iii) is the technology environmentally sustainable, and iv) does the novel technology have an acceptable environmental impact? [2]. If any process can able to answer the abovementioned question, then the technology and product are commercially viable. Mass cultivation of microalgae can be conducted either in raceway reactors or photobioreactors under phototrophic and mixotrophic growth conditions. Heterotrophic cultivation is performed in photobioreactors in a controlled environment. Biorefineries are utilizing complete exploitation of raw materials into a marketable product. The generation of high-value products in biorefinery can lead to reducing the environmental impact along with an

increase in revenues [3]. However, the process technology is not yet commercialized in a full-scale operation due to challenges associated with the energy-intensive and costly process. Algal biomass harvesting from its broth itself is 30% of the cost of the whole process. Hence the objective of the chapter is to address the challenges of microalgal cultivation and exploitation of different algal metabolites for various industrial products in biorefinery concept to solve the issues associated with microalgal biomass and its future perspectives.

CHALLENGES OF ALGAL CULTIVATION Microalgae can be cultivated in wastewater and seawater for viable technologies. Freshwater algae are commonly cultivated in freshwater medium, which is not practically viable process due to escalating demands for freshwater. However, microalgae adapted to grow both waste streams and seawater are an economically sustainable alternative. Another challenge is a suitable organism able to adapt in any harsh conditions and resistance to attack by other microorganisms and high biomass with high yields of metabolite productions suitable for industries. Very few microalgae are well suited for an industrial operation, which include Chlorella sp., Chlorococcum, and Scenedesmus sp. [4]. Limitation of light penetrations in phototrophic cultivations associated with low biomass production is another bottleneck in mass cultivation of algae and availability of suitable low-cost carbon source for mixotrophic and heterotrophic cultivations. Contaminations are other issues in heterotrophic cultivation of microalgae. Industrialscale production of by-products from microalgae is not yet cost-effective, which is primarily due to the high energy associated with algal biomass harvesting [5]. Algal biomass generation consists of growing of algae in an environment that favors the accumulation of target product and recovery of biomass for

Microalgae Cultivation for Biofuels Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817536-1.00012-6 Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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FIG. 12.1 Microalgae-based biorefinery.

downstream processing. Major hurdles in many of the industries dealing with algal biomass are harvesting the biomass from the growth medium. Most challenging research areas in microalgal biofuel are targeting cost-effective harvesting methods [6]. The reports showed that 20%e30% of the total production cost is involved in the biomass harvesting [7,8]. Other researchers showed that the cost of the recovery process in their investigation contributed about 50% to the final cost of oil production [6,9]. Several types of research on microalgal biofuel production have been focused on the yield of lipids and composition of biomass rather than harvesting process. Therefore, it is necessary to develop effective and economic technologies for harvesting the biomass from the suspended water along with complete utilization of biomass in a zero waste biorefinery process. Moreover, choice of algal cultivation location is an impact on the economic and environmental sustainability of algal biorefinery.

ALGAL BIOREFINERY CONCEPTS Microalgal biomass has great potential to produce various metabolites suitable for bioenergy, food additives, pigments, bioplastics, polymers, and chemicals. The algae-based biorefinery is the integration of mass production of algal biomass for energy along with

different industrially important molecules for balancing the sustainability of microalgal industries. Complete utilization of algal biomass is feasible with biorefineries. Algae-based refineries are represented in Fig. 12.1. Oleaginous microalgae can be feedstock for biodiesel application due to their high oil content approximately 5000e100,000 L/ha year [10]. The ethanol can be produced from hydrolysis and fermentation process of carbohydrates from deoiled biomass; biomethane and hydrogen can be generated from anaerobic digestion (AD). Protein-rich biomass from algae can be exploited for the production of bioplastics and thermoplastics [11]. Microalgae biomass enriched with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as docosahexaenoic acids (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) along with pigments can be applied in the food and pharmaceutical industries [12]. However, low-cost process for algae technologies can be linked with exploitation of wastewaters, and waste CO2 along with complete utilization of biomass will be viable for sustainability and environmental safe, which might be a successful biorefinery approach.

Microalgae to Biodiesel Microalgae have high potential to produce biomass with a high content of lipids. It has been reported that some microalgae have lipids content of up to 50%

CHAPTER 12 e80% of their dry cell weight. Microalgal oil rich in triglycerides is considered as suitable feedstock for biodiesel production. Microalgae biodiesel is thirdgeneration carbon-neutral biofuel; it can able to assimilate maximum CO2 during algal growth as it is produced up on combustion of fuel, and hence, it is an effective, sustainable solution for climate change [13,14]. Fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel) are produced by many processes such as microemulsification, catalytic cracking, and transesterification. The most common method to produce biodiesel from oil is transesterification, while others are costly and produce low-quality diesel [15]. Transesterification process converts raw algal lipids (triglycerides) to low-molecularweight fatty acid alkyl esters with the help of catalysts such as acids, alkalis, and enzymes [16,17]. Commonly used alkali catalysts include sodium hydroxides, potassium hydroxides, and sodium methoxide. Acids such as hydrochloric acids, sulfuric acids, phosphoric acids, and sulfonic acids have been utilized. Lipase is the preferred enzymatic catalyst; inorganic heterogenous catalyst is also preferred for esterification. Transesterification reaction is influenced by the nature of alcohol, molar ratio of alcohol to oil, type and amount of catalyst, reaction time, and temperature [18]. The enzymatic route is recently getting more attraction for transesterification reaction. Lipase-based reaction can be performed with both extracellular and intracellular lipases. Lipases are given more preferences due to reusability and simple downstream processing for purification of biodiesel. The bottleneck of enzyme-based reaction is the cost of the enzyme and inactivation mainly because of methanol and glycerol [19,20]. Practical use of algal biodiesel for vehicle applications should meet the international biodiesel standards (EN14214). Microalgae selection for biodiesel production should be based on the biodiesel physicochemical properties of algal oils along with their emission characteristics and engine performance. Glycerol is a by-product produced during transesterification process, which can be used as a carbon source for heterotrophic and mixotrophic cultivation of algae for recycling back this glycerol for oil production for biodiesel [21,22].

Microalgae to Biogas Deoiled algal biomass and biomass itself can be a raw material for biogas production via AD. AD is a biochemical process where specific anaerobic microorganisms act on complex organic substrates to produce methane (55%e75%) and CO2 (25%e45%) [23,24]. In biogas production process, many steps are involved,

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such as hydrolysis, fermentation, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis [25,26]. Microalgae-based AD was first showed by Golueke et al. [27]. Many investigations on microalgae as raw material for AD have shown significant methane yield compared with normal substrates such as manures and sewage sludge [28,29]. Biogas production studies with microalgae of Isochrysis sp. and Scenedesmus sp. showed methane production yield of 400 mL CH4 g 1 VS [30,31]. Biogas yield may be further increased with the appropriate pretreatment process applied. The energy content of AD methane is 16,200e30,600 kJ/m3, which further depends on the type of raw material [9]. Many microorganisms are involved in the AD process. Hydrolytic bacteria are involved in the initial stage for breakdown of substrate molecules. Later the action of acidogenic bacteria along with hydrogenated and sulfate reducers played a major role. As a result of oxidized organic matter, gases and organic acids are produced from this process. Methane, CO2, and reduced organics are produced as a result of methanogenic microorganisms [32,33]. Biogas produced from AD can be used as a fuel or electricity [34]. The residues obtained after AD can be used as a fertilizer, which could encourage sustainable agriculture practices with better efficiencies along with balancing algal production cost. Lack of lignin and less cellulosic content in microalgal biomass showed better conversion efficiencies for AD [35].

Microalgae to biohydrogen Biohydrogen is considered as one of the cleanest fuels because water is the only by-product and there is no CO2 emission to the atmosphere during its combustion [36]. It has higher specific energy content (142 MJ/kg) than other fuel such as methane (56), natural gas (54), and gasoline (47) [37]. These qualities make hydrogen a good choice for future fuel. Microalgaebased biohydrogen production has been an alternate solution for minimizing the production cost and environmental impact probably due to its production use; sunlight is the driving force to split water into H2 and O2 [36,38]. Microalgae-based biohydrogen production was initiated by Gaffron and Rubin [39]. Algae have the potential of changing their metabolism based on the growth condition to produce hydrogen. Biohydrogen from microalgae can be produced from many mechanisms such as direct and indirect photolysis, photofermentation, and dark fermentation [40]. Hydrogen production via the abovementioned process from algae can be further improved through extensive investigation to make biological hydrogen production economically viable [41]. Many researchers have

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reviewed recently different perspectives of the biohydrogen production process from different microalgae [42,43].

Microalgae to Sugarcane Ethanol Industry Bioethanol is an alternative to gasoline due to its identical physical and chemical properties [44,45]. First- and second-generation biofuels from food crops and lignocellulosic biomass have food versus fuel dispute and involve additional pretreatment processes to break down the recalcitrance of lignin and hemicellulose complex and exposure of cellulose for further hydrolysis and fermentations [46]. Due to these challenges, industries are looking for appropriate feedstock for ethanol production that could not be competitive with food and should be available throughout the year. However, algae are found to be potential candidates as raw material for third-generation biofuel. Microalgal bioethanol is known as third-generation ethanol due to its potential to produce biomass from sunlight. Carbohydrates-enriched microalgae are selected as feedstock for anaerobic fermentation to produce ethanol [47,48]. Many of the microalgal species contain high lipids and low carbohydrates content. Hence, algal biomasses are applied for biodiesel conversion [49]. Macroalgae are attracted more as ethanol feedstock due to the presence of polysaccharides such as glucan and mannitol that can be easily transformed into ethanol by industrial yeast [50,51]. Carbohydrates accumulation in microalgae is dependent on cultivation condition especially with CO2 concentration, light intensity, and photosynthetic efficiency of organisms. It has been reported that the highest carbohydrates (70%)-accumulating microalga is Chlorococcum littorale when cultivated in photobioreactor with optimum light and CO2 [52]. Fed-batch cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with acetic acid as a carbon source enhanced the carbohydrates content up to 57% and has been utilized for ethanol production [53]. Other carbohydrates-rich microalgae

are Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp., and their carbohydrates contents are increased under nutrients-limited stress conditions [54]. Biomasses from microalgae are processed for ethanol production via hydrolysis and fermentation. Sometimes, pretreatment of biomass is also required for better efficiency. Polysaccharides found in microalgae are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Under stress condition, these carbohydrates can be reached up to 70%. Saccharomyces and Zymomonas are the preferred microorganisms for the fermentation process. Pretreatment approaches used for biomass processing are acidic, alkali, and enzymatic hydrolyses and finally deoiling with solvent extractions. These processes assist with getting fermentable sugars and algal oil [55]. Physical pretreatments such as bead-beating sonications are effective in algal biomass. It has been reported that bead-beating with pectinase enzyme treatment of algal biomass of Chlorella vulgaris cells produced fermentable sugar release that enhanced from 45% to 70% with 90% of fermentation yield [56]. However, potent algal strains having high starch accumulation and robustness are required to support industrial mass production of biomass for biorefinery products. Fig. 12.2 represents bioethanol production process from algal biomass.

Microalgae to Fertilizer Biofertilizers consist of live microorganisms, or their powder form originated from algae, bacteria, fungi, and their metabolites that are nourishing the soil for crop growth and its productivity. Biofertilizers can enhance soil quality and its fertility to nutrients transfers, stabilizes aggregates of soils, and increase the population of beneficial microorganisms. The accessibility of micro/macronutrients is a crucial factor for achieving higher crop yields. Biomass of microalgae contains high nitrogen content, which serves as fertilizers for different crops. Algal biofertilizer along with associated microbes can able to colonize soil, and rhizosphere, which further improves nutrients level and growth of plants

FIG. 12.2 Bioethanol production process from algal biomass.

CHAPTER 12 [57,58]. Biofertilizers are available in different forms of carrier-based, pellets, or liquid formulations [59]. Microalgal biofertilizers, especially from blue green algae of Nostoc sp., Anabaena sp., Tolypothrix sp., Aulosira sp., etc., are used in the paddy field for nitrogen fixation. Deoiled algal biomass is rich in good sources of NPK, and other minerals suitable for plant growth can be used as biofertilizers. Leftover solids of AD of algal biomass can be exploited as fertilizers. For cultivation of microalgae as biofertilizers, wastewater is the best option to produce biomass [22,60]. Renuka et al. [60] showed that the formulation of biofertilizers made from microalgae and filamentous cyanobacteria used for wheat growth under controlled conditions improved the plant growth and yield. Algae can absorb maximum nutrient from wastewater and return to the soil as fertilizers.

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Microalgae to Bioactive Compounds Microalgae are enriched with different types of active compounds such as phycobiliproteins, fatty acids, vitamins, fatty acids, antioxidants, and pigments, which can be a potential application in many pharmaceutical industries. The bioactive compounds found in algae are research target for many diseases and have more feasibilities for mass production at an industrial level shortly. Bioactive compounds from microalgae act as antiviral, antibacterial, antimalarial, antioxidant, antifungal, antitumor, and antiinflammatory components. In comparison with areal plants, the natural bioactive compound from algae is underexplored [68,69]. Chlorophyll, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins and their derivatives are natural pigments and have been evaluated for their effectiveness against cancer cells as chemopreventive agents [70]. These pigments have

Microalgae to Animal Feed Microalgal biomass can be used alone or mixed with other material as healthy feed and food. It has been reported that w75% of annual biomass production is utilized for the manufacturing of algal powder, tablets, and capsules for animal and human food [61]. Algal lipids are enriched with EPAs and DHAs, which are important for the health of human. Algal biomasses are exploited as aquaculture feed. Algal biomasses are blended with other feed material, utilized as pellets or as paste or powder form. Microalgae of Tetraselmis, Nannochloropsis, Phaeodactylum, Haematococcus, and Isochrysis are commonly used as aquaculture feed [62]. Important nutrient contents of aquaculture feed are proteins and PUFAs, which are abundantly available in algae. Microalgal biomass can be used in poultry feed pellets, and approximately 10% of algal biomass has been successfully utilized in poultry industry [63,64]. Comparative studies on poultry feed of algae and traditional food showed enhanced resistance to disease, improved color of yolk, and low cholesterol obtained from algal feed [63,65,66]. Utilization of defatted Desmodesmus biomass with polysaccharide degrading enzymes along with protease helps pig growth compared to control [64]. Recently, Raja et al. [67] updated a review on utilization of different microalgal species as feed or food. It has been evident that algae as a protein source had great potential as nutritional supplement resource as an animal feed. Table 12.1 represents the application of potent microalgal species for feed and food application.

TABLE 12.1

Utilization of Potent Algal Biomass as Food and Feed Applications. Potent Microalgae

Product

Application Food/Feed

Spirulina platensis Spirulina pacifica Chlorella vulgaris Schizochytrium limacinum

Single-cell protein

Protein supplements

Schizochytrium sp. Crypthecodinium cohnii Nannochloropsis Nitzschia sp. Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Fatty acids/ polyunsaturated fatty acids Docosahexaenoic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid

Food supplements

Dunaliella salina Dunaliella bardawil Haematococcus pluvialis S. platensis

Pigments b-carotene Astaxanthin Phycocyanin

Food colorants/ feed additives Food supplements/ feed additives Food colorants

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antitumor and antimutagenic effects, which help in suppressing cancer formation. Cytotoxic assay of the pigment for anticancer activity showed that higher activity obtained under nutrients-stressed conditions [71]. Cytotoxic activity of marine microalgae against human tumor cells showed anticancer properties of different extracts of algae [72]. These reports showed that algal pigments could be exploited as potential anticancer compounds. Microalgal PUFAs and pigments can act as potential antiinflammatory components and can be used in a dietary supplement to reduce inflammatory diseases [73]. Reported review of Deng and Chow [74] represented clinical studies based on algal antiinflammatory effect. Many researchers have studied antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities of different marine and freshwater microalgae [73e75]. This evidence proved potential of microalgae as antiinflammatory components.

protein content and Chlorella has 51%e58% dry weight. It has been reported that bioplastic and thermostable plastic blends are prepared from Chlorella and Spirulina biomass [11]. Another report showed that leftover biomass after biodiesel production is chemically treated to produce bioplastic mainly polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), which is produced at 27% after 14 days of cultivation from Chlorella pyrenoidosa [77]. Fig. 12.3 shows algae to bioplastic production. For sustainable algal biomass for biorefinery products including bioplastic, wastewater-based cultivation could be encouraged to remediate water for future use and exploitation of resulting biomass for value-added products. Bioplastic from algae is a by-product in algal refinery; it will help for generating revenue along with biofuels. Microalgae-based plastic is in its infancy stage, and it can play a vital role as an environmentally friendly future product.

Microalgae to Plastics Bioplastics from natural raw material present a biodegradable alternative to conventional petrochemicalbased plastic and are environmentally safe and reducing dependency on fossil reserves. Polymers of biomass such as cellulose and starch are used as a starting material for the conversion of polylactic acids (PLAs), thermoplastic starch, and cellulose acetate (CA) [76]. These molecules are produced from food crop and not viable alternatives. When compared with conventional plastic from food staples, microalgae can be exploited as an excellent source of bioplastic production due to a high percentage of carbohydrate polymers and protein [11]. It has been reported that Spirulina has 46%e63%

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Algal biomass has many capabilities to produce different metabolites for an extensive range of application. Freshwater-based algal biorefinery is not a viable process due to a projected demands for freshwater resources in the future. Algal biomass cultivation should be based on wastewater for biomass production of low-value products such as bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas, and treated water can be used for other purposes of the refinery. For high-value products such as PUFAs, pigments, and animal feeds, algal cultivation can be routed to the exploitation of seawater resources, and hence it will address freshwater shortages and fertilizer

FIG. 12.3 Microalgae to bioplastic production.

CHAPTER 12 cost for algae. More research needs to be focused on the harvesting of biomass, which is a costly process; selfflocculating algae and robust strain to adapt to any fluctuating environment should be chosen for biorefinery application. Algal biorefineries should be coupled with wastewater and seawater utilization along with CO2 from industries that help to balance the sustainability with complete exploitation of algal biomass assisting the overall sustainability and viability of the technology.

CONCLUSIONS Microalgae-based biorefineries are exploiting complete valorization of biomass for minimizing the production cost and generating extrarevenue for the sustainable processing of algae-based biomass to biofuels. The further economy of the process can be improved by adapting alternative cost-reducing activities such as utilization of wastewater or seawater for mass production of algae with nutrients recycling and exploitation of waste CO2 from industries as a carbon source. Microalgal biorefinery will be a sustainable process to run the industry in a profitable way in future by producing various products from algal biomass.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Sabeela Beevi Ummalyma is grateful to the Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development (IBSD), a national institute under Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, for providing necessary help and support to this work.

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