Microtextural features on quartz grains from eolian sands in a subaqueous sedimentary environment: A case study in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, Northwest China

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aeolian Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aeolia

Microtextural features on quartz grains from eolian sands in a subaqueous sedimentary environment: A case study in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, Northwest China

T

⁎

Zhuolun Li , Xinhui Yu, Shipei Dong, Qiujie Chen, Cheng Zhang College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Center for Glacier and Desert Research, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Eolian sand Sedimentary environment Surface microtextures Sand sea Arid region

Recognizing the sedimentary environments of sand layers in desert areas aids in evaluating the reliability of using these materials to assess paleoenvironmental changes. Nevertheless, determining whether eolian sand has ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment remains difficult. The work presented here tests microtextures on quartz grains from a predominantly eolian environment and tries to differentiate grains shaped purely by eolian processes from those also subjected to subaqueous action. In this study, 124 samples including lake sediments, river sediments, and eolian sediments were collected from the Badain Jaran Desert hinterland and adjacent areas. Microtextural assemblages on the quartz grains were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. The results reveal that the microtextural features have variable frequencies among different sand samples, including lake sediments, eolian sand, and river sand. Eolian sand deposited in a subaqueous sedimentary environment not only has the specific microtextures of subaqueous sedimentary environments such as V-shaped percussion cracks, straight or curved grooves and scratches, oriented etch pits, solution crevasses, and scaling but also retains the unique microstructures of eolian sedimentary environments such as crescentic percussion marks. Therefore, the above microtextural features can distinguish whether eolian sand has ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment. This study provides a new method for discriminating the sedimentary environments of eolian sands in desert hinterlands.

1. Introduction In arid and semiarid regions, widespread eolian and hydatogenous sediments are regarded as indispensable archives for the study of regional environmental evolution (Li et al., 2016b; Liu et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2000). In previous studies, numerous proxies from eolian and hydatogenous sedimentary records have been widely used in paleoenvironmental studies (Chen et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2016; Mischke et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2015). These studies have provided useful information for understanding the mechanisms of regional and global environmental changes. However, sand sediment input into lakes around a desert is influenced by both runoff and wind forces (Long et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2013), leading to the occurrence of sand layers in the strata cycle having two opposite environmental implications. Eolian sand layers in lake sediments usually indicate an arid environment (Long et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2013), whereas hydatogenous sand layers cannot be interpreted to represent an arid environment. Therefore, a reliable method for both the identification of

⁎

hydatogenous sand deposits and their differentiation from eolian sand deposits is necessary. However, in desert areas, sediment input to lakes includes runoff and eolian materials transported from the surrounding desert by the wind (Li et al., 2016b; Liu et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2013). Moreover, for lakes in desert hinterlands that are not recharged by river runoff, sediment input comes solely from wind transport (Wang et al., 2016). Sand layers transported by wind into lake sediments cannot be simply interpreted as indicating an arid environment. Thus, recognizing the sedimentary environments of sand layers in desert areas aids in the evaluation of the reliability of using these materials to assess paleoenvironmental changes. Nevertheless, determining the sedimentary environment of sand layers in desert areas is still difficult. Surface microtextures on quartz grains provide insight into the sedimentary history of clastic sediments (Margolis, 1968; Vos et al., 2014; Whalley and Krinsley, 1974). Moreover, such textures could reveal the environments of transported and preserved sediments (Costa et al., 2017; Mahaney, 2002; Vos et al., 2014). Previous studies have

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (Z. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2020.100573 Received 26 September 2019; Received in revised form 9 December 2019; Accepted 3 January 2020 1875-9637/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

suggested that the different transport mechanisms of sedimentary environments result in different microtextural assemblages (Costa et al., 2019; Whalley and Krinsley, 1974) and that a specific sedimentary environment can contain quartz grains with different microtextural imprinting (Mahaney et al., 2001; Manickam and Barbaroux, 2010). Therefore, surface textural analysis of quartz grains by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been widely used in identifying sedimentary environments and sedimentary dynamics (Bellanova et al., 2016; Costa et al., 2012; Immonen, 2013; Woronko, 2016). However, when eolian sand is deposited in a lake, changes in microtextural assemblages on quartz grains require detailed study. Moreover, the method for identifying whether eolian sand has ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment remains unclear. In this study, five lakes without runoff recharge in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, Northwest China, were selected, and a total of 105 lake surface samples collected from the five lakes were used to discuss the changes in microtextural assemblages on quartz grains from eolian sands in a subaqueous sedimentary environment. Moreover, 10 eolian sand samples collected from the sand dunes in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert and 9 hydatogenous sand samples collected from the Heihe River were used to discuss the changes in microtextural assemblages on quartz grains shaped purely by eolian processes or subaqueous processes. Then, the variations in surface microtextures on quartz grains from different environments were discussed to differentiate the grains shaped purely by eolian processes from those also subjected to subaqueous action and identify whether the eolian sand had ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment.

Fig. 2. Locations of the five study lakes in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert.

temperatures in this area are 25 °C and −9 °C, respectively (Xu and Li, 2016). The mean annual precipitation ranges from 90 to 115 mm in the south and 35–43 mm in the north (Ma et al., 2011); furthermore, the annual precipitation in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert is ~100 mm (Ma et al., 2014). In contrast with the distribution of precipitation, evaporation increases gradually from southeast to northwest (Chen et al., 2018). The mean annual evaporation rate from the water surface is more than 1000 mm/year (Li et al., 2016a; Yang et al., 2010). No surface flow is observed because of the high ratio between evaporation and precipitation rates (Dong et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2014). In total, 110 closed inland lakes lie between megadunes in the southeastern Badain Jaran Desert (Wang et al., 2016). The lakes are usually less than 1 km2, and the largest one is Buerde Lake with an area of 2.32 km2 (Wang et al., 2016). Moreover, most of the lakes are saline soda lakes with high total dissolved solids (TDS) because they are closed inland lakes without surface runoff input (Wu et al., 2014); the

2. Study area The Badain Jaran Desert (39°04′15″–42°12′23″N, 99°23′18″–104°34′02″E) located in the Alashan Plateau (Fig. 1) is the second largest desert in China with an area of approximately 52,100 km2 (Zhu et al., 2010). The elevation of this area varies between 1500 m above mean sea level in the southeast and 900 m above mean sea level in the northwest (Li et al., 2015). The Badain Jaran Desert is situated in the mid-latitude arid region and is characterized by a typical continental climate (Hu and Yang, 2016; Zhu et al., 1980). It is a key region for studying past climatic changes and environmental evolution because it corresponds to the transition zone between monsoons and westerly winds in China (Li et al., 2015, 2019; Yang et al., 2011). The mean summer and winter

Fig. 1. Location of the study area. 2

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

Table 1 General characteristics of the five lakes selected in this study. Lake

Area (km2)

Location

Yindeer Sumubarunjaran Baoritaolegai Zhunsangenjaran Taosenjaran

1.1 1.27 0.07 0.39 0.21

39°50′46″–39°51′32″ 39°46′52″–39°47′46″ 39°36′25″–39°36′43″ 39°51′36″–39°52′05″ 40°00′54″–40°01′12″

N, N, N, N, N,

102°26′06″–102°27′04″E 102°24′47″–102°25′34″E 102°57′22″–101°57′47″E 102°01′37″–102°02′06″E 102°06′54″–102°07′19″E

TDS (g/L)

Hydrochemical types

141 124 1 173 184

Na-Cl-CO3-(SO4) Na-Cl-CO3-(SO4) Na-Mg-(Ca)-Cl-(SO4)-(HCO3) Na-Cl-(CO3) Na-Cl-(CO3)

3.2. Methods

main replenishment source of the lakes is deep phreatic water rather than local precipitation (Dong et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2014). Five lakes in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert with different areas were selected for this study (Fig. 2). The general characteristics of these lakes, such as locations, areas, and TDS contents, are listed in Table 1.

SEM produces valid imagery within a specific size range, and only this range is suitable for microtextural surface analysis (e.g. Bellanova et al., 2016). Thus, after natural drying and sieving of the samples, grains with sizes between 0.125 and 0.5 mm from each sample were prepared for microtextural SEM analysis. The experimental steps were the same as those proposed by Vos et al. (2014), which were as follows: (1) representative splitting of the oven-dried sample until at least 10 g of grains remained; (2) boiling for 10 min in a 15% hydrochloric acid solution for removal of carbonates and iron oxides; (3) washing at least three times with deionized water until the decanted water was clear; (4) boiling for 10 min in a 50 g/L tetrasodium pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7·10H2O) solution to bring clay, adhering particles, and organic matter into the solution; (5) washing at least three times with deionized water until the decanted water was clear; and (6) oven-drying the sample at 60 °C. After these steps, 15–30 clean and dry quartz grains within a sample were selected under a binocular microscope for investigation by SEM. Before SEM analysis, the specimen holder with the grains was sputter-coated with gold, resulting in a gold coating of

3. Materials and methods 3.1. Sampling In May 2015, 105 surface lake sediment samples were collected from the five lakes using a Bottom Sampler (VG, Shanghai P-NAV Scientific Instruments): 22 samples from Sumubaranjaran Lake (SB Lake); 25 samples from Yindeer Lake (Y Lake); 13 samples from Baoritaolegai Lake (B Lake); 25 samples from Zhunsangenjaran Lake (Z Lake); and 20 samples from Taosenjaran Lake (T Lake). Moreover, 10 eolian sand samples were collected from sand dunes in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, and 9 hydatogenous sand samples were collected from the lower reaches of the Heihe River (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Sampling locations of the sediments. (a) Sumubaranjaran Lake; (b) Yindeer Lake; (c) Zhunsangenjaran Lake; (d) Taosenjaran Lake; (e) Baoritaolegai Lake; and (f) the Badain Jaran Desert hinterland and the Heihe River. 3

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

Other features occur at average frequencies less than 50%. In the lower reaches of the Heihe River, the quartz grains from hydatogenous sand contain the entire range of microtextural features without crescentic percussion marks (Fig. 5b). Among these features, Vshaped percussion cracks are present in 100% of the grains, and the average frequency of other features is less than 50%. In the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, the quartz grains from lake sediment contain a total of 22 microtextural features (Fig. 5c). Fig. 5c reveals that the average frequencies of some features are greater than 50%, including subangular outlines, upturned plates, crescentic percussion marks, solution pits, medium relief, and arcuate/circular/ polygonal cracks. However, other features occur at average frequencies less than 50%. Moreover, there are some differences between the microstructure features among the quartz grains from five different lakes; for example, the changes in the lake areas and average frequencies of angular outlines showed an opposite trend in this study. The results of the cluster analysis show that the quartz grain microtextures can be effectively divided into two main clusters (Fig. 6). The first cluster consisted of thirteen microtextures, five of which have high frequencies in quartz grains from hydatogenous sand (Fig. 5b). The second cluster consisted of nine microtextures, four of which have high frequencies in quartz grains from eolian sand (Fig. 5a). Hence, the quartz grains of eolian sand and hydatogenous sand have different representative microtextural features. The PCA results show that the microtextural features on the surfaces of quartz grains between hydatogenous sand and eolian sand are significantly different (Fig. 7). Moreover, Fig. 7 reveals that the quartz grains from lake sediments in this study not only still retain massive microstructures of eolian sand but also contain some microstructures of hydatogenous sand.

approximately 250 nm. The samples were analyzed and imaged using a MIRA3 TESCAN scanning electron microscope. Images were made in the second electron (SE) imaging mode with a spot size of 55 and a working voltage of 10 kV. Finally, 2145 images were documented in this study. Among these images, 300 images were obtained from the eolian sand samples, 270 images were obtained from the hydatogenous sand samples, and 1575 images were obtained from the surface lake sediment samples. For the microtextural analysis, every imaged grain was described, and microtextural features were documented. Identification and documentation of the detected microtextures were based on the atlas of microtextural surfaces and definitions of different microtextural features by Xie (1984), Vos et al. (2014), and Mahaney (2002). 3.3. Calculations and statistics The frequency of microtextural features in each sample was calculated. Then, the average frequency of microtextural features from the total samples of lake sediment, eolian sand, and hydatogenous sand were calculated. A hierarchical cluster analysis, based on the between-groups linkage method, was performed to discriminate microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains from eolian sand and hydatogenous sand. The Pearson correlation was chosen to measure interval distance. Dendrograms were created to depict the associations of microtextures from quartz grains from different environments and the cohesiveness of the clusters formed. Moreover, to investigate the microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains from different environments, 126 samples were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA), with the axis rotated to the maximum direction of variance. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 26.

5. Discussion 4. Results

5.1. Variations on surface microtextures on quartz grains from different environments

The SEM results reveal a total of 22 microtextural features (Table 2 and Fig. 4) on quartz grains. The microtextural features have variable frequencies among different sand samples, including lake sediment, eolian sand, and hydatogenous sand (Fig. 5). In the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, the quartz grains of eolian sand display 16 microtextural features (Fig. 5a). Fig. 5a reveals that the average frequencies of some features are higher than 50%, including subangular outlines, upturned plates, crescentic percussion marks, and low relief. However, some features, such as V-shaped percussion cracks, straight/curved grooves and scratches, oriented etch pits, solution crevasses, and scaling, were not observed in this study.

The microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains are generally produced during transport and deposition of the sediments, which are affected by the dynamic conditions (medium, time and transport distance) (Costa et al., 2013; Margolis and Krinsley, 1971; Strand et al., 2003; Strand and Immonen, 2010; Xie, 1984). The strength of transport power, sediment concentration, and grain size can affect the degree of collision between quartz grains by external forces, which influence the mechanical formation of surface microtextures on quartz grains (Krinsley and Doornkamp, 1973; Mason and Folk, 1958; Mahaney, 2010; Narayana et al., 2010; Pell and Chivas, 1995; Rajganapathi et al., 2013). In the same transport medium, when the transport distance or transport time decrease, the intensity of external forces on particles increases, resulting in mechanical microtextures on quartz grains that are more significant (Vieira Machado et al., 2016; Mahaney et al., 1996). Moreover, chemical microtextures can also form on the surfaces of quartz grains, which result from SiO2 dissolution and deposition under some processes, such as dissolution, hydrolysis, oxidation, and hydration by water and CO2 (Armstrong-Altrin and Natalhy-Pineda, 2014; Cardona et al., 1997; Kalinska-Nartisa and Galka, 2018). Thus, the quartz grains of eolian sand affected by the wind usually contain some surface microtextures formed by mechanical means. Due to the abrasive action of the wind, quartz grains of eolian sand usually have rounded outlines and subangular outlines with high abrasion (Chakroun et al., 2009; Chen and Liu, 2016; Khalaf and Gharib, 1985; Refaat and Hamdan, 2015). Furthermore, in the process of wind-driven transport, quartz grains collide with each other, which results in covering the surfaces with crescentic percussion marks (Chen and Liu, 2016; Franklin and Charru, 2011; Woronko and Pisarska-Jamrozy, 2016). However, under hydrodynamic conditions, V-shaped percussion cracks are the most typical characteristic of these surface microtextures

Table 2 The 22 kinds of surface microtextures on quartz grains observed in this study. Mechanical

Chemical

Mechanical and chemical

1. Angular outline

14. Oriented etch pits 15. Solution pits 16. Solution crevasses 17. Scaling

20. Medium relief

2. Subangular outline 3. Rounded outline 4. Small conchoidal fractures (< 10 µm) 5. Medium conchoidal fractures (< 100 µm) 6. Arcuate steps 7. Straight steps 8. Flat cleavage surfaces 9. V–shaped percussion cracks 10. Straight/curved grooves and scratches 11. Upturned plates 12. Crescentic percussion marks 13. Bulbous edges

21. High relief 22. Arcuate/circular/ polygonal cracks

18. Silica globules 19. Low relief

4

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

Fig. 4. SEM images of 22 microtextures observed on quartz grains from the Badain Jaran Desert hinterland, Heihe River, and five Badain Jaran Desert hinterland lakes. (a) (1) Crescentic percussion marks and (2) solution pits; (b) Straight or curved grooves and scratches; (c) Flat cleavage surface; (d) Subangular grain with (1) arcuate/circular/polygonal cracks and (2) silica globules; (e) Rounded grain with low relief, bulbous edges; (f) (1) Straight steps and medium conchoidal fractures, (2) arcuate steps and small conchoidal fractures; (g) Upturned plates and medium relief; (h) Scaling; (i) Solution crevasses; (j) V-shaped percussion cracks; (k) Oriented etch pits; (i) Angular grain with high relief. 5

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

Fig. 5. Frequency of quartz sand surface textures and their variation range. The surface feature number of quartz grains corresponds to the number in Table 2. (a) Eolian sands from the Badain Jaran Desert hinterland; (b) Hydatogenous sands from the Heihe River; (c) Eolian sands in a subaqueous sedimentary environment from five Badain Jaran Desert hinterland lakes.

the degree of wear, is mainly affected by the transportation mode, distance, and time (Mahaney, 2002; Vos et al., 2014; Xie, 1984). The hydatogenous sand in the lower reaches of the Heihe River is mainly detrital material from the Qilian Mountains rapidly transported from the upstream reaches (Hu and Yang, 2016; Wang et al., 2015; Yan et al., 2001). Therefore, the short distance and time for grain transport resulted in low roundness occurring at the microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains from hydatogenous sand. Moreover, high frequencies of microtextural features are present in hydatogenous sand, including Vshaped percussion cracks, small conchoidal fractures, medium conchoidal fractures, arcuate steps, straight steps, flat crystal faces, straight or curved grooves, and scratches. However, crescentic percussion marks are not found on the surfaces. In addition, some chemical microtextures are present on the hydatogenous sand surfaces, such as oriented etch pits, solution pits, solution crevasses, scaling, and silica globules (Fig. 5b). For lakes in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, Li et al. (2018) suggested that the vast majority of sediment input to the lakes

(Mahaney et al., 2004; Margolis and Kennett, 1970; Mazumder et al., 2017; Xie, 1984). Moreover, some chemical microtextures usually occur on quartz grains, such as oriented etch pits, solution pits, solution crevasses, scaling, and silica globules, often forming on the grains under hydrodynamic conditions (Abd-Alla, 1991; Black and Dudas, 1987; Joshi, 2009; Krinsley and Trusty, 1985). In this study, the quartz grains from eolian sand display high frequencies of some microtextural features, such as subangular outlines, upturned plates, crescentic percussion marks, and low relief (Fig. 5a). In addition, compared with hydatogenous sand, eolian sand shows significant mechanical microtextures, and all of the eolian sand grains exhibit the microtextures of crescentic percussion marks and upturned plates (Fig. 5). Nevertheless, V-shaped percussion and some chemical microtextures, such as cracks, oriented etch pits, solution crevasses, and scaling, were not observed on the surfaces of the eolian sands in this study. The predominant microtextural shapes of the hydatogenous sands in this study are angular outlines, subangular outlines, and rounded outlines with low roundness. The grain roundness, reflecting

6

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

Fig. 6. Results of the hierarchical cluster analysis. The dendrogram is effectively divided into two main clusters.

only have the specific microtextures of a subaqueous sedimentary environment but also retain the unique microstructures of an eolian sedimentary environment. Some microtextural features can appear simultaneously, such as V-shaped percussion cracks, straight or curved grooves and scratches, oriented etch pits, solution crevasses, scaling, and crescentic percussion marks.

was probably eolian sands that were transported from the surrounding sand dunes by local winds. Thus, in this study, the quartz grains from lake sediments have experienced an eolian sedimentary environment and a subaqueous sedimentary environment (Fig. 7), resulting in superimposed microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains having the above microtextural features, including crescentic percussion marks, Vshaped percussion cracks, straight or curved grooves and scratches, oriented etch pits, solution pits, solution crevasses, and scaling (Fig. 5c). Moreover, the lakes in the Badain Jaran Desert hinterlands are mostly salt lakes with high chemical etching (Wu et al., 2014; Dong et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019), resulting in a solution pit feature from the sediment occurring at a frequency of 97% (Fig. 5c), which is much higher than that from eolian sand and hydatogenous sand (Fig. 5a, b). Hence, eolian sands deposited in a subaqueous environment not

5.2. Environmental significance The analysis of the microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains is an important method for recognizing and reconstructing the sedimentary environment (Immonen, 2013; Krinsley and Donahue, 1968; Mazumder et al., 2017). In previous studies, V-shaped percussion cracks were used as a proxy to identify whether eolian sand had ever been in a

Fig. 7. Principal component analysis of microtextures on the surfaces of quartz grains from different sedimentary environments. 7

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

et al., 2019). Thus, it is difficult to divide the lacustrine sedimentary strata and eolian sand layers at the sedimentary profile of a dry lake basin. The discrimination of lacustrine sedimentary strata may not be addressed by traditional lithology (material composition and color). Our results reveal that quartz grains from the lake sediments in desert hinterlands have unique surface microtextures. This study provides a method for directly identifying whether eolian sand had ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment, and it can be used to divide sedimentary strata between the lacustrine sedimentary strata and eolian sand strata. Therefore, from the microtextural features on the surfaces of quartz grains, we can identify whether the eolian sand had ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment. This study is helpful in not only interpreting the environmental significance of eolian sand layers but also providing a new method for discriminating the sedimentary strata in a desert hinterland.

subaqueous sedimentary environment (Mahaney et al., 2004; Margolis and Kennett, 1970; Xie, 1984). Margolis and Kennett (1970), based on the V-shaped percussion cracks that appeared on the surfaces of quartz grains at 402 cm in core E21-3 (middle Miocene) from Antarctica, suggested that these grains had been affected by a subaqueous sedimentary environment. Moreover, microtextures of quartz grain surfaces from Pleistocene sediments in the middle reaches of the Protva River basin show V-shaped percussion cracks, small cleavages, straight or curved grooves, and scratches. These microtextures are considered typical of aquatic (alluvial or marine) sedimentary facies (Alekseeva, 2005). Note that the above studies mainly address mechanical features. In arid regions, although the degree of chemical weathering is weak (Chen et al., 2018), our results show that quartz grains in a subaqueous environment, such as rivers and lakes, are still affected by chemical dissolution, leading to the frequent appearance of oriented chemical microtextures such as etch pits, solution pits, solution crevasses, scaling, and silica globules (Fig. 5b, c). Moreover, in some other subaqueous environments, previous studies have suggested that chemical microtextures and V-shaped percussion cracks still appear on the surfaces of quartz grains (Armstrong-Altrin and Natalhy-Pineda, 2014; Hampton et al., 1978; Strand et al., 2003). In glacial sedimentary environments, glacial surfaces are worn down without any obvious mechanical or chemical features, so these microtextures rarely appear (Krinsley and Donahue, 1968; Setlow and Karpovich, 1972; Strass, 1978). In subaqueous environments, glacial grains produce various chemical microtextures and develop V-shaped percussion cracks when one grain strikes another (Hampton et al., 1978; Kalinska-Nartisa et al., 2017; Strand and Immonen, 2010; Strand et al., 2003). In littoral environments affected by wave and tide actions, V-shaped percussion cracks and chemical features often occur, such as oriented etch pits, solution pits, solution crevasses, and silica precipitates (ArmstrongAltrin and Natalhy-Pineda, 2014; Vieira Machado et al., 2016). However, for eolian sediment, collisions between grains often produce crescentic percussion marks rather than V-shaped percussion cracks (Lindé and Mycielskadowgiałło, 1980; Udayaganesan et al., 2011; Williams and Thomas, 1989). In addition, eolian sediment is mainly influenced by abrasion and weathering, and oriented etch pits, solution pits, solution crevasses, scaling, and silica globules rarely appear (Kasperâ Zubillaga et al., 2005; Xie, 1984). Therefore, in this work, the above microtextures are typical of subaqueous environments. These microtextures are preserved when eolian sand has been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment and can be used to determine whether eolian sand had ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment. In the Asian monsoon margin of Northwest China, effective Holocene moisture changes and lake evolution have been reconstructed by proxy records from some terminal lakes, such as Huahai Lake (Li et al., 2016b; Wang et al., 2013), Hongshui River (Zhang et al., 2000), and Zhuyeze Lake (Long et al., 2010). In these previous studies, the eolian sand layers that occurred in lacustrine sedimentary records usually revealed an arid environment in this region (Liu et al., 2016; Long et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2013). However, the connection between the climate and the evolution of the sand dune system might not be straightforward; sand accumulations do not represent the consistent action of surficial processes that are related to climatic changes (Qiang et al., 2016; Stauch, 2015). Moreover, in the arid region of Northwest China, sediment input to the lakes includes runoff and eolian materials transported from the surrounding desert by the wind (Li et al., 2016b; Liu et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2013). Therefore, the environmental significance of eolian sand layers occurring in lacustrine sedimentary deposits may not be oversimplified when interpreted as the result of climatic aridity. How the lake level fluctuates and whether the eolian sand had ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment should be considered, which is helpful in interpreting the environmental significance of eolian sand layers. Furthermore, in desert hinterlands, the lake sediment composition is mainly sand, and the color is similar to eolian sand (Li et al., 2018; Ning

6. Conclusions The results suggest that microtextural features have variable frequencies among different sand samples, including the lake sediment, eolian sand, and hydatogenous sand in this study. Eolian sand deposited in a subaqueous sedimentary environment not only has the specific microtextures of subaqueous sedimentary environments such as Vshaped percussion cracks, straight or curved grooves and scratches, oriented etch pits, solution crevasses, and scaling but also retains the unique microstructures of eolian sedimentary environments such as crescentic percussion marks. From these microtextural features on the surfaces of quartz grains, we can identify whether the eolian sand had ever been in a subaqueous sedimentary environment. Thus, this study is helpful in not only interpreting the environmental significance of eolian sand layers but also providing a new method for dividing sedimentary strata between the lacustrine sedimentary strata and eolian sand strata. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgments The authors thank Dr. Pedro JM Costa and an anonymous reviewer as well as the editors Dr. Jeff Lee and Dr. Jan-Berend Stuut for their constructive comments, which led to a significant improvement of this manuscript. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41530745 and 41771211). Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2020.100573. References Abdalla, M., 1991. Surface textures of quartz grains from Recent sedimentary environments along the Mediterranean Coast, Egypt. J. Afr. Earth Sci. (and the Middle East) 13 (3-4), 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(91)90100-D. Alekseeva, V.A., 2005. Micromorphology of quartz grain surface as indicator of glacial sedimentation conditions: Evidence from the Protva River Basin. Lithol. Min. Resour. 40, 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10987-005-0040-x. Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., Natalhy-Pineda, O., 2014. Microtextures of detrital sand grains from the Tecolutla, Nautla, and Veracruz beaches, western Gulf of Mexico, Mexico: implications for depositional environment and paleoclimate. Arabian J. Geosci. 7, 4321–4333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-1088-x. Bellanova, P., Bahlburg, H., Nentwig, V., Spiske, M., 2016. Microtextural analysis of quartz grains of tsunami and non-tsunami deposits – a case study from Tirúa (Chile). Sed. Geol. 343, 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.08.001. Black, J.M., Dudas, M.J., 1987. The scanning electron microscopic morphology of quartz

8

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

basin, northwest China. Environ. Earth Sci. 75, 295. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12665-015-5090-3. Li, Z., Wang, N., Cheng, H., Li, Y., 2016b. Early–middle Holocene hydroclimate changes in the Asian monsoon margin of northwest China inferred from Huahai terminal lake records. J. Paleolimnol. 55, 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-016-9880-8. Li, Z., Wang, N., Li, R., Ning, K., Cheng, H., Zhao, L., 2015. Indication of millennial-scale moisture changes by the temporal distribution of Holocene calcareous root tubes in the deserts of the Alashan Plateau, Northwest China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 440, 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.023. Li, Z., Wei, Z., Dong, S., Chen, Q., 2018. The paleoenvironmental significance of spatial distributions of grain size in groundwater-recharged lakes: a case study in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert, northwest China. Earth Surf. Proc. Land. 43, 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4248. Lindé, K., Mycielskadowgiałło, E., 1980. Some experimentally produced microtextures on grain surfaces of quartz sand. Geogr. Ann. 62, 171. https://doi.org/10.2307/520676. Liu, C., Zhang, J., Jiao, P., Mischke, S., 2016. The Holocene history of Lop Nur and its palaeoclimate implications. Quat. Sci. Rev. 148, 163–175 j.quascirev.2016.07.016. Liu, X., Lu, R., Du, J., Lyu, Z., Wang, L., Gao, S., Wu, Y., 2018. Evolution of peatlands in the Mu Us Desert, Northern China, since the last deglaciation. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 123, 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JF004413. Long, H., Lai, Z., Wang, N., Li, Y., 2010. Holocene climate variations from Zhuyeze terminal lake records in East Asian monsoon margin in arid northern China. Quat. Res. 74, 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2010.03.009. Ma, N., Wang, N., Li, Z., Chen, X., Zhu, J., Dong, C., 2011. Analysis on climate change in the northern and southern marginal zones of the Badain Jaran Desert during the period 1960–2009. Arid Zone Res. 28, 242–250 (in Chinese with English abstract). Ma, N., Wang, N., Zhao, L., Zhang, Z., Dong, C., Shen, S., 2014. Observation of mega-dune evaporation after various rain events in the hinterland of Badain Jaran Desert, China. Chin. Sci. Bull. 59, 162–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-013-0050-3. Mahaney, W.C., 2002. Atlas of Sand Grain Surface Textures and Applications. Oxford University Press, New York. Mahaney, W.C., Stewart, A., Kalm, V., 2001. Quantification of SEM microtextures useful in environment discrimination. Boreas 30, 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 030094801750203170. Mahaney, W.C., 2010. Pleistocene and Holocene glacier thicknesses, transport histories and dynamics inferred from SEM microtextures on quartz particles. Boreas 24, 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.1995.tb00781.x. Mahaney, W.C., Claridge, G., Campbell, I., 1996. Microtextures on quartz grains in tills from Antarctica. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 121, 89–103. https://doi. org/10.1016/0031-0182(95)00069-0. Mahaney, W.C., Dirszowsky, R.W., Milner, M.W., Menzies, J., Stewart, A., Kalm, V., Bezada, M., 2004. Quartz microtextures and microstructures owing to deformation of glaciolacustrine sediments in the northern Venezuelan Andes. J. Quat. Sci. 19, 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.818. Margolis, S.V., 1968. Electron microscopy of chemical solution and mechanical abrasion features on quartz sand grains. Sed. Geol. 2, 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 0037-0738(68)90002-x. Margolis, S.V., Kennett, J.P., 1970. Antarctic glaciation during the tertiary recorded in sub-antarctic deep-sea cores. Science 170, 1085–1087. https://doi.org/10.1126/ science.170.3962.1085. Margolis, S.V., Krinsley, D.H., 1971. Submicroscopic frosting on eolian and subaqueous quartz sand grains. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 82, 3395–3406. https://doi.org/10.1130/ 0016-7606(1971) 82[3395:sfoeas]2.0.co;2. Manickam, S., Barbaroux, L., 2010. Variations in the surface texture of suspended quartz grains in the Loire River: an SEM study. Sedimentology 34, 495–510. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-3091.1987.tb00581.x. Mason, C., Folk, S.L., 1958. Differentiation of beach, dune, and aeolian flat environments by size analysis, Mustang Island, Texas. J. Sediment. Res. 28, 211–226. https://doi. org/10.1306/74d707b3-2b21-11d7-8648000102c1865d. Mazumder, A., Govil, P., Kar, R., Gayathri, N.M., Raghuram, 2017. Paleoenvironments of a proglacial lake in Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica: insights from quartz grain microtextures. Polish Polar Res. 38, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1515/popore-20170002. Mischke, S., Lai, Z., Long, H., Tian, F., 2015. Holocene climate and landscape change in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau foreland inferred from the Zhuyeze Lake record. The Holocene 26, 643–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683615612570. Narayana, A.C., Mohan, R., Mishra, R., 2010. Morphology and surface textures of quartz grains from freshwater lakes of McLeod Island, Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica. Curr. Sci. 99, 1420–1424. Ning, K., Wang, N., Lv, X., Li, Z., Sun, J., An, R., Zhang, L., 2019. A grain size and nalkanes record of Holocene environmental evolution from a groundwater recharge lake in Badain Jaran Desert, Northwestern China. The Holocene 29, 1045–1058. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683619831430. Pell, S.D., Chivas, A.R., 1995. Surface features of sand grains from the australian continental dunefield. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 113. https://doi.org/10. 1016/0031-0182(95)00066-u. Qiang, M., Jin, Y., Liu, X., Song, L., Li, H., Li, F., Chen, F., 2016. Late Pleistocene and Holocene aeolian sedimentation in Gonghe Basin, northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: Variability, processes, and climatic implications. Quat. Sci. Rev. 132, 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.11.010. Rajganapathi, V.C., Jitheshkumar, N., Sundararajan, M., Bhat, K.H., Velusamy, S., 2013. Grain size analysis and characterization of sedimentary environment along Thiruchendur coast, Tamilnadu, India. Arab J Geosci 6 (12), 4717–4728. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12517-012-0709-0. Refaat, A.A., Hamdan, M.A., 2015. Mineralogy and grain morphology of the aeolian dune sand of Toshka area, southeastern Western Desert, Egypt. Aeolian Res. 17, 243–254.

in selected soils from alberta. Can. J. Soil Sci. 67, 965–971. https://doi.org/10.4141/ cjss87-092. Cardona, J.P., Mas, J.M., Bellón, A.S., López-Aguayo, F., Caballero, M.A., 1997. Provenance of multicycle quartz arenites of Pliocene age at Arcos, southwestern Spain. Sed. Geol. 112, 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0037-0738(97)00040-7. Chakroun, A., Miskovsky, J.-C., Zaghbib-Turki, D., 2009. Quartz grain surface features in environmental determination of aeolian Quaternary deposits in northeastern Tunisia. Mineral. Mag. 73 (4), 607–614. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.2009.073.4.607. Chen, F., Wu, D., Chen, J., Zhou, A., Yu, J., Shen, J., Wang, S., Huang, X., 2016. Holocene moisture and East Asian summer monsoon evolution in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau recorded by Lake Qinghai and its environs: a review of conflicting proxies. Quat. Sci. Rev. 154, 111–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev. 2016.10.021. Chen, Q., Li, Z., Dong, S., Wang, N., Lai, D.Y.F., Ning, K., 2018. Spatial variations in the chemical composition of eolian sediments in hyperarid regions: a case study from the Badain Jaran Desert, Northwestern China. J. Sediment. Res. 88, 290–300. https:// doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2018.11. Chen, Y., Liu, X., 2016. Surface textural analysis of quartz grains from varved sediments of Lake Kusai in the Hoh Xil area, Tibetan Plateau. J. Lake Sci. 28, 1123–1133. https://doi.org/10.18307/2016.0523. Costa, P., Andrade, C., Dawson, A.G., Mahaney, W.C., Freitas, M.C., Paris, R., Taborda, R., 2012. Microtextural characteristics of quartz grains transported and deposited by tsunamis and storms. Sed. Geol. 275, 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012. 07.013. Costa, P., Andrade, C., Mahaney, W., da Silva, F., Freire, P., Freitas, M., Janardo, C., Oliveira, M., Silva, T., Lopes, V., 2013. Aeolian microtextures in silica spheres induced in a wind tunnel experiment: comparison with aeolian quartz. Geomorphology 180, 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.09.011. Costa, P., Kim, Y., Park, Y., Quintela, M., Mahaney, W.C., Dourado, F., Dawson, S., 2017. Imprints in silica grains induced during a wave flume experiment: approach to determine microtextural signatures during aqueous transport. J. Sediment. Res. 87, 677–687. https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2017.39. Costa, P., Rasteiro, D., Figueirinhas, L., Lario, J., 2019. The importance of coastal geomorphological setting as a controlling factor on microtextural signatures of the 2010 maule (Chile) tsunami deposit. Geol. Acta 17 (4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1344/ geologicaacta2019.17.4. Dong, Chunyu, Wang, Nai'ang, Chen, Jiansheng, Li, Zhuolun, Chen, Hongbao, Chen, Li, Ma, Ning, 2016. New observational and experimental evidence for the recharge mechanism of the lake group in the Alxa Desert, north-central China. J. Arid Environ. 124, 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2015.07.008. Dong, S., Li, Z., Chen, Q., Wei, Z., 2018. Total organic carbon and its environmental significance for the surface sediments in groundwater recharged lakes from the Badain Jaran Desert, northwest China. J. Limnol. 77, 121–129. https://doi.org/10. 4081/jlimnol.2017.1667. Franklin, E.M., Charru, F., 2011. Subaqueous barchan dunes in turbulent shear flow. Part 1. Dune motion. J. Fluid Mech. 675, 199–222. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0022112011000139. Hampton, M.A., Bouma, A.H., Torresan, M.E., Colburn, I.P., 1978. Analysis of microtextures on quartz sand grains from lower Cook Inlet, Alaska. Geology 6, 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1978) 6<105:aomoqs>2.0.co;2. Hu, F., Yang, X., 2016. Geochemical and geomorphological evidence for the provenance of aeolian deposits in the Badain Jaran Desert, northwestern China. Quat. Sci. Rev. 131, 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.10.039. Immonen, N., 2013. Surface microtextures of ice-rafted quartz grains revealing glacial ice in the Cenozoic Arctic. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 374, 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.02.003. Joshi, V.U., 2009. Grain surface features of alluvial sediments of upper Pravara Basin and their environmental implications. J. Geol. Soc. India 74, 711–722. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12594-009-0188-4. Kalinska-Nartisa, E., Galka, M., 2018. Sand in Early Holocene lake sediments – a microscopic study from Lake Jaczno, northeastern Poland. Estonian J. Earth Sci. 67, 122–132. https://doi.org/10.3176/earth.2018.09. Kalinska-Nartisa, E., Woronko, B., Ning, W.X., 2017. Microtextural inheritance on quartz sand grains from pleistocene periglacial environments of the Mazovian Lowland, Central Poland. Permafrost Periglacial Process 28, 741–756. https://doi.org/10. 1002/ppp.1943. Kasperâ Zubillaga, J.J., Dickinson, W.W., Carranzaâ Edwards, A., Hornelasâ Orozco, Y., 2005. Petrography of quartz grains in beach and dune sands of Northland, North Island, New Zealand. N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 48, 649–660. doi:10.1080/00288306. 2005.9515139. Khalaf, F.I., Gharib, I.M., 1985. Roundness parameters of quartz grains of recent aeolian sand deposits in kuwait. Sed. Geol. 45, 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/00370738(85)90028-4. Krinsley, D., Trusty, P., 1985. Environmental interpretation of quartz grain surface textures. Provenance of Arenites 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-28096_10. Krinsley, D.H., Donahue, J., 1968. Environmental interpretation of sand grain surface textures by electron microscopy. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 79, 743. https://doi.org/10. 1130/0016-7606(1968) 79[743:eiosgs]2.0.co;2. Krinsley, D.H., Doornkamp, J.C., 1973. Atlas of Quartz Sand Surface Textures. Cambridge University Press, London. Li, Z., Chen, Q., Zhang, C., Yu, Q., Dong, S., Zhao, L., Wang, N., 2019. Environmental significance of the chemical composition of sediments in groundwater-recharged lakes of the Badain Jaran Desert, NW China. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 20, 1026–1040. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gc007967. Li, Z., Pan, N., He, Y., Zhang, Q., 2016a. Evaluating the best evaporation estimate model for free water surface evaporation in hyper-arid regions: a case study in the Ejina

9

Aeolian Research 43 (2020) 100573

Z. Li, et al.

textures of quartz grains from glacial environments. Sedimentology 21, 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1974.tb01783.x. Williams, A.T., Thomas, M.C., 1989. Analysis of barrier island surface sediments by scanning electron microscopy. Mar. Geol. 86, 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 0025-3227(89)90044-3. Woronko, B., 2016. Frost weathering versus glacial grinding in the micromorphology of quartz sand grains: processes and geological implications. Sed. Geol. 335, 103–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.01.021. Woronko, B., Pisarska-Jamrozy, M., 2016. Micro-scale frost weathering of sand-sized quartz grains. Permafrost Periglacial Process 27, 109–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/ ppp.1855. Wu, Y., Wang, N., Zhao, L., Zhang, Z., Chen, L., Lu, Y., Lü, X., Chang, J., 2014. Hydrochemical characteristics and recharge sources of Lake Nuoertu in the Badain Jaran Desert. Chin. Sci. Bull. 59, 886–895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-0130102-8. Xie, Y., 1984. Atlas of Quartz Sand Surface Textural Features of China Micrographs. China Ocean Press (in Chinese), Beijing. Xu, M., Li, Z., 2016. Accumulated temperature changes in desert region and surrounding area during 1960–2013: a case study in the Alxa Plateau, Northwest China. Environ. Earth Sci. 75, 1276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6084-5. Xu, Z., Lu, H., Yi, S., Vandenberghe, J., Mason, J.A., Zhou, Y., Wang, X., 2015. Climatedriven changes to dune activity during the Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation in the Mu Us dune field, north-central China. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 427, 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.07.002. Yan, M., Wang, G., Li, B., Dong, G., 2001. Formation and growth of high mega-dunes in Badain Jaran Desert. Acta Geogr. Sin. 56, 83–91 (in Chinese with English abstract). Yang, X., Ma, N., Dong, J., Zhu, B., Xu, B., Ma, Z., Liu, J., 2010. Recharge to the inter-dune lakes and Holocene climatic changes in the Badain Jaran Desert, western China. Quat. Res. 73, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2009.10.009. Yang, X., Scuderi, L., Paillou, P., Liu, Z., Li, H., Ren, X., 2011. Quaternary environmental changes in the drylands of China – a critical review. Quat. Sci. Rev. 30, 3219–3233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.08.009. Zhang, H., Ma, Y., Wünnemann, B., Pachur, H.J., 2000. A Holocene climatic record from arid northwestern China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 162, 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(00)00139-5. Zhu, J., Wang, N., Chen, H., Dong, C., Zhang, H., 2010. Study on the boundary and the area of Badain Jaran Desert based on the remote sensing imagery. Prog. Geogr. 29, 1087–1094 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.11820/dlkxjz.2010.09.010. Zhu, Z., Wu, Z., Liu, S., 1980. An Outline of Chinese Desert. Science Press (in Chinese), Beijing.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2015.04.006. Setlow, L.W., Karpovich, R.P., 1972. “Glacial” micro-textures on quartz and heavy mineral sand grains from the littoral environment. J. Sediment. Res. 42, 864–875. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D7265D-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Stauch, G., 2015. Geomorphological and palaeoclimate dynamics recorded by the formation of aeolian archives on the Tibetan Plateau. Earth Sci. Rev. 150, 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.08.009. Strand, K., Immonen, N., 2010. Dynamics of the Barents-Kara ice sheet as revealed by quartz sand grain microtextures of the late Pleistocene Arctic Ocean sediments. Quat. Sci. Rev. 29, 3583–3589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.09.017. Strand, Kari, Passchier, Sandra, Näsi, Jari, 2003. Implications of quartz grain microtextures for onset Eocene/Oligocene glaciation in Prydz Bay, ODP Site 1166, Antarctica. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 198 (1-2), 101–111. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00396-1. Strass, I.F., 1978. Microtextures of quartz sand grains in coastal and shelf sediments, Møre, western Norway. Mar. Geol. 28, 107–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/00253227(78)90100-7. Udayaganesan, P., Angusamy, N., Gujar, A.R., Rajamanickam, G.V., 2011. Surface microtextures of quartz grains from the central coast of Tamil Nadu. J. Geol. Soc. India 77, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-011-0005-8. Vieira Machado, G.M., Albino, J., Leal, A.P., Bastos, A.C., 2016. Quartz grain assessment for reconstructing the coastal palaeoenvironment. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 70, 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2016.06.004. Vos, K., Vandenberghe, N., Elsen, J., 2014. Surface textural analysis of quartz grains by scanning electron microscopy (SEM): from sample preparation to environmental interpretation. Earth Sci. Rev. 128, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013. 10.013. Wang, F., Sun, D., Chen, F., Bloemendal, J., Guo, F., Li, Z., Zhang, Y., Li, B., Wang, X., 2015. Formation and evolution of the Badain Jaran Desert, North China, as revealed by a drill core from the desert centre and by geological survey. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 426, 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015. 03.011. Wang, N., Li, Z., Li, Y., Cheng, H., 2013. Millennial-scale environmental changes in the Asian monsoon margin during the Holocene, implicated by the lake evolution of Huahai Lake in the Hexi Corridor of northwest China. Quat. Int. 313, 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.08.039. Wang, N., Ning, K., Li, Z., Wang, Y., Jia, P., Ma, L., 2016. Holocene high lake-levels and pan-lake period on Badain Jaran Desert. Sci. China Earth Sci. 59, 1633–1641. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11430-016-5307-7. Whalley, W.B., Krinsley, D.H., 1974. A scanning electron microscope study of surface

10