Mid-Holocene vegetation history and Neolithic land-use in the Lake Banyoles area (Girona, Spain)

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 435 (2015) 70–85

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Mid-Holocene vegetation history and Neolithic land-use in the Lake Banyoles area (Girona, Spain) J. Revelles a,⁎, S. Cho b, E. Iriarte b, F. Burjachs c,d,e, B. van Geel f, A. Palomo a, R. Piqué a, L. Peña-Chocarro g,h, X. Terradas i a

Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici B Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain Laboratorio de Evolución Humana, Departamento Ciencias Históricas y Geografía, Universidad de Burgos, Plaza Misael Bañuelos, Edificio I+D+i, 09001 Burgos, Spain Institut Català de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain d Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES), Zona Educacional 4 - Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain e Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Carrer de l'Escorxador, s/n, 43003 Tarragona, Spain f Department of Paleoecology and Landscape Ecology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, P.O. Box 94248, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands g GI Arqueobiología, Instituto de Historia, Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CCHS-CSIC), C/Albasanz 26–28, 28037 Madrid, Spain h Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología en Roma, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Via Sant'Eufemia 13, 00187 Rome, Italy i Archaeology of Social Dynamics, Institución Milà y Fontanals, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IMF-CSIC), C/Egipcíaques, 15, 08001 Barcelona, Spain b c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 2 March 2015 Received in revised form 29 May 2015 Accepted 3 June 2015 Available online 11 June 2015 Keywords: Neolithic land-use Pollen Macrofossils Geochemical analysis Lake Banyoles Iberian Peninsula

a b s t r a c t This paper focuses on high-resolution analysis of pollen and sedimentology and botanical macro-remains analysis in a core from Lake Banyoles (Girona, Spain). The core sequence comprises a high resolution midHolocene (ca. 8.9–3.35 cal ka BP) vegetation succession, and sedimentological, geochemical and geomorphological proxies are related to both climatic and anthropogenic causes. Deforestation processes affected natural vegetation development in the Early Neolithic (7.25–5.55 cal ka BP) and Late Neolithic (5.17–3.71 cal ka BP), in the context of broadleaf deciduous forest resilience against cooling and drying oscillations. Changes in sedimentation dynamics and in lake water level caused the emergence of dry land on the lake margin where riparian forest was established from 5.55 cal ka BP onwards. The data show that in the context of an increasing aridification process, Neolithic land-use played an important role in vegetation history and environmental evolution. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Holocene, despite being a relatively stable climatic period compared to the previous glacial period, has been punctuated by cooling and drying oscillations recorded in oxygen isotope data of ice cores (Grootes et al., 1993; O'Brien et al., 1995; Grootes and Stuiver, 1997), coral records (Beck et al., 1997), stalagmites (Bar-Matthews et al., 1999; Zanchetta et al., 2007; Boch et al., 2009; Moreno et al., 2010;), marine archives (Sirocko et al., 1993; Bond et al., 1997; Cacho et al., 2001, 2006; Fletcher et al., 2010, 2013), and lacustrine records (Harrison and Digerfeldt, 1993; Magny, 1998; Magny et al., 2003, 2013; Giraudi et al., 2011). These climatic fluctuations lead to environmental variability. The temperate and humid climate in Early Holocene favoured the ⁎ Corresponding author at: Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici B Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain. Tel.: +34 93 581 4333. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Revelles).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.06.002 0031-0182/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

development of deciduous broadleaf forests in southwest Europe (Jalut et al., 2009), vegetation that was frequently dominant in the Mediterranean region of the Iberian Peninsula (Burjachs et al., 1997; Carrion et al., 2010; Pérez-Obiol, 2007; Pérez-Obiol et al., 2011). Afterwards, an increasing aridification process correlated with decreasing insolation and summer temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere (Porter and Denton, 1967; Denton and Karlén, 1973), caused the development of sclerophyllous and evergreen forests following a south–north gradient in different areas of the Mediterranean region (Carrion et al., 2010; Denèfle et al., 2000; Jalut et al., 2000, 2009; Roberts et al., 2001; Sadori and Narcisi, 2001; Sadori, 2013). Nevertheless, human activities should be considered in order to comprehend environmental changes occurred since Middle Holocene onwards. In fact, some authors place the adoption of farming activities in the onset of the Anthropocene (Ruddiman, 2003; Ruddiman et al., 2015). Thus, the anthropogenic factor should be kept in mind as a relevant element in vegetation evolution from the start of the Neolithic onwards, as shown by several studies in the Mediterranean area (Riera and Esteban-Amat, 1994; Dupré et al., 1996; Carrión and van Geel,

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1999; Sadori and Narcisi, 2001; Yll et al., 2003; Carrión et al., 2009). In this paper we focus on a mid-Holocene pollen record from Lake Banyoles, when the establishment of the first farming societies changed the relationship between humans and environment, resulting in the onset of an increasing process of landscape disturbance. The Lake Banyoles area is remarkable for its evidence of early farming communities in the Iberian Peninsula, such as those attested at La Draga archaeological site, and also for the possibility it provides of relating the archaeological sites with palaeoecological records obtained from lacustrine and peat deposits in the lake surroundings. Previous palaeoecological analyses have been carried out in the study area (Pérez-Obiol and Julià, 1994; Höbig et al., 2012). Pérez-Obiol and Julià (1994) mainly focused on the Pleistocene records, but they also presented data about the vegetation cover at the onset of the Holocene in Banyoles, showing the dominance of broadleaf deciduous tree forests, especially deciduous Quercus and Corylus. La Draga is a waterlogged Neolithic site on the eastern shore of Lake Banyoles. The archaeological research carried out at the site revealed evidence for intensive farming activity during the late 8th and early 7th millennium cal BP (Tarrús, 2008; Palomo et al., 2014). After eighteen years of excavations at the site, a new research project was started in 2008, including a survey of the lake shores (both on land and under water), aiming to locate new evidence of settlement sites and human activity of prehistoric societies (Bosch et al., 2010; Terradas et al., 2013). Holocene sediments were cored at locations placed at regular distances along the lakeshore during the 2008 and 2009 fieldwork seasons. The reconstruction of past social activities and the impact on the environment requires an interdisciplinary approach in which several fields of research must be combined, such as archaeology, sedimentology and palaeoecology. The main goal of such an analysis should be to reveal the development of the relationship between changing environmental conditions and the factors that control climatic fluctuations, as well as the influence of all this on socioeconomic strategies. Therefore, the main goals of this study are: i) to comprehend vegetation change patterns and their causes. ii) To evaluate the relationship

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between vegetation patterns and sedimentation dynamics and their possible link with environmental changes. iii) To assess the impact on the landscape of the first farming societies. 2. Study area 2.1. Environmental and geographical settings The study site is located in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula, 35 km from the Mediterranean Sea and 50 km south of the Pyrenees (Fig. 1). Lake Banyoles is a karst lake associated with a large karst aquifer system located in a tectonic depression, fed by underground water. The lake is approximately 2100 m long and 750 m wide with an average depth of 15 m that in several locations can reach up to 46 m (Casamitjana et al., 2006; Höbig et al., 2012). The climate in the Banyoles region is defined as humid Mediterranean, with an annual precipitation of 750 mm and a mean annual temperature of 15 °C. The average maximum temperature during July and August is 23 °C, and the minimum average is 7 °C in winter. The minimum monthly precipitation (10 mm) occurs during summer and in December. Dense vegetation formations in the mountains surrounding Lake Banyoles, are dominated by a mixed forest of evergreen oak (Quercus ilex, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus alaternus, Phillyrea media, Ph. angustifolia), deciduous oak (Quercus humilis, Buxus sempervirens, Ilex aquifolium) and pine forest (Pinus halepensis) (Fig. 1). In this context, shrublands (Erica arborea, Rosmarinus officinalis) are well represented. Along the lakeshore, there are helophytic communities represented by Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia, Lythrum salicaria and several cyperaceous species (Gracia et al., 2001). 2.2. Archaeological background Located half-way along the eastern shore of Lake Banyoles, La Draga is the most important archaeological site in the region, providing a detailed bioarchaeological record that is unique for the Iberian Peninsula thanks to anoxic preservation conditions, with an Early Neolithic

Fig. 1. Location of the coring site and surrounding archaeological sites. Source for vegetation map: Mapa Forestal de España (Zona 10). Climogram: precipitation and temperatures data in 2013 recorded in the station of Banyoles. 1. 2. 3.

Cova de Reclau Viver, Cova d'en Pau, Mollet III, Cova de l'Arbreda, Cova d'en Costa, Cau del Roure. Cau d'en Salvador, Cova dels Encantats de Serinyà, Cau d'en Quintana. Worked wooden remains, probably a canoe, recovered by underwater surveying.

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(Cardial Neolithic) occupation (7.27–6.75 cal ka BP; Bosch et al., 2012; Palomo et al., 2014). Other evidence of prehistoric settlements around the lake are scarce (Tarrús, 2000). An individual burial was found in Fàbrica Agustí – not far from La Draga – and attributed to the Middle Neolithic (Fig. 1). On the opposite lake shore there is some evidence of the Late Neolithic– Chalcolithic and Late Bronze Age located around the church of Santa Maria de Porqueres, as well as worked wooden remains, probably a canoe, documented by underwater surveying and dated in 3.20– 3.18 cal ka BP (Bosch et al., 2012). In a more regional perspective, there is some evidence of occupation in Serinyà Caves (4–5 km away from Lake Banyoles) and Esponellà Caves (10 km away). At those sites several archaeological remains from the early Neolithic to the Early Bronze age were found during the 20th century (Tarrús, 2000). The most outstanding are specified in Table 1 and Fig. 1. Most of the sites are small rock shelters where the finds were casual, or made in the course of old archaeological excavations. These occupations were dated indirectly, based on ceramic styles. Regional chrono-cultural periods have been established by Barceló (2008). 3. Material and methods 3.1. Core sampling A 370 cm long core (SB2 core) was obtained from the western shore of Lake Banyoles (42°07′44.70″N 2°45′06.64″E, Alt. 174 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 1). The choice of the coring location was based on a systematic core exploration along the lakeshore during the 2008 and 2009 fieldwork seasons (Bosch et al., 2010). The results of that exploration enabled the identification of peat and organic clay deposits, allowing the recovery of a complete sequence of Holocene sediments for more detailed environmental analyses. The SB2 core was drilled beside the place where the S96 core was extracted in 2009, near the Riera del Castellar river, the main watercourse draining to the lake. The location near the river allows the detection of changes in its terrigenous input to the lake. For this purpose, a Van Walt/Eijkelkamp mechanical drilling machine was used. SB2 core is located 160 m away from the present lakeshore. Four

Table 1 Prehistoric occupations framed in chronocultural periods according to probability intervals established by means of sets of high reliability dates (Barceló, 2008). Chronocultural period

Chronology

Site

Early Bronze Age Early Bronze Age Early Bronze Age Early Bronze Age Early Bronze Age Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic Middle Neolithic Middle Neolithic Middle Neolithic Early Neolithic–Epicardial and Postcardial Early Neolithic–Epicardial and Postcardial Early Neolithic–Epicardial and Postcardial Early Neolithic–Epicardial and Postcardial Early Neolithic–Cardial

3.71–2.9 cal ka BP 3.71–2.9 cal ka BP 3.71–2.9 cal ka BP 3.71–2.9 cal ka BP 3.71–2.9 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.17–3.71 cal ka BP 5.95–5.25 cal ka BP 5.95–5.25 cal ka BP 5.95–5.25 cal ka BP 6.95–5.55 cal ka BP

Cova d'en Pau Encantats de Serinyà Cova Mariver Cau del Roure Cau d'en Salvador Mollet III Cova Mariver L'Arbreda Cau d'en Quintana Cau del Roure Cova d'en Pau Reclau Viver Encantades de Martís Encantats de Serinyà Cova del Reclau Viver Cova Mariver Encantades de Martís Cova d'en Pau

6.95–5.55 cal ka BP

Cova Mariver

6.95–5.55 cal ka BP

Reclau Viver

6.95–5.55 cal ka BP

Mollet III

7.35–6.95 cal ka BP

L'Arbreda

stratigraphical units were distinguished, based on sedimentary facies: yellowish-brown silt (0–159 cm), greyish silty clay (159–174 cm), dark silty clay (174–281 cm) and carbonate sands (281–370 cm). The intermediate organic dark silty clay unit exhibited outstanding pollen preservation, in terms of variability and pollen concentration, and it corresponds with the start and development of the prehistoric settlements along the lake margins. Palynological and sedimentary charcoal data were partially published in Revelles et al. (2014), focusing on the Neolithisation period. The present study includes the intermediate unit, covering late Early Holocene to Late Holocene. 3.2. Sedimentology The sedimentological study consisted of the stratigraphical characterization, the sedimentary facies description, the mineralogical analysis by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a high-resolution geochemical analysis (XRF core scanner). The cores were split in two halves and imaged with a high-resolution digital camera in a core-scanner. The lithofacies were defined after visual and microscopic smear slide observations (Schnurrenberger et al., 2003). The elemental composition of sediments was obtained by using an AVAATECH XRF core scanner at a resolution of 1 cm and under two different working conditions: i) with an X-ray current of 1000 μA, at 10 s count time and 10 kV X-ray voltage for the measurement of Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar, K, Ca, Ti, and Rh; and ii) with an X-ray current of 2000 μA, at 25 s count time, 30 kV X-ray voltage and using a Pd filter, for the measurement of Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Br, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb and Pb. The XRF results are expressed as counts per second (cps) and only chemical elements with mean cps over 1000 were considered to be statistically significant. Whole sediment mineralogy was characterized by X-ray diffraction with a Bruker D8 Discover Davinci and relative mineral abundance was determined using the Difract software. Results are expressed in percentages related to the total dry weight of the sample. 3.3. Radiocarbon dating and age-depth model The age-depth model was based on six Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates on bulk sediment (peaty clay) (Revelles et al., 2014). Calibration to years cal BP was made using Clam 2.2. (Blaauw, 2010) based on the data set IntCal13.14C (Reimer et al., 2013) (Table 2). 3.4. Pollen analysis Contiguous 1 cm thick samples were retrieved from the core. The preparation of the samples followed standard methods (Burjachs et al., 2003) using treatment with HCL, NaOH, flotation in heavy liquid, HF and final mounting in glycerine. 300–350 terrestrial pollen grains were counted using a Nikon Eclipse 50i microscope, fitted with × 10 oculars and a × 50 objective. Cyperaceae, Typha latifolia, Typha/ Sparganium and Alnus were excluded from the pollen sum to avoid over-representation by local taxa. All pollen types are defined according to Reille (1992) and Cerealia-type was defined according to the morphometric criteria of Faegri and Iversen (1989). Non-pollen palynomorph (NPP) identification followed van Geel (1978, 2001) and van Geel et al. (2003). 3.5. Sedimentary charcoal analysis Contiguous samples of 1 cm3 were retrieved from the core, soaked in 10% NaOH solution for 24 h for peat digestion, then in 30% H2O2 solution for 24 h to bleach non-charcoal organic material (Rhodes, 1998). Quantification of charred particles was performed with the sieving method (Carcaillet et al., 2001) with a 150 μm mesh size (Clark, 1988; Ohlson and Tryterud, 2000) in order to reconstruct local fire history. Charcoal concentration (charcoal particles/cm3) was expressed as

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Table 2 Radiocarbon dates, SB2 core (Banyoles). Calibration to years cal. BP was performed with Clam 2.2 (Blaauw, 2010) based on the data set IntCal13.14C (Reimer et al., 2013). Sample depth (cm)

Lab. code

Material

AMS radiocarbon date BP

Cal. year BP (2σ range) 95% probability

Cal. year BP in diagram

173 201 215 237 253 276

SUERC-38761 (GU26454) Beta-325839 SUERC-38760 (GU26453) SUERC-49224 (GU31929) SUERC-49225 (GU31930) SUERC-38759 (GU26452)

Bulk sediment Charcoal Bulk sediment Bulk sediment Bulk sediment Bulk sediment

2590 ± 30 4480 ± 30 4650 ± 30 5148 ± 30 6645 ± 31 7855 ± 30

2732–2876 4836–5171 5292–5452 5948–6239 7171–7518 8609–8947

2759 5030 5383 6024 7418 8685

charcoal accumulation rate (charcoal particles/cm2 years−1) based on sedimentation rate estimated by the age-depth model.

3.6. Macro-remains analysis Samples of 25 cm3 (5 × 2.5 × 2 cm) were retrieved at 10 cm intervals from different pollen zones and sedimentological units, boiled in 5% KOH solution for peat digestion and sieved with a 150 μm mesh size. Then, macrofossils were transferred to a Petri dish and scanned using a stereoscopic microscope (10–50×). Moss leaves, cyperaceous epidermal tissues, and small seeds (Juncus sp.) had to be mounted onto temporary slides and examined at high magnifications (100–400 ×). Identifications were made with literature and reference collections of seeds and vegetative plant remains (Cappers et al., 2006; Mauquoy and van Geel, 2007). In the samples where charcoal macro-remains were recovered, the identification was carried out by viewing the pieces in the three anatomical planes of the wood (transversal, radial longitudinal and tangential longitudinal). The samples were observed with an Olympus BX51 optical microscope and compared with reference samples of modern wood and identification keys published in specialized literature (Schweingruber, 1990).

4. Results 4.1. Chronology

Subunit 1: the oldest subunit extents from 8.9 cal ka BP to 7.2 cal ka BP (281 to 251 cm depth). It is characterized by the onset of peaty organic facies on top of shallow carbonate lacustrine sands. A rapid but gradual increase in Br (Fig. 3) points to the colonization of the lakeshore by vegetation, while lacustrine fine carbonate muds are being deposited (Ti/Ca curve in Fig. 3). However, the organic content (Br) starts decreasing progressively from 8.3 cal ka BP (267 cm), coinciding with the gradual increase of siliciclastic mud input (see Ti/Ca curve in Fig. 3) to the lakeshore environment. Subunit 2: extends from 7.2 cal ka BP to 4.2 cal ka BP (251 to 189 cm depth). The base coincides with the onset of the Neolithic site of La Draga. This subunit is characterized by a relatively low organic content of the peaty facies and an increasing content of siliciclastic mud. The organic content (Br) decreases until ca. 6.0 cal ka BP and maintains relatively constant until ca. 5.6 cal ka BP when it shows a tendency to increase, but it is interrupted by at least 3 strong minima at ca. 5.5 cal ka BP, 5.3 cal ka BP and 4.3 cal ka BP (Fig. 3). These tendencies and minimum peaks of organic matter (Br) anti-covariate with the changes observed in siliciclastic content (Ti/Ca) denoting that organic content varies depending on the quantity (sedimentation rate) of siliciclastic mud reaching the lakeshore. Subunit 3: extends from 4.2 cal ka BP to 2.7 cal ka BP (189 to 159 cm depth). This subunit is characterized by the strong decrease of allochthonous siliciclastic input to minimum background values (see Ti/Ca curve in Fig. 3) and the instauration of

The 6 dates obtained are expressed as intercepts with 2σ ranges (Table 2). The age-depth model was built using the smooth spline interpolation method. The dated samples are located at 173, 201, 215, 237, 257 and 276 cm depth, but pollen and sedimentary charcoal were analyzed up to 281 cm depth. Therefore, the age-depth curve (Revelles et al., 2014) (Fig. 2) was extended over the undated 5 cm, as it was within the same sedimentary facies. The age-depth relationship was used to plot the data (Figs. 4–7). The studied organic unit ranges between 8.9 cal ka BP and 3.35 cal ka BP, and thus allows the reconstruction of the vegetation history from the late Early Holocene to Late Holocene, covering Late Prehistory from the Mesolithic to the Bronze Age.

4.2. Sedimentology 4.2.1. Lithofacies and geochemistry The analyzed core interval is characterized by high organic matter content, due to the lakeshore plant accumulation that formed a clay rich peaty facies. The high-resolution geochemical analysis was able to detect changes in the geochemical and mineralogical composition and the relative abundance of organic matter in the sediments and to differentiate 3 sedimentary facies (Table 3). The main changes are shown as variations in organic matter content reflected in bromine (Br), a biophile halogen that is fixed by plants, the allochthonous fluvial input of clay minerals represented by variations in titanium (Ti), a common element in clay minerals, and in the autochthonous carbonate (CaCO3) clay content, reflected in calcium (Ca) variations.

Fig. 2. Age-depth model based on six AMS radiocarbon dates. Estimation of age along the entire profile by a smooth spline technique using Clam 2.2 (Blaauw, 2010). From Revelles et al. (2014).

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Table 3 Lithofacies defined for the SB2 core Unit 2 sequence, including sedimentary facies and main compositional parameters (mineralogical content (%) and geochemical content of selected elements (cps)) and depositional environments and/or process interpreted for each subunit. Subunit

Sedimentary facies

Composition parameters

Depositional environment/processes

1

281–251 cm. Dark-grey to black, massive, organic matter carbonate-rich peaty silts with vegetal remains. Less organic towards the top. Fine grained mud composed of millimetre to centimetre-size plant remains, dark amorphous organic matter, gypsum crystals and carbonate grains of reworked littoral bioclasts (ostracods and charophytes).

Vegetated lakeshore with increasing allochtonous terrigenous silt sedimentation and minor authigenous carbonate sedimentation. Frequent subaereal exposure intervals due to small water level variations.

2

251–189 cm. Olive grey to black, laminated organic matter carbonate-rich silts. Lamination is due to variable content of organic matter. More organic, peaty, towards the top. Fine grained laminated carbonate-rich mud. Contains abundant organic components as root and coarse plant remains, amorphous organic matter, gypsum crystals and bioclasts (ostracods, charophytes and shell fragments).

3

189–174 cm. Greyish black to black, organic matter rich silts with a carbonate sand interval (174–181 cm). Greyish black carbonate-rich mud composed of plant remains (millimetre to centimetre-size), amorphous organic matter, translucent filaments, gypsum crystals and shell fragments. Greyish black to black yellowish brown carbonate sand in finegrained organic-rich carbonated matrix with shell fragments and ostracods.

Mineralogy: Calcite = 3–15%, Gypsum = 13–66%, Clay minerals = 17–54%, Quartz = 5–18% Geochemistry: Si: 14677–2785 Ti: 4524–947 Br: 1905–677 Ca: 476042–5054 Mineralogy: Calcite = 10–46%, Gypsum = 13–32%, Clay minerals = 30–43%, Quartz = 11–34% Geochemistry: Si: 60854–4463 Ti: 17506–1911 Br: 1260–290 Ca: 333623–33926 Mineralogy: Calcite = 7–42%, Gypsum = 2–37%, Clay minerals = 39–52%, Quartz = 3–35% Geochemistry: Si: 14677–2785 Ti: 4524–947 Br: 1905–677 Ca: 476042–5054

carbonate fine sedimentation. The organic content shows a vegetal matter-rich peaty layer at the bottom from 4.2 to ca. 3.6 cal ka BP and a less organic, but still rich, interval from 3.6 until ca. 3.0 cal ka BP. The organic content varies due to a higher carbonate sand presence in the upper half of this subunit.

Vegetated lakeshore. Maximum input events of allochthonous terrigenous mud and relative decrease of organic matter. Subaereal exposure intervals due to small water level variations.

Vegetated lakeshore with decreasing allochtonous terrigenous input and occasional carbonate sand transport towards the lake margin. Subaereal exposure intervals due to small water level variations.

4.3. Pollen analysis The pollen analysis shows a mid-Holocene vegetation succession, reacting to both climatic and anthropogenic causes. Percentage pollen curves are presented in Fig. 4A and B (selected pollen taxa and sedimentary charcoal values) and in Fig. 6 (pollen categories, sedimentary

Fig. 3. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanner data of the Lake Banyoles SB2 core. Element concentrations (Ti, Ca and Br), expressed as counts per second (CPS), and Ti/Ca, Ti/Br and Ca/Br ratios are indicated. Sedimentary facies/subunits, pollen zones and archaeological cultural periods are also included.

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Fig. 4. A. Percentage pollen diagram. Selected arboreal pollen taxa and sedimentary charcoal accumulation rate from the SB2 core (Lake Banyoles) are plotted to a calibrated year cal BP scale. Hollow silhouettes show values exaggerated ×3. Values below 1% are represented by points (also in Figs. 4B and 6). B. Percentage pollen diagram. Selected nonarboreal pollen taxa from the SB2 core (Banyoles) plotted on a calibrated year cal BP scale.

charcoal values and NPP taxa and categories) using Tilia software (Grimm, 1991–2011). Two main pollen zones and seven pollen subzones were defined using a stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis (CONISS) (Grimm, 1987): – Sub-zone A1a (8.9–7.6 cal ka BP): high values of arboreal pollen (N85%) and vegetation cover dominated by deciduous Quercus, Corylus and Pinus. – Sub-zone A1b (7.6–7.25 cal ka BP): starts with the beginning of the continuous Abies curve. It corresponds with a deciduous Quercus and Pinus decrease and with the last Corylus maximum. In this phase a non-arboreal pollen expansion (15–20%) occurs, with an increase in Poaceae and Cyperaceae values.

– Sub-zone B1a (7.25–6.05 cal ka BP): is characterized by the significant fall in deciduous Quercus values, the start of a decreasing trend of Corylus, the increase in Pinus and Abies, the appearance of a continuous Tilia curve, and the expansion of non-arboreal pollen, mainly Poaceae, but also of other herbs like Asteraceae, Artemisia, Apiaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Plantago, and shrubs, specially Erica. This zone displays the highest values of Cyperaceae, the start of continuous curves of monolete spores, Glomus, and the rise in algae values. – Sub-zone B1b (6.05–5.55 cal ka BP): is marked by the continuation of less proportions of deciduous Quercus, high values of Pinus and by the appearance of sedimentary charcoal particles. The increase in Asteraceae (tubuliflorae and Cirsium-t) and Apiaceae is also

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remarkable. The maximum values of Glomus, the occurrence of spores of coprophilous fungi and high values of monolete and Pteridium spores occur in this zone. – Sub-zone B2a (5.55–5.25 cal ka BP): is characterized by the recovery of deciduous Quercus and arboreal pollen values (80–85%) and a marked decrease in Pinus corresponding with a sedimentary charcoal peak. The beginning of the Alnus curve, the increasing trend of Quercus ilex-coccifera, and the appearance of Fagus are recorded. A significant decrease in fern spores and algae occurs in this zone. – Sub-zone B2b (5.25–5.1 cal BP): is marked by a fall in deciduous Quercus and arboreal pollen values (60–65%), the continuation of low Pinus values and the appearance of high values of Alnus, as well as continuous curves of Salix and Fraxinus. Among the herbs not only Asteraceae liguliflorae values show an increase, but also Asteraceae tubuliflorae, Poaceae, Plantago, Apiaceae and Paronychia-t. The recovery of algae values is recorded in this zone. – Sub-zone B2c (5.1–3.35 cal BP): starts with the recovery of deciduous Quercus and Pinus values, the decrease of Alnus, a peak of sedimentary charcoal particles and a peak of Cyperaceae. Afterwards, the recovery of Alnus, the consolidation of Salix and Fraxinus values, the appearance of continuous curves of Ulmus and Fagus, and an increasing trend of Quercus ilex-coccifera, Olea and Phillyrea is documented. In this zone, some peaks of monolete spores and algae, a continuous curve of Glomus and semi-continuous slight values of coprophilous fungal spores occur.

4.4. Macro-remains analysis Results of macro-remains analysis are plotted in absolute frequencies in Fig. 5. The diagram shows that the evolution of local plants in the lake margin follows the same trends as the pollen zones: Zone A. Cladium mariscus, and other lakeshore plants (T. latifolia, Juncus sp., Juncus articulatus-type and Juncus effusustype) are present. Local aquatic plants and algae were Potamogeton cf. coloratus and Characeae. Zone B1. Mentha aquatica, Lycopus europaeus and L. salicaria appear, while J. articulatus-type increases, and T. latifolia disappears.

Sub-zone B2a. J. articulatus-type shows a peak, Characeae disappear and some taxa occur exclusively in this zone: Potentilla sp., Ranunculus sp., Ranunculus flammula, Carex sp., Cyperaceae (roots and epidermis). The first evidence of macro-remains of Alnus sp. is remarkable. Sub-zone B2b. Alisma sp., appears and J. articulatus-type decreases, T. latifolia and Characeae reappear, and some nonlakeshore plants were recorded: Linum cf. catharticum and Asteraceae. Charcoal particles of Alnus sp. were observed for the first time. Sub-zone B2c is characterized by the presence of woodland taxa: Alnus sp., Alnus sp. charcoal, undetermined catkins, suberized leaf scars, Eupatorium cannabinum, Rubus fruticosus L.s.l., Brachytecium sp. and the presence of other non-lakeshore plants like Aster sp., Galium cf. aparine, cf. Solanum sp. The appearance of Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium and the presence of Mentha cf. aquatica, Alisma sp. and Potamogeton cf. coloratus and Plumatella-type (Bryozoa) show continuing local wet conditions. 5. Discussion 5.1. Climatic, geomorphologic and anthropogenic controls on Mid-Holocene vegetation evolution 5.1.1. Broadleaf deciduous tree forests and subaerial swamp formation in the Holocene Climate Optimum (zones A1a and A1b: 8.9–7.25 cal ka BP) The pollen spectra at the base of the SB2 sequence reflect the dominance of dense forests (see the AP/NAP ratio in Figs. 4A, 6 and 7), specifically of broadleaf deciduous trees (deciduous Quercus and Corylus). Furthermore, the presence of Pinus in the surrounding mountains is noteworthy. The dominance of broadleaf deciduous tree forest is consistent with the prevailing climate conditions, the vegetation cover in other regions of the Western Mediterranean during the same period (Sadori and Narcisi, 2001; Carrion et al., 2010; de Beaulieu et al., 2005; Jalut et al., 2009; Pérez-Obiol et al., 2011) and with previous palaeoecological studies in the area (Pérez-Obiol and Julià, 1994). Despite the supposedly wet conditions in this period, the low values of riparian trees (Ulmus, Fraxinus, Salix) is remarkable, probably because

Fig. 5. Macro-remain diagram of absolute frequencies plotted to a calibrated year cal BP scale. Individual occurrence of taxa is represented by points.

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Fig. 6. Pollen categories compared with non-pollen palynomorphs categories, sedimentary charcoal and geochemical data. Categories: broadleaf deciduous trees (deciduous Quercus, Corylus), riparian forest (Ulmus, Fraxinus, Salix, Alnus), evergreen sclerophilous trees (Quercus ilex-coccifera, Olea, Phillyrea), shrubs (Erica, Cistaceae, Vitis, Hedera helix, Crataegus), Grasslands (Poaceae, Artemisia, Filipendula, Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Galium-t, Plantago, Chenopodiaceae, Lamiaceae), Cultivars (Cerealia type), Spores of coprophilous fungi (Sordaria type, Podospora type, Cercophora type, Rhytidospora), and Algae (Spirogyra, Zygnema, Closterium, Mougeotia).

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of the absence of appropriate geomorphologic conditions for the development of these taxa; the relatively high water level in Lake Banyoles would prevent the existence of plains with water-rich vadose soils along the lakeshore. In that sense, the high-water level in the lake promoted the presence of a narrow water-saturated subaerial swamp in the margins of Lake Banyoles evidenced by the macro-remains results that would not have permitted the aforementioned trees to grow. The lake shore probably was poor in nutrients and rich in calcium as indicated by the presence of C. mariscus. The start of the sequence coincides with peat formation along the lakeshore about 9.0 cal ka BP, due to water-level regression, expressed by the sedimentological change from shallow water lacustrine carbonate facies to palustrine peaty wetland. This trend represents a lowering of the lake level and a transition from a shallow lacustrine charophyterich platform sub-environment to a vegetated lakeshore margin. Drying events were previously attested in lacustrine records in Siles Lake, in the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula (9.3 cal ka BP) (Carrión, 2002), in Fuentillejo Maar (9.2–8.6 cal ka BP) (central Iberian Peninsula; Vegas et al., 2009), in Basa de la Mora (9.3 and 8.8 cal ka BP) (Pyrenees; Pérez-Sanz et al., 2013), in Lake Cerin (9.0 cal ka BP) (Jura Mountains, France; Magny et al., 2011) and Lake Accesa (9.0 cal ka BP) (central Italy; Magny et al., 2007). This lowering in lake water level corresponds with one of the main rapid Holocene climate changes (Mayewski et al., 2004) that is globally detected as a phase of decreasing fluvial activity in Mediterranean areas (Magny et al., 2002), dry episodes detected in the Mediterranean Sea (Fletcher et al., 2010, 2013), episodes of reduced rainfall measured in δ18O values Katerloch Cave (southeastern Alps) (Boch et al., 2009) and Soreq Cave (Israel; Bar-Matthews et al., 1999). The relative stability of the characteristic wet climate during the early Holocene, was also disrupted by the 8.2 cal ka BP cooling event (Alley et al., 1997; Bond et al., 1997, 2001). This phenomenon has been characterized in different sequences in the Iberian Peninsula (Riera, 1993; Davis and Stevenson, 2007; Carrión and van Geel, 1999; Carrión, 2002; Carrión et al., 2001a, 2001b; Pantaleón et al., 1996, 2003; López Sáez et al., 2007) by a decrease in broadleaf deciduous trees and AP values, and the expansion of xerophytic taxa (Tinner and Lotter, 2001). In the SB2 core (Fig. 4A and B), at 8.2–8.1 cal ka BP there is a small decrease in deciduous Quercus values, the presence of sedimentary charcoal, the onset of increasing input of allochthonous terrigenous fine sediment to the lake, as well as a slight increase in mountain taxa like Pinus and Betula and sclerophyllous trees like Olea and Phillyrea. Nevertheless, despite this slight evidence of drier conditions and the subsequent susceptibility to burning, the AP decline after the fire episode is smaller than expected during such an arid event. Therefore, in the northern peninsula this dry event was detected in pollen records from Mediterranean coastal areas (Riera, 1993), in regions with more continental climates (Davis and Stevenson, 2007; González-Sampériz et al., 2008) and in high mountain areas (Pyrenees) (González-Sampériz et al., 2006; Pérez-Sanz et al., 2013). On the other hand, in regions influenced by a wetter sub-Mediterranean climate, where deciduous broadleaf formations prevail, like Lake Banyoles (Pérez-Obiol and Julià, 1994 and this study), and Olot (Pérez-Obiol, 1988), the 8.2 cal ka BP event impact would have been low or nonexistent. This situation is consistent with the fact that this cooling phenomenon would correspond with a wetter climate in European middle latitudes, locating the southern limit about 38–40° N (central Iberian Peninsula) (Magny et al., 2003, 2013). Afterwards, the most remarkable phenomenon in the zone A1b is the appearance of Abies (ca. 7.6 cal ka BP), which was recorded at the same time in previous studies (Pérez-Obiol and Julià, 1994). The first presence in the north-eastern Iberian Peninsula is in the Olot region

Fig. 7. Pollen categories compared with climate data. Categories: broadleaf deciduous trees (deciduous Quercus, Corylus) and evergreen sclerophilous trees (Quercus ilexcoccifera, Olea, Phillyrea).

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at ca. 10.2 cal ka BP (Pérez-Obiol, 1988), and, later, other sequences register its presence in nearby mountain and inter-mountain areas (Burjachs, 1994; Pérez-Obiol and Julià, 1994). Abies cf. alba arrived in accordance with its dynamics of migration and colonization since the Late Glacial from refugia on the southern slopes of the Pyrenees (Terhürne-Berson et al., 2004; Liepelt et al., 2009; Sadori, 2013). Several studies seem to locate an abrupt cold event in this period that could have affected the woodland cover around Lake Banyoles (Mayewski et al., 2004). Short cold and arid phases are detected in other Iberian lacustrine records (Jalut et al., 2000; Vegas et al., 2009; Pérez-Sanz et al., 2013) and Frigola et al. (2007) have documented an abrupt cold event between 7.4–6.9 cal ka BP in a marine core from the western Mediterranean, that could be related with a period of dryness in the Iberian Peninsula. Stalagmite records in Soreq Cave (Israel) and Antro del Corchia (Northern Italy) also show a decrease in rainfall from ca. 7.4 cal ka BP onwards (Bar-Matthews et al., 1999; Zanchetta et al., 2007). This cooling event and decrease in rainfall would have coincided with the onset of a decrease in the values of broadleaf deciduous trees in Lake Banyoles (Figs. 4A, 6, 7), consistent with discrete intervals of reduced forest development detected in marine records in the Mediterranean Sea (Fletcher et al., 2010, 2013). 5.1.2. Landscape transformation caused by the first farming societies (zones B1a and B1b: 7.25–5.55 cal ka BP) The pollen record shows that the abrupt decrease in deciduous Quercus values which started about 7.6–7.4 cal ka BP consolidated at much lower percentages by 7.3–7.2 cal ka BP, suggesting an important process of landscape transformation after the establishment of the first farming communities at La Draga (7.27–6.75 cal ka BP; Bosch et al., 2012). From 7.15 cal ka BP onwards, the deciduous Quercus forest deforestation consolidated, leading to the proliferation of grasslands (Fig. 6). This is the time of the Tilia maximum and an increase in Pinus spp. and heliophilous shrubs (Erica spp.), which probably occupied the space after oak forest clearance. It is important to note the low values of sedimentary charcoal, which suggests that the oaks were cut down and not burnt. The main arboreal taxa in this phase would be Pinus, developed in lowlands favoured by the oak decline. Nevertheless, part of the Pinus pollen may have come from trees located in the mountains, accompanied there by Abies alba, that arrived from nearby mountains. Previous pollen analysis undertaken in Lake Banyoles and La Draga Neolithic archaeological site also showed a fall in oak values coinciding with the settlement of La Draga (Pérez-Obiol, 1994; Pérez-Obiol and Julià, 1994; Burjachs, 2000). Additionally, climate oscillations about 7.4 cal ka BP could affect oak forests, either contributing to their decline or to the maintenance of clearances made by the Neolithic communities. Nevertheless, due to resilience of deciduous broadleaf species in wetter sub-Mediterranean regions (as shown in the case of the 8.2 cal ka BP event), this cooling period cannot be the single cause of a decrease of oak as evidenced in the SB2 sequence about ca. 7.25 cal ka BP. Therefore, the climate shift linked to a slight decrease in GISP2 18O, documented ca. 7.6–7.4 and 7.3–7.2 cal ka BP (Fig. 7), seems unlikely to have caused an abrupt decline of oak and deciduous broadleaf forest at the site. The importance of deforestation activities is attested by charcoal and wood analyzed from La Draga. About one thousand oak trunks have been recovered in the 800 m2 of the excavated area. Considering the fact that the total extension of the site is about 8000 m2, thousands of poles were cut for the construction and maintenance of the settlement over the period of occupation (Gassman, 2000; Revelles et al., 2014). These trunks were cut with adzes, as shown by traces on the tools (Bosch et al., 2008), and dragged to the settlement. According to the charcoal record, the increase in shrubs (Buxus cf. sempervirens and Rosaceae/Maloideae), and the decrease in deciduous oak and riparian taxa, in the most recent phase of occupation indicates that these taxa had expanded as a result of the above-mentioned forest perturbation (Piqué, 2000; Caruso-Fermé and Piqué, 2014).

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Although the first evidence of husbandry practices are documented in this phase at La Draga site (Saña, 2011; Navarrete and Saña, 2013; Antolín et al., 2014), no spores of coprophilous fungi are documented at this time, due to their short distance dispersal. Later, the main feature of the first half of the 6th millennium cal BP (sub-zone B1b) is the stabilisation of decreased pollen percentages of deciduous Quercus and the co-occurrence of sedimentary charcoal, pointing to clearances in the oak forest by Early Neolithic communities. Grazing by herbivores was probably linked with this maintenance, given the occurrence of spores of coprophilous fungi (Fig. 6). In fact, forest clearance maintenance could be the cause for the frequency of fire episodes at ca. 6.0 cal ka BP, in the context of a trend towards the spread of fire caused by increased aridity in the Mediterranean area of Iberian Peninsula after 6.0–5.0 cal ka BP (Reed et al., 2001; Carrión, 2002; Mayewski et al., 2004; Wanner et al., 2011; Pérez-Sanz et al., 2013; Morales-Molino and García-Antón, 2014). The occurrence of Salix sp. charcoal in the adjacent core S96, dated 6.0–5.9 cal ka BP, points to the burning of local riparian vegetation. Also maximum values of Pteridium spores are associated with these fire episodes (compare Tinner et al., 1999). The beginning of continuous curves of monolete spores (ferns) and Glomus spores in this phase could be related with soil erosion events (Dimbleby, 1957; van Geel, 1986; van Geel et al., 1989; López-Merino et al., 2010; Gelorini et al., 2011; van Geel et al., 2011), evidenced in the increasing input of terrigenous allochthonous fine-grained sediments to the lakeshore detected in the core (Ti/Ca curve in Fig. 3), caused by deforestation during this zone. The high values of Glomus chlamydospores recorded in lakeshore swampy deposits may indicate the local occurrence of these mycorrizal mycelia (Kołaczek et al., 2013). But the co-occurrence of maximum values of Asteraceae and Apiaceae and the change in sedimentation dynamics due to a major input of allochthonous fluvial fine sediment and a relative reduction in peat formation in lakeshore areas detected in SB2 core show the importance of Glomus as an indicator of soil erosion (Anderson et al., 1984; van Geel et al., 1989; López Sáez et al., 2000) (Figs. 3 and 6). Sedimentation as a consequence of soil erosion in deforested areas should not be dismissed as the cause of the arrival (together with terrigenous material) of charcoal particles and spores of coprophilous fungi. The increase in algae and Cyperaceae and the presence of macroremains of J. articulatus-type, Juncus sp., and Mentha cf. aquatica point to the presence of a humid lakeshore environment at a local level. 5.1.3. Human impact on riparian lakeshore environments and oak forest resilience in 6th–4th millennium cal BP (zones B2a, B2b and B2c: 5.55–3.35 cal ka BP) In 5.55–5.25 cal ka BP (zone B2a), coinciding with the onset of the Subboreal period, oak forest and arboreal pollen recovered, while several pollen types and NPP taxa commonly associated with anthropogenic disturbance (ruderal herbs, coprophilous fungi, Glomus, ferns) declined. Equally, this phase saw an increase in Alnus, the first more or less continuous curve of Fagus, even though with low values, and higher values of Betula. The main sedimentary charcoal peaks in the sequence that coincide with major peaks in the terrigenous input to the lake occurred in ca. 5.5 cal ka BP (Figs. 3, 6). An increasing terrigenous input until ca. 5.3 cal ka BP and the maximum input peaks at ca. 5.5, 5.3 and 4.3 cal ka BP would point to a gradual increasing terrigenous erosion in fluvial basins surrounding the lake, punctuated by short duration, ca. 100 year, maximum peaks of terrigenous input that could denote increased soil erosion events related to, for example, more intense deforestation due to fires and/or cropland management. Despite the impact on the lakeshore environment cannot be discarded, fire episodes documented in ca. 5.5 cal ka BP could be related with climate changes causing a significant decline in Pinus, so the burning would have affected the regional mountain vegetation. In that context, the increase in Betula could be explained as colonization of spaces degraded by fire in mountain areas.

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The changes in vegetation and sedimentation dynamics should be considered in the context of climate change. Many palaeoclimatic records show changes in precipitation seasonality starting from ca. 5.5cal ka BP, coinciding with Bond event 4 (Bond et al., 1997, 2001), with the establishment of drier conditions in Mediterranean areas (particularly in summer), associated with a decrease in insolation maxima and general reorganization of atmospheric circulation (Jalut et al., 2009; Magny et al., 2012). In the NE Iberian Peninsula this hydrological change is well represented in Lake Estanya (Morellón et al., 2009), but also in marine sediments in the Balearic Sea (Frigola et al., 2007), as well as in Western Mediterranean pollen diagrams (Jalut et al., 2000; PérezObiol et al., 2011; Aranbarri et al., 2014). About 5.25 cal ka BP a major decline in oak and AP values and expansion of grasslands (Asteraceae, Plantago and Poaceae) occurred, related with a significant input of terrigenous sediments (Fig. 6) probably linked with a new deforestation process. Peaks of Asteraceae liguliflorae, Asteraceae tubuliflorae, Plantago, Paronychia-type, the presence of Caryophyllaceae, and evidence of macro-remains of Asteraceae, Linum cf. catharticum may have been linked with open herbaceous vegetation and upland soil erosion, as shown in Ti/Ca and Ti/Br curves (Fig. 3) The mid-Holocene aridification trend lowered the lake water level and this process, combined with the high sedimentation rate related to soil erosion events during this zone, created widely exposed swampy plains close to the lakeshore. This process of infill of the lakeshore by allochthonous terrestrial sediments is also evident from the decline in algal spores (Zygnema, Spirogyra, Mougeotia, Closterium). The progressive trend from broad swamp lakeshore areas to subaerial drier vadose substrates would explain the colonization by Alnus, resulting in the establishment of a larger riparian forest in the newly emerged lands, a process consolidated from ca. 5.25 cal ka BP with the expansion of other riparian trees (Salix, Ulmus and Fraxinus). The immigration of Alnus, which reached NE Iberia in 7.0–6.0 cal ka BP from LGM refugia in the Pyrenees (Douda et al., 2014), should be considered. The predominance of alder in the riparian forest from ca. 5.5 cal ka BP, reaching high values from ca. 5.25 cal ka BP, is consistent with previous studies in Atlantic-influenced sequences (Rius et al., 2012; Morales-Molino and García-Antón, 2014). Despite the larger productivity of pollen grains should be considered, the cause of the dominance of Alnus rather than other riparian trees such as Salix spp., Corylus, Fraxinus or Ulmus, can also be explained by the advantage of Alnus in lakeshore environments that were seasonally flooded, as shown by laminated sediment at this time (see Table 3), and also by its capacity to grow in degraded environments, related to its positive response to fire (Tinner et al., 2000; Connor et al., 2012) or to changes in local hydrological conditions (Morales-Molino et al. 2014). Important fire episodes occur between ca. 5.0 and 4.3 cal ka BP, burning that may not necessarily have affected the regional vegetation, as shown in the presence of Alnus sp. charcoal in the period from 5.25 to 4.6cal ka BP (Fig. 3). Local occurrence of Alnus is evident, confirmed by the presence of Alnus sp. seeds during 5.55–5.45 cal ka BP and 4.4–4.0 cal ka BP. Coincidently, from 5.05 cal ka BP to 4.65 cal ka BP Alnus values decline, recovering after 4.6 cal ka BP. Therefore, the fires affected the riparian forest, specifically the alder, probably provoked by human frequentation of this territory during the Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic period. This hypothesis is reinforced by the documentation of Salix sp. charcoal in another core extracted 250 m to the south (S76) from 5.47 to 5.29 cal ka BP. The charcoal-rich levels detected in this zone create a very subtle increase in the terrigenous input to the lake (Fig. 3), pointing to lower related soil erosion due to the smaller extent of these deforestation events, probably very localized in nearby riparian forests and not affecting fluvial drainage basins significantly. The establishment of riparian forest in newly emerged areas (regression of wetland) would explain the decrease in values of some lakeshore herbs, such as Cyperaceae and Ranunculaceae, that reach maximum values in the phase 7.6–5.5 cal ka BP, the appearance of riparian lianas and shrubs (Vitis, Hedera helix, Galium), woodland herbs (Filipendula,

Rubus-type) and the presence of some macro-remains indicative of riparian woodland areas: Alnus sp., Alnus sp. charcoals, unidentified catkins, suberized leaf scars, E. cannabinum, R. fruticosus L.s.l., Galium cf. aparine and Brachytecium sp. The appearance of Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium and the presence of Mentha cf. aquatica, Alisma sp. and Potamogeton cf. coloratus indicate the presence of a swampy lakeshore. The general water level regression, soil erosion and openings in the forest in this phase (from ca. 5.5 cal ka BP) is reinforced by the evidence of Cerealia pollen, which could have grown in the surroundings, known the local indicator that supposes Cerealia pollen (Heim, 1970; de Beaulieu, 1977; Diot, 1992). Due to the water level regression, the new geomorphologic conditions would have permitted the creation of crop fields in the emerged plains near the shore of Lake Banyoles (occupied by riparian trees: Alnus, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Salix). It is noticeable that between 5.0 and 3.35 cal ka BP the cereal crop fields would be nearer to the western lakeshore than in the Early Neolithic, corroborating that, in general, during the first half of the Holocene the lakeshore areas of Lake Banyoles would have been more swampy, and not suitable for agricultural practices. Co-occurrence of maximum values of ferns (monolete spores), coprophilous fungi, increase in grasses and the presence of Cerealia-type are recorded in the period 4.2–4.0 cal ka BP, pointing to deforestation and evidence of farming activities. From ca. 4.5 cal ka BP, the onset of a continuous curve, with low values, of Fagus, is consistent with other studies (Parra et al., 2005; Rius et al., 2009). In this phase, sedimentary Subunit 2 displays an organic peat layer formed in a wet environment favourable for the development of alder forest that could be seasonally dried, as shown by high values of monolete spores, which can also be interpreted as an aeration indicator in peat deposits (Dimbleby, 1957). The sedimentological and geochemical data show a change that denotes the onset of a vegetated lakeshore with increasing organic matter (Br, Fig. 3) and carbonate sedimentation without any significant allochthonous terrigenous input (Ti/Ca, Fig. 3). These changes could be related with the 4.2 event cal ka BP (Bond event 3; Bond et al., 1997), whose consequences are evident in arid climate conditions reconstructed in Lake Zoñar (4.0–2.9 cal ka BP; Martín-Puertas et al., 2008), Lake Siles (lake desiccation in 4.1 cal ka BP; Carrión, 2002), and in Lake Estanya (4.8–4.0 cal ka BP; Morellón et al., 2009). Nevertheless, there is no evidence of such a dry event in the vegetation history recorded at Lake Banyoles. From ca. 4.2 cal ka BP onwards, an increase in Quercus ilex-coccifera, Olea and Phillyrea is recorded, consistent with the succession process from deciduous broadleaf tree forests to sclerophyllous evergreen forests across the northern Iberian Peninsula (Carrion et al., 2010; de Beaulieu et al., 2005; Jalut et al., 2009; Pérez-Obiol et al., 2011). The start of this succession is registered in the SB2 sequence, so a trend of a decline in deciduous trees and an expansion in evergreen trees is documented. However, the end-result of this succession is not recorded, as the sequence ends at ca. 3.35 cal ka BP, and it would probably have occurred several centuries later. The reason for this later succession could be the south–north orientation of the process, starting in the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula in the early Holocene and reaching the north (41° N) around 2.87 cal ka BP (Jalut et al., 2000). As shown in this study, in sub-Mediterranean areas of the north-eastern Iberian Peninsula, the resilience of broadleaf deciduous forests prevailed during the Early and Middle Holocene. From the data presented here, the origin of the current vegetation in the Lake Banyoles area should be seen in the context of the transition from the Sub-boreal to Sub-Atlantic periods (drier conditions in the Late Holocene) and in the multiplication of anthropogenic impact since Roman times. 5.2. Land use and human impact during Late Prehistory in the Lake Banyoles area Available radiocarbon chronologies from archaeological contexts in the surroundings of the Lake Banyoles suggest that there is a gap

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in human presence in the region during the first half of the 8th millennium cal BP, with very few dates corresponding to the 9th millennium cal BP (Merkyte, 2003; Estévez, 2005; Weninger et al., 2006; Barceló, 2008). Indeed, no evidence of human occupation has been documented in the area immediately before the Neolithic, so vegetation changes before ca. 7.3 cal ka BP are considered to have been influenced by natural processes. The predominance of broadleaf deciduous tree forests, maximum values of arboreal pollen and the lack of anthropogenic modifications of the vegetation are consistent with this gap of settlement in the Mesolithic period. The results from the SB2 core show an abrupt decline in oak forest coinciding with the early Neolithic settlement of La Draga. A slight climatic cooling episode may have affected broadleaf deciduous trees immediately before the arrival of farming societies to Banyoles. Nevertheless, climate cannot have been the main cause of this abrupt change, and the establishment of Neolithic communities apparently was a significant factor of disturbance in vegetation evolution. The intensive exploitation of oak forest to obtain firewood (Piqué, 2000; Caruso-Fermé and Piqué, 2014) and raw materials for the construction of dwellings was responsible for the major impact on vegetation dynamics (Revelles et al., 2014). The opening of farming plots, which were probably small and intensively managed (Antolín, 2013; Antolín et al., 2014), and without use of fire, had a relatively minor impact on the landscape. Human impact is not only expressed as a deforestation process. The maintenance of the clearances in oak forests is also important. After La Draga was abandoned, oak forest recuperation would be expected, but in contrast, the maintenance of the clearances is documented, probably using fire, as the charcoal data shows. Without discarding the possibility of finding more recent phases in La Draga (only 10% of the site has been excavated), the archaeological record in the surroundings of Lake Banyoles suggests that Neolithic communities remained in the area in the Late Early Neolithic period (6.7–5.55 cal ka BP). From 5.55 cal ka BP, despite the lakeshore being affected by short duration soil erosion events at ca. 5.5 and 5.3 cal ka BP, oak pollen attains similar values as prior to La Draga occupation, and the evidence of human impact on the vegetation cover is very limited. These data are consistent with settlement dynamics in the area: in Pla de l'Estany the Middle Neolithic period (5.95–5.25 cal ka BP) is characterized by scarce archaeological remains. In general, very few archaeological sites are documented for this phase in north-east Iberia, and particularly in this pre-Pyrenean area. Most of the Middle Neolithic archaeological sites consist of pit burials and open-air sites located in lowlands in prelittoral valleys and plains in the central area of this region (Bòbila Madurell, Martín et al., 1996; Mines de Gavà, Villalba et al., 2011; Can Gambús, Roig et al., 2010; Ca n'Isach, Tarrús et al., 1996; Serra del Mas Bonet, Rosillo et al., 2012). From 5.25 cal ka BP the opening of forests and the increase of Poaceae and Asteraceae can be interpreted as new evidence of anthropogenic impact on oak forest. However, these vegetation changes should be interpreted in relation to new climate conditions established with the transition to the Subboreal period and in the context of lake water-level changes and environmental dynamics in the lakeshore area, influenced by natural processes. In the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic period (5.25–4.0 cal ka BP), prehistoric communities settled again on the lakeshore (Mas Castell de Porqueres, 500 m from the core location) and also in the caves located in the surroundings of Lake Banyoles. Local burning episodes documented (charcoal macro-remains of alder in 5.25–4.6 cal ka BP) confirm human frequentation in this period. Nevertheless, anthropogenic impact was less than during the Early Neolithic, at a time when greater impact on the landscape might be expected, given the fact that in the Late Neolithic less intensive agriculture is documented in north-east Iberia (Antolín, 2013) with the expansion of hulled barley, the reduction of cultivated legume diversity and the probable introduction of the plough. In the Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic, the dynamics of human disturbance of the

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landscape move to the highlands, from the 6th millennium cal BP, with the start of forest openings, fire episodes and the generalization of high concentrations of spores of coprophilous fungi documented in high mountain areas, on the southern slopes (Pèlachs et al., 2007; Cunill, 2010; Ejarque, 2010; Miras et al., 2010; Cunill et al., 2012) and northern slopes of the Pyrenees (Galop, 2006; Galop and López Sáez, 2002; Vannière et al., 2001). This might indicate higher mobility in settlement dynamics or even the start of transhumance practices. In the context of communities based on extensive economic practices, higher mobility may have been a solution to the fast depletion of cultivated land and the search for pastures for ever-larger flocks (and probable increase in importance of cattle herding), making grazing impracticable in still densely forested lowland areas, as shown in the present study. In that context, short episodes of vegetation disturbance, fire episodes and lower impact of husbandry around Lake Banyoles could be explained in these terms: given higher mobility and the start of more extensive herding practices, the footprint of husbandry in the lowlands would be reduced and the effect of agriculture would be expressed in short-duration intervals of grassland expansion and arboreal pollen reduction, as seen in the periods ca. 5.25–5.1 cal ka BP, ca. 4.98–4.8 cal ka BP, ca. 4.63–4.41 cal ka BP and ca. 4.17–3.9 cal ka BP. Therefore, evidence of agriculture near the lakeshore, expressed in the presence of crops (Cerealia-t pollen) and weeds (Plantago majormedia), is documented in ca. 4.98 cal ka BP, ca. 4.63 cal ka BP, ca. 4.41cal ka BP and ca. 4.17 cal ka BP. In that sense, the coincidence of short deforestation processes, presence of cultivars and weeds and burning of local riparian vegetation point to the practice of slash and burn agriculture. Despite the assumption of the Bronze Age as a period characterized by intensification in the human impact on the landscape (related in part with the emergence of metallurgy), the apparent invisibility of human impact in the Lake Banyoles record in the early Bronze Age is noteworthy, in part due to less evidence of human occupation in the area at that time (Tarrús, 2000), before new settlements in the Late Bronze Age. This situation is not consistent with the main Bronze Age societies in southern Europe, where one of the features linked with the social change occurring in this period is the large-scale impact on the landscape, as at El Argar in the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula (Castro et al., 2000; Carrión et al., 2007), and other European regions like central Italy (Sadori et al., 2004), northern Italy (Valsecchi et al., 2006) and north-eastern Bulgaria (Marinova and Atanassova, 2006). This invisibility of Bronze Age communities could be due to the scarce archaeological record belonging to this phase in the surroundings of Lake Banyoles, and also to the fact that Bronze Age communities did not base their economy on metallurgical production, which may have been a secondary activity (Rovira, 2006). This low anthropogenic impact of Bronze Age communities is consistent with other regions like southern France (Carozza and Galop, 2008; Jalut et al., 2009; Rius et al., 2009) where the major impact took place in the Iron Age and Roman period. 6. Conclusion High-resolution pollen and geochemistry analysis of the SB2 core from Lake Banyoles describes a mid-Holocene vegetation succession and related geomorphologic processes, reacting to both climatic and anthropogenic causes. Broadleaf deciduous forests were resilient during mid-Holocene cooling oscillations but human activities affected the natural vegetation development in the Early (7.25–5.55 cal ka BP) and Late Neolithic (5.17–3.71 cal ka BP). Neolithic land-use represented a turning point in the scale of human impact on the landscape. The impact on the landscape by the first farming societies is not only expressed in the deforestation process, the clearance maintenance between 7.25 and 5.55 cal ka BP may be more important, showing long intensive exploitation of the landscape in the Early Neolithic period. Afterwards, in the Late Neolithic, short deforestation processes linked with fire

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episodes are documented, showing higher mobility in settlement patterns and the practice of the slash and burn farming model. Deforestation processes affected sedimentation dynamics, expressed in soil erosion events (shown in inputs of terrigenous sediments at the coring site), progressively in 7.25–5.55 cal ka BP and rapidly in ca. 5.5, 5.3 and 4.3 cal ka BP. On the other hand, these sedimentation processes affecting the vegetation, in terms of the consolidation of a larger riparian forest in the newly emerged lake border areas. This was confirmed by the macro-remains analysis which allowed us to reconstruct local vegetation evolution, in a transition from swampy areas with lakeshore and aquatic plants to a riparian woodland environment, with the local presence of Alnus. The SB2 mid-Holocene sequence shows the resilience of broadleaf deciduous tree forests during cooling phases (8.2 cal ka BP, 7.4 cal ka BP, 5.5 cal ka BP, 4.2 cal ka BP), only causing slight decreases in AP and deciduous forests in 8.2 and 7.4 cal ka BP, with no evident effects during the 5.5 and 4.2 cal ka BP cooling/arid phases. Nevertheless, the progressive process of lake water-level regression from the start of the sequence coincides with similar processes in other regions around 9.0 cal ka BP (Carrión, 2002; Magny et al., 2007, 2011) and around 5.5 cal ka BP (Frigola et al., 2007; Morellón et al., 2009). The start of the deciduous-evergreen oak succession documented at the end of the sequence, is consistent with the start of increasing aridification in the Western Mediterranean (Jalut et al., 2009). Acknowledgements This research was undertaken through the following projects: “AGRIWESTMED: origins and spread of agriculture in the southwestern Mediterranean region” project of the European Research Council (ERC-2008-AdG 230561), ‘Organización social de las primeras comunidades agrícola-ganaderas a partir del espacio doméstico: Elementos estructurales y áreas de producción y consumo de bienes (HAR2012-38838-C02-01)/Arquitectura en madera y áreas de procesado y consumo de alimentos (HAR2012-38838-C02-02)’, funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad - Subdirección General de Proyectos de Investigación (Spain) and ‘La Draga i les ocupacions lacustres prehistòriques de l'Estany de Banyoles dins del context de l'Europa Occidental. Anys 2008–2013’ funded by Generalitat de Catalunya. The research has been carried out in the framework of the research group AGREST (2014 SGR 1169). Jordi Revelles is currently a pre-doc FPU fellow of the Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte (Spain). We would like to thank Walter Finsinger for help with sedimentary charcoal analysis and Otto Brinkkemper for macrofossil identifications and Jaime Frigola for his assistance in the Marine Geosciences-XRF Core Scanner Laboratory at the University of Barcelona. We would like to thank the editor, Prof. David J. Bottjer, and three anonymous reviewers for the thorough corrections of an earlier version of this paper, which contributed to its significant improvement. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version, at doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.06.002. These data include Google maps of the most important areas described in this article. References Alley, R.B., Mayewski, P.A., Sowers, T., Stuiver, M., Taylor, K.C., Clark, P.U., 1997. Holocene climatic instability: a prominent widespread event 8200 years ago. Geology 25, 483–486. Anderson, R.S., Homola, R.L., Davis, R.B., Jacobson Jr., G.L., 1984. Fossil remains of the mycorrhizal fungal Glomus fasciculatum complex in postglacial lake sediments from Maine. Can. J. Bot. 62, 2325–2328.

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