Middle Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds in the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Carpathians) — A possible clue to the origin of stromatactis

Sedimentary Geology 213 (2009) 97–112

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Middle Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds in the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Carpathians) — A possible clue to the origin of stromatactis R. Aubrecht a,⁎, J. Schlögl a, M. Krobicki b, H. Wierzbowski c, B.A. Matyja d, A. Wierzbowski d a

Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina - G, SK-842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia Dept. of Stratigraphy and Regional Geology, University of Mining and Metallurgy, Al. Mickiewicza 30, PL-30-059 Kraków, Poland Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warszawa, Poland d Institute of Geology, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, PL-02-089 Warszawa, Poland b c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 14 May 2008 Received in revised form 11 November 2008 Accepted 28 November 2008 Keywords: Mud-mounds Stromatactis Siliceous sponges Jurassic Carpathians

a b s t r a c t Four occurrences of Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds were found in the Czorsztyn Unit of the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Western Carpathians) — in western Slovakia (Slavnické Podhorie, Babiná), and in the Transcarpathian Ukraine (Priborzhavskoe and Veliky Kamenets). Their stratigraphic range is from Bajocian to Callovian. The mounds consist of micropeloidal mudstones, wackestones to packstones with a fauna including pelecypods, brachiopods, ammonites and crinoids. Spicules and skeletons of siliceous sponges are abundant in every section. All of the mounds contain networks of stromatactis cavities that are partially filled with radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) and locally by internal sediments. At Slavnické Podhorie, the sparry masses that fill stromatactis cavities are weathered out and show casts of sponges. Parallel study of the weathered casts and their cross-sections in slabs showed that they bear all the signs of stromatactis (relatively flat bottoms and digitate upper parts, RFC initial fillings and eventual blocky calcite later filling). Almost no original sponge structures were preserved. This strongly supports the possible sponge-related origin for stromatactis cavities. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Stromatactis mud-mounds are typical elements of the Paleozoic subtidal marine facies (Krause et al., 2004). Stromatactis was first described by Dupont (1881, 1882) and it is still an enigmatic phenomenon. It can be defined as the masses of spar (with partial substitution of internal sediment) which have smooth base, digitate roof, occur in swarms and have reticulate distribution (Bathurst, 1982). There is still no agreement in opinions concerning the origin of stromatactis. The suggested origins for stromatactis included internal erosion and reworking of small cavities (e.g. Kukal, 1971; Wallace, 1987; Bridges and Chapman, 1988; Matyszkiewicz, 1993, 1997), dewatering or escape of fluids (Heckel, 1972; Desbordes and Maurin, 1974; Bernet-Rollande et al., 1981), neomorphism or recrystallization of the calcareous mud (Black, 1952; Orme and Brown, 1963; Ross et al., 1975), dynamic metamorphism (Logan and Semeniuk, 1976), slumps (Schwarzacher, 1961) and fresh-water karstification (Dunham, 1969). Most recent ideas involve frozen clathrate hydrates in the calcareous mud, after which the stromatactis cavities remained (Krause, 2001) or the cavities are interpreted as a result of sedimentation of stirred

⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Aubrecht). 0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2008.11.007

polydisperse sediment (Hladil, 2005; Hladil et al., 2006, 2007). Second, biogenic origins for stromatactis have also been suggested. The most widely invoked origin for stromatactis is that they are cavities which remained after decomposition of an unknown soft-bodied organism or by nemorphism of carbonate-secreting organism. The suggested organisms include stromatoporoids (Dupont, 1881, 1882; Lowenstam, 1950; Carozzi and Zadnik, 1959), bryozoans (Textoris and Carozzi, 1964), algae (Philcox, 1963; Textoris, 1966; Coron and Textoris, 1974), stromatolites (Cross and Klosterman, 1981), microbial colonies (Tsien, 1985), and burrowing activity of crustaceans (Shinn, 1968). The organisms which are most frequently mentioned in the stromatactis literature are sponges. The sponge theory was firstly suggested by Bourque and Gignac (1983), followed by Bourque and Boulvain (1993), Neuweiler et al. (2001), Neuweiler and Bernouilli (2005) and Delecat and Reitner (2005). Some authors sugested an opinion that a combination of several processes played role in the onset of stromatactis, such as microbial binding of the sediment and excavating of the unbound mud (Bathurst, 1982; Pratt, 1982) or a succession of sponges and microbial colonies (Flajs and Hüssner, 1993; Flajs et al., 1996). Mesozoic stromatactis mud-mounds (including Jurassic) are not common. Neuweiler et al. (2001) ascribed this fact to taphonomy of Mesozoic sponge taxa which was different from those of Paleozoic. The Mesozoic taxa were prone to more rapid decay resulting in common cavity collapse and sediment filling. Neuweiler et al. (2001) introduced special terms used for incompletely developped

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stromatactis, such as aborted stromatactis, which is cavity filled entirely (or nearly entirely) with fine-grained internal sediment, and inhibited stromatactis which is initially filled with cement but the rest is filled by sediment. This paper describes the Middle Jurassic (Bajocian to Callovian) stromatactis mud-mounds in the Slovak and Ukrainian Western Carpathians (Fig. 1). These mud-mounds may provide a clue to the long lasting problem of stromatactis origin.

2. Geological setting of the studied sections The stromatactis mud-mounds reported here are located in the Pieniny Klippen Belt of the Western Carpathians. This belt represents the boundary between the internides and externides of the Carpathians, ranging from Slovakia, through Poland and Ukraine as far as Romania. Its very complex structure results from at least two deformation phases. Firstly, the Laramian nappe structure was created

Fig. 1. Position of the examined sections. 1 — Slavnické Podhorie, 2 — Babiná, 3 — Priborzhavskoe, 4 — Veliky Kamenets.

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Fig. 2. Lithological sections of the examined outcrops.

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Fig. 3. Slavnické Podhorie Locality. (A) View on the Slavnické Podhorie locality, with marked measured section. (B, C) Weathered-out spar filling of the stromatactis cavities at Slavnické Podhorie. (D) Polished slab of the pink micritic limestone with stromatactis cavities.

at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary. This nappe structure was later dissected by an Oligocene–Early Miocene transpressional deformation, resulting in a mélange of sedimentary rocks (so called klippen structure), where the limestone members (mostly Jurassic to Early Cretaceous) form blocks and tectonic lenses enveloped by softer marlstones and claystones (predominantly of Late Cretaceous age). Despite extensive tectonic deformation, the lithostratigraphic units of the Pieniny Klippen Belt do not show any significant metamorphic or thermal overprint and contain well preserved fossils and sedimentary structures. The areas under study all belong to the Czorsztyn Succession, which was deposited in a relatively shallow-water shelf environment. Bajocian sediments of this unit are represented by white and red crinoidal limestones. After a transgression during the Bathonian to Oxfordian, the deposition of crinoidal limestones was replaced by deposition of pelagic red nodular ammonitico rosso-type limestones, accompanied by some non-nodular mudstone equivalents known as Bohunice Limestone Formation (Mišík et al., 1994). Stromatactis occur both in the crinoidal limestones and the lime mudstones. 3. Research methods Field work involved measurement of the sections, detailed sampling, and collection of stratigraphically important fauna. About 150 thin-sections and slabs were studied petrographically (some of them under cathodoluminescence). In weathered stromatactis from the Slavnické Podhorie which display casts of siliceous sponges were studied both, the weathered surfaces and the corresponding crosssections in slabs. Selected bulk samples and several generations of

cavity fillings were analysed for oxygen and carbon stable isotopes. About 10 mg of powdered sample was analyzed for stable isotopes using the method of McCrea (1950). The samples were reacted overnight in sealed vessels at 25 °C with 100% orthophosphoric acid. The isotope composition of the extracted CO2 was analyzed by means of a Finnigan Mat Delta Plus mass spectrometer at the Institute of Geological Sciences and Institute of Palaeobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. The oxygen and carbon isotope results are reported in δ notation in per mil relative to the V-PDB standard by assigning a δ13C value of +1.95‰ and a δ18O value of −2.20‰ to NBS19. Precision of results (2σ), which was measured on repeated analyses of a laboratory reference was close to ±0.10‰ and ±0.05‰ for δ18O and δ13C values, respectively. 4. Studied sections Four localities were involved in this study (Fig. 1). Two of them are situated in Slovakia, in the middle part of the Váh river valley (Slavnické Podhorie: N 49°01′0.1″, E 18°09′31.4″; Babiná: N 49°01′ 55.0″, E 18°10′48.6″) and two in the western Ukraine (Velyky Kamenets: N 48°10′48.1″, E 23°44′7.3″; Priborzhavskoe N 48°19′ 59.8″, E 23°15′12.7″). The first results were published by Aubrecht et al. (2002a,b), who provide the details about the location of these sites. Only Bajocian to Bathonian stromatactis occurrences were included in this study. 4.1. Slavnické Podhorie This site is in the middle of Váh River valley, near the village of Slavnické Podhorie, at the foot of the Biele Karpaty Mountains. (Fig. 1).

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It represents a tectonically overturned klippe cut by an abandoned quarry. A 32 m long section was measured in the southern part of the quarry (Figs. 2 and 3A) where the core of a stromatactis mud-mound is exposed (Aubrecht et al., 2002b; Aubrecht, 2006). Major part of the quarry exposes crinoidal limestones dated by ammonite Parkinsonia sp. to the uppermost Bajocian or lowermost Bathonian age. The overlying pink to red micritic limestones (mudstones) are of latest Bajocian to Callovian. Stromatactis are present in the crinoidal limestone, but they reach their maximum development in the micritic limestones (Fig. 3D), where they are weathered out in positive relief (Figs. 3B, C, 12 and 13). At 28 m from the base of the section, the stromatactis cavities disappear. 4.2. Babiná The section is located in a quarry at the foot of Babiná Hill in Biele Karpaty Mountains (Fig. 1). The locality has been described in detail by Mišík et al. (1994). An overturned Czorsztyn succession from the Middle Jurassic to the Lower Cretaceous is exposed in the quarry (Fig. 4A). White and pink crinoidal limestones are exposed in the SE part of the quarry, with sharp boundary to the overlying pink micritic limestones (mudstones) of the Bohunice Limestone Formation. Measured section showing the lowermost part of the mudstones begins 5 m above the floor of the quarry (Fig. 4B).

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Stromatactis of small size (Fig. 4C–E) occur in the basal bed of the mudstones which is about 80 cm thick (Mišík et al., 1994). This bed is dominated by Bositra microfacies which indicates latest Bajocian to Callovian age (cf. Wierzbowski et al., 1999). At the top of the mudstone bed a black manganese crust representing a non-deposition surface occurs. Above this crust, pink micritic limestones (mudstones) appear again, with an abundant occurrence of Globuligerina planktonic foraminifers, typical of the Oxfordian in the Czorsztyn Unit (Wierzbowski et al., 1999). These micritic limestones, however, are free of stromatactis cavities. Some stromatactis-like structures appear higher in the section, in limestones (mudstones) containing numerous ossicles of the planktonic crinoid Saccocoma, which is typical for the Kimmeridgian and Lower Tithonian. As mentioned above, these younger structures are not included in this study. 4.3. Velyky Kamenets The locality is situated in the western Ukraine (Fig. 1). It was described by Andrusov (1945), Slavin (1966) and Rakús (1990). Combined, ammonite-magnetostratigraphy was carried out by Lewandowski et al. (2004). It is an active quarry, where the Middle to Upper Jurassic ammonitico rosso limestones and pink micritic Upper Jurassic limestones are quarried for building stone (Fig. 5A). The lowest strata exposed are crinoidal limestones with abundant micritic matrix up to

Fig. 4. Babiná Locality. (A) Overall view of the Babiná Quarry. (B) Right (SE) part of the quarry with the measured section indicated. (C) Stromatactis structure broken subparallel to the bedding. (D) Polished slab with anastomosing tiny stromatactis. (E) Slab with larger, several cm-size stromatactis.

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4.3 m in thickness (Fig. 2). The upper boundary of the crinoidal limestone unit is an omission surface coated with ferro-manganese crusts. Higher up, red nodular ammonitico rosso limestones are exposed, having about 7 m in thickness. The stromatactis occur within the crinoidal limestone unit (Fig. 5B, D), and in the lowermost part of the overlying nodular limestones (Fig. 5C, E). In the latter, thin mound-shaped bodies with stromatactis occur which can be traced over a distance of 40 m, and they reach up to 1.8 m in thickness (Fig. 5B–C). These small mounds overlap each other and interfinger with typical red nodular limestones. Some smaller mounds, about 2–5 m in length, and up to 0.3 m in thickness are recognized in slightly younger strata, directly above these larger mounds. These patch mounds may be interpreted as an attempt to recolonize the environment after the facies change. The crinoidal limestones and the lowermost part of the nodular limestones are of Bajocian–Bathonian age (cf. also Rakús, 1990; Lewandowski et al., 2004).

4.4. Priborzhavskoe The locality represents a large active quarry located in the western Ukraine (Fig. 1). This quarry is in a huge klippe of Lower Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous rocks (see Kruglov, 1971, 1986), surrounded by soft Upper Cretaceous marls (Fig. 6A). The klippe consists of several tectonic slices. The lowermost of them, outcropping in the quarry, is tectonically overturned. The stratigrapically oldest strata are represented by Lower Jurassic black limestones and spotted limestones, followed by Toarcian/Aalenian condensed thin beds of sandy limestones with Fe–Mn stromatolites and oncoids. Stromatactis start in the overlying crinoidal–sponge muddy limestones. The presence of stephanoceratid ammonite Emileia (Emileia) vagabunda BUCKMAN indicates an Early Bajocian age (Propinquans Zone). The stromatactis are found exclusively in this unit. The stromatactis-bearing mound is at least 450 m long and 95 m thick and is one of the largest known Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds. A detailed section

Fig. 5. Veliky Kamenets Locality. (A) Overall view of the Veliky Kamenets quarry with marked studied section. (B) View on the studied section. Steeply inclined muddy crinoidal limestone with stromatactis (pale coloured, right) is overlain by red rosso ammonitico-type nodular limestone (dark coloured, left). Flat overlapping mounds with stromatactis are visible in the nodular limestone. (C) Detail of the flat mounds with stromatactis within the nodular limestone (parallel section to the previous). (D) Sharp contact between the crinoidal and nodular limestones. The facies change temporarily stopped development of stromatactis. (E) Stromatactis in the flat mounds embedded in red nodular limestones.

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Fig. 6. Priborzhavskoe Quarry. (A) Overall view on the Priborzahvskoe Quarry with the studied section marked. (B) Block showing small-scale cyclicity in stromatactis limestones. (C, D) Typical, well-developed dm-size stromatactis.

was measured approximately in the middle of the quarry, having 22 m in stratigraphic thickness (the most complete continuous section accessible). The stromatactis are conformable with stratification (although they are reticulate on a smaller scale) and their arrangement shows some regular cyclicity (Fig. 6B, cf. Hüssner et al., 1995). Stromatactis size ranges from several centimetres size to several decimetres (Fig. 6C–D). Beds with stromatactis are accompanied by beds of limestone breccia, with clasts about 5 cm in diameter (maximum 10 cm) (Fig. 7A–B). The clasts are coated with isopachous crusts of radiaxial fibrous calcite (Fig. 7C) (i.e. they resemble the well-known “evinosponge” breccias, cf. Frisia-Bruni et al., 1989). Brachiopods are common, forming nests in some places, and probably represent autochthonous, non-redeposited assemblages (Fig. 7D). 5. Petrography and sedimentology 5.1. The host rocks The stromatactis-bearing rocks are mostly bioclastic limestones, wackestones to packstones, with a micropeloidal matrix (Fig. 8A), a

feature typical also for the Paleozoic stromatactis mud-mounds. The sediment commonly displays polymud fabric (see Lees and Miller, 1995). The composition of skeletal particles is dependent on the stratigraphic positon. The oldest stromatactis-bearing carbonates are crinoidal wackestones to grainstones (Slavnické Podhorie, Velyky Kamenets and Priborzhavskoe — Fig. 8B) which are later replaced by Bositra microfacies (dominated by thin-shelled bivalves Bositra buchi — Fig. 8C), due to gradual deepening of the sedimentary environment. Other skeletal particles are less abundant but ubiquitous: thin-shelled ostracods, agglutinated foraminifers (dominated by Ophthalmidium and Dorothia), calcareous foraminifers (mainly Lenticulina, Patellina, Spirillina and nodosariids) and sessile nubeculariid foraminifers. Fragments of thicker-walled bivalves and brachiopods, rare gastropods, juvenile ammonites, echinoid spines, bryozoans and serpulid worm tubes can be found. The calcareous bioclasts are often bored. Quartz grains are rare. In both lithologies, isolated calcified spicules to fragmentary skeletons of siliceous sponges are abundant. The most abundand are sphaerical rhaxa and monaxone spicules (Fig. 8D–F). Tetraxone spicules (Fig. 8F) and irregular spicules of lithistid sponges (Fig. 9A)

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are also common. Locally they are poorly preserved and occur only as ghosts. Skeletons of siliceous sponges with a micropeloidal matrix also form the main lithology of the clasts in the breccias accompanying stromatactis-bearing strata at Priborzhavskoe (Fig. 10D). No stromatactis were found in the clasts but they are locally present in the breccia matrix. Siliceous sponges are also visible macroscopically at Veliky Kamenets but no relationship to stromatactis is visible there (Fig. 9B). 5.2. Stromatactis Most of the examined structures fit the definition for stromatactis as being spar-filled cavities having flat to undulose smooth floors and digitate roofs, and occur in reticulate swarms (Bathurst, 1982; Bourque and Boulvain, 1993). The size and appearance of the stromatactis varies between the individual localities. At Babiná and Veliky Kamenets they are rather small (only several centimetres long); stromatactis at Slavnické Podhorie and Priborzhavskoe are several decimetres long and up to 10 cm in thickness. At Veliky Kamenets and locally at Priborzhavskoe, filling of the cavities with micritic sediment is common (Fig. 9C–F), forming thus incompletely developed stromatactis (aborted and inhibited stromatactis sensu Neuweiler et al., 2001).

The first and the main filling of the stromatactis cavities is represented by radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC). It is typical by fibrous appearance, undulose extinction, swinging in the same direction as the rotation of microscope stage, and by convex-up deformed twin planes. The first phase of RFC is short-bladed, which also fills porosity in the surrounding host rock (Fig. 10A). The short-bladed crystals gradually pass to long crystals. Both phases are full of inclusions, having dusty appearance. Not all crystals are typical, with well developed crystal boundaries and deformed twinning lamellae (Fig. 10B). RFC encloses numerous islets of the host rock and “floating allochems” (Fig. 10C, for discussion see Aubrecht et al., 2002b). At Babiná and Slavnické Podhorie, cave-dwelling ostracods Pokornyopsis sp. were found surrounded by the latest stages of the RFC. These ostracods indicate that part of the stromatactis cavities formed an open network through which the ostracods and their larvae could migrate (Aubrecht and Kozur, 1995; Aubrecht et al., 2002b). The RFC filling of the stromatactis cavities is identical to that surrounding the clasts in the breccias which accompany the stromatactis structures at Priborzhavskoe (Fig. 10D). Some stromatactis cavities are filled with internal sediment, postdating the RFC filling. In the crinoidal limestones, the internal sediment is similar to the host rock. In the mudstones, the internal sedimet is either pure micrite (Fig. 10E) or pelmicrite, sometimes containing small fragments of Bositra shells (Fig. 10F) and thin-shelled

Fig. 7. Priborzhavskoe Quarry. (A, B) Beds with stromatactis, accompanied by “evinosponge” breccia. (C) “Evinosponge” breccia composed of clasts of sponge limestone covered by radiaxial calcite crust. (D) Nest-like accumulation of the autochthonous brachiopod fauna.

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Fig. 8. Petrography of the host rocks. (A) Micropeloidal bioclastic wackestone — a typical microfacies of the studied stromatactis mud-mounds. Veliky Kamenets. (B) Stromatactis structure in the crinoidal–spicule–micropeloidal packstone. Veliky Kamenets. (C) Bositra microfacies — a wackestone consisting of thin-shelled bivalves Bositra buchi. Typical microfacies of the ammonitico–rosso type limestones, hosting the stromatactis at Velyky Kamenets. (D, E) Monaxone and sphaerical (rhaxa) spicules, forming a typical host-rock microfacies at Priborzhavskoe Locality. (F) Monaxone spicules and rhaxa with tetraxone spicules in the clast of the “evinosponge” breccia. Priborzhavskoe.

non-sculptured ostracods. The micrite is usually laminated and sometimes disturbed by bioturbation. Ocasionally, the sedimentary filling is formed by silt-size crystal detritus. The latest filling of the stromatactis cavities is represented by blocky calcite. It is either pure or contains inclusions. The crystals are seldom twinned (Fig. 11A). Some cavities had the centers still empty. Blocky calcite also fills the late veinlets cutting the rock. Unlike the host rock and RFC, which are non-luminescent under CL, the blocky calcite has zoned orange luminescence. In some cases, asymmetric crystal overgrowths of cavity ceilings (see also Aubrecht et al., 2002b) were revealed by CL indicating that at least part of the blocky calcite originated probably in a vadose environment (Fig. 11B). At Slavnické Podhorie, the spar fillings of stromatactis cavities are weathered out. Most of the upper surfaces of the RFC stromatactis filling represent casts after siliceous sponges (Fig. 12). Various forms can be recognized, most of them dish-shaped hexactinelids reminiscent of the genera Craticularia, Stauroderma or Cribrispongia. Study of the slabs corresponding to the sponge casts showed that they have

typical stromatactis shapes in cross-sections (Figs. 13 and 14). Most of the sponge features were obliterated due to collapse and subsequent cement filling. Only in very rare examples, structures reminiscent of pores or borings were observed within the spar body (Fig. 14C–c). However, the inner cement filling of these specimens also do not show any relationship to sponges. 6. Carbon and oxygen isotopes Stable isotopes were analysed in order to reconstruct the diagenetic processes and verify if isotope ratios of carbonate filling stromatactis cavities were affected by fractionation within decaying sponge bodies. The samples were selected from the important constituents (host-rocks, brachiopod shells, RFC, internal micrite filling, blocky spar filling the voids and veinlets). The δ18O and δ13C values range from −5.8 to +0.89‰ and from −0.3 to 3.7‰, respectively (Fig. 15; Table 1). These isotope data indicate that most of the studied rock components from Babina, Priborzhavskoe and Velyky Kamenets

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localities were precipitated from solutions similar to normal Jurassic seawater. Some brachiopod shells, blocky spar, RFC and host rock from Slavincké Podhorie (data from Aubrecht et al., 2002b) are evidently depleted in 18O. This suggests either a thermal or, more likely, a meteoric overprint (cf. Marshall, 1992). A slight negative shift in δ13C values of samples from Slavincké Podhorie may result from freshwater impact, with 12C derived from a pedogenic reservoir. There is no evidence for the incorporation of isotopically-light CO2 derived from the bacterial breakdown of organic matter within the sediment.

7. Discussion Our research has revealed an evidence that siliceous sponges have contributed to the origin of the stromatactis structures described here. The sponge-related theory for stromatactis origin was first introduced by Bourque and Gignac (1983) who presented stromatactis structures as cavities that remained after decayed sponges and the peletoidal fabrics of the host rocks as originated due to microbial cementation. However, this theory was challenged by Pratt (1986). The evidence for sponges was based on ubiquitous sponge spicules found in the host

Fig. 9. (A) Skeleton of a lithistid sponge in the stromatactis-bearing micritic crinoidal limestone. Velyky Kamenets. (B) Accumulation of flat-shaped siliceous sponges (marked with small arrows) within the stromatactis-bearing crinoidal limestone. Velyky Kamenets. (C) Tiny aborted stromatactis in muddy crinoidal limestone. Sedimentary filling of the cavities is the same as the composition of the surrounding sediment and the contours of the previous voids cannot be traced. Velyky Kamenets. (D) Aborted stromatactis filled with contrasting, dark-red micritic filling showing only thin rim of spar. Velyky Kamenets. (E) Branching system of voids filled with contrasting dark laminated limestone (inhibited stromatactis). Sparfilled stromatactis are developed in the parts unfilled with sediment (lower left — arrows). Priborzhavskoe. (F) Inhibited stromatactis filled with contrasting dark-red laminated micrite. Velyky Kamenets.

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Fig. 10. (A) Short-bladed initial stage of the radiaxial fibrous calcite (grey) filling part of the cavity and filling porosity in the host rock. Slavnické Podhorie. (B) Typical inclusions-rich radiaxial fibrous calcite with deformed convex-up twinning lamelae and undulatory extinction, filling a stromatactis cavity. Velyky Kamenets. (C) Small shell of a juvenile ammonite surrounded by radiaxial fibrous calcite. Slavnické Podhorie. (D) Clast of the spiculitic limestone surrounded by radiaxial fibrous calcite. “Evinosponge” breccia. Priborzhavskoe. (E) Stromatactis cavity filled with radiaxial fibrous calcite and pure dark micrite. Babiná. (F) Remaining space of the stromatactis cavity filled with Bositra packstone. Velyky Kamenets.

rocks of the stromatactis mud-mounds (Bourque and Gignac, 1983; Labiaux, 1997) and some were even found in the spar fillings of stromatactis cavities (Boulvain, 1993) but the body fossils were scarce. There seemed to be a contradiction between the sponge mounds with numerous preserved body fossils and stromatactis mud-mounds with few sponge body fossils. Even the researchers working in sponge mounds attributed the stromatactis-like cavities in these mounds to other processes, like internal erosion, cavitation or they considered them as shelter porosity (cf. Matyszkiewicz, 1993; Leinfelder and Keupp, 1995; Delecat and Reitner, 2005). The supporters of the sponge theory looked for indirect proofs, like microbial cementation responsible for the micropeloidal (clotted) fabrics of the so called automicrite that dominates the mud-mounds. Sponges contain symbiontic microbes which contribute to their metabolic processes (Reitner et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2001). These microbes are believed to play an important role also in post-mortem decay and early calcification of sponge tissues. Therefore, micropeloidal fabrics of the host rocks in stromatactis mud-mounds are attributed to this mass “inoculation” by symbiontic microbes. However, still uncertain is their

role in formation of the sparry masses. There were some notes in the literature which interpreted the origin of RFC as happening at the expense of decaying tissues or an organic matter (Monty, 1982; Monty, 1995). In the cases presented in this paper, no evidence of such processes has been observed, despite earlier opinions of Aubrecht et al. (2002b). In the context of the new findings it seems plausible that the RFC filled empty collapsed cavities after sponges. Cavities were empty prior to being filled with radiaxial fibrous calcite, as evidenced by the presence of cave-dwelling ostracods trapped in the RFC which were found at two sections (cf. Schmid et al., 2001; Aubrecht et al., 2002b) and seawater isotope signatures of many RFC calcites. Rarely preserved pores or borings within the RFC filling (Fig. 14C) may be interpreted as the evidence that the observed stromatactis did not represent just shelter cavities below flat sponges but the structures actually represent molds after their decayed bodies. To remain preserved, sediment fillings of the pores and/or borings should be at least slightly lithified prior to the decay. Such filling may be also responsible for the presence of “floating” allochems and sediment islets surrounded by RFC. Early lithification of the covering

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Fig. 11. (A) Centre of a stromatactis cavity filled with twinned clear blocky calcite, overlying the inclusion-rich radiaxial fibrous calcite. Babiná. (B) CL image of the cavity with spar filling. Asymmetric geopetal initial overgrowth of the blocky calcite indicates cementation in vadose zone.

Fig. 12. Casts after siliceous sponges on the upper surfaces of the weathered-out RFC fillings of the stromatactis cavities at Slavnické Podhorie.

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Fig. 13. Relationship between the weathered casts of siliceous sponges (capital letters) and the corresponding cross-sections in slabs (small letters). The corresponding weathered surfaces are marked with arrows in the slabs. The cross-sections display actual stromatactis shape and composition (relatively flat bottoms and digitate upper parts, RFC initial fillings and eventual blocky calcite later filling). Slavnické Podhorie.

sediment is also the only way how to explain preservation of the casts by the radiaxial fibrous calcite. Big effort has been also spent on looking for the evidence by study of siliceous sponges fossilization (Neuweiler and Burdige, 2005; Delecat and Reitner, 2005; Neuweiler et al., 2007; Reolid, 2007). Our results suggest that stromatactis is one of the results of the sponge taphonomy. They represent a special case of post-mortem structures as correctly suggested by Neuweiler et al. (2001). The origin of stromatactis is in contrast to in-situ preservation, or “mummification” via calcification of soft tissues syn-vivo, or early post-mortem (Neuweiler and Burdige, 2005; Neuweiler et al., 2007). The “mummification” is an opposite end member in the spectrum of sponge preservation and is common for instance for the Late Jurassic sponge reefs in Poland and southern Germany (cf. Matyszkiewicz, 1993; Leinfelder and Keupp, 1995). Excluding the sponge casts preserved on the surface of the RFC filling, the earlier presence of sponges is almost completely obliterated. This is emphasized by the fact that the cavities after sponges collapsed and thus any original shape of the dead organism was deformed. The δ13C and δ18O values of the hosts rocks and the initial spar filling, do not show any biofractionation that would suggest their biogenic origin; these components predominantly show a normal seawater isotope ratio (e.g. Kaufmann, 1997),

except of some special examples where the samples were obviously affected by methanogenesis (Belka, 1998). The casts on the stromatactis surfaces are therefore the only feature which betray their origin. 8. Conclusions 1. Four sections of Middle Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds were revealed in the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Western and Eastern Carpathians). The stromatactis-bearing rocks are mostly bioclastic limestones, wackestones to packstones, with micropeloidal matrix. The stromatactis sometimes bear signs of partial filling by sediment. This way, aborted and inhibited stromatactis originated (sensu Neuweiler et al., 2001). 2. Spicules and skeletons of siliceous sponges are ubiquitous in all the sections. At Priborzhavskoe Quarry, a breccia with clasts containing skeletons of siliceous sponges accompanies the beds with stromatactis sctructures. 3. At Slavnické Podhorie, most of the upper surfaces of the weathered out RFC stromatactis spar filling display casts after siliceous sponges. This is a direct evidence about the sponge origin of stromatactis. The stromatactis cavities originated due to decay of dead sponges, as suggested by Bourque and Gignac (1983), Bourque

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Fig. 14. A, B — relationship between the weathered sponges and the corresponding cross-sections (as previous). C — Stromatactis with some original sponge structures preserved (pores, or borings — marked by arrows). c — Thin-section microphotograph of the previous sample showing relic pores (arrows) surrounded by radiaxial calcite.

Fig. 15. Crossplot of the carbon and oxygen isotope values (δ18O vs. δ13C) of individual rock components. SP — results from Slavincké Podhorie.

R. Aubrecht et al. / Sedimentary Geology 213 (2009) 97–112 Table 1 Carbon and oxygen isotope composition of individual rock components Location

Sample

Babina

δ13C(PDB) δ18O (PDB) Lithology

B/str1/B 3.7 B/str3/C 2 B/str3/B 1.5 B/str3/A 1.5 Slavnicke Podhorie P-rm1 0.9 P-cm1 0.1 P-cm2 1.0 P-zm1 2.2 P-zm2 1.6 P-RFC-1 1.7 P-RFC-2 0.9 P-RFC-3 2.0 P-RFC-4 1.1 P-rs1 1.3 P-rs2 1.1 P-rs3 1.3 P-bs1 1.3 P-bs2 1.0 P-bs3 1.4 P-bs4 1.0 P-bs5 1.7 P-kz1 −0.1 P-kz2 −0.3 P-b1 0.5 P-b2 1.3 P-b3 0.6 Priborzhavskoe P1 2.35 P2 2.41 P3 2.73 P4 3.45 P5 1.81 P6 2.9 P7 2.81 P8 3.29 P9 2.73 P10 2.87 P11 3.36 P12 2.41 P13 2.67 P14 2.36 P15 2.66 P16 2.73 P17 3.4 P18 3.32 P19 2.73 P20 3.35 Velyky Kamenets VK21 2.17 VK22 2.41 VK23 2.79 VK24 2.71 VK25 2.55 VK26 2.82 VK27 1.25 VK28 2.98 VK29 2.55 VK30 2.41

−0.3 − 21 −2 −0.6 −1.8 −4.7 −1.7 0.3 −1.1 −3.5 −4.9 −2.0 −1.4 −1.5 −2.0 −2.5 −4.1 −3.3 −3.3 −4.0 −3.5 −5.8 −5.7 −2.8 −3.0 −3.0 −2.73 −0.18 0.31 0.35 −1.04 0.38 −0.58 0.4 −0.06 0.52 0.29 0.85 0.37 0 −0.15 0.04 0.38 0.66 0.1 0.89 −0.87 −0.19 0.11 0.22 −0.78 0.46 −3.05 −0.64 −2.8 −2.51

Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Internal micrite Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Host-rock Host-rock Host-rock Host-rock Host-rock Host-rock Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Blocky sparite (calcite veinlet) Blocky sparite (calcite veinlet) Brachiopod shell Brachiopod shell Brachiopod shell Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Host-rock Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Brachiopod shell Brachiopod shell Brachiopod shell Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Host-rock Host-rock Host-rock Blocky sparite (calcite veinlet) Blocky sparite (cavity centre) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Host-rock Internal micrite Internal micrite Host-rock Host-rock Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Host-rock Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) Host-rock Internal micrite Internal micrite Host-rock Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)

Data from Slavincké Podhorie after Aubrecht et al. (2002b).

and Boulvain (1993) and by Neuweiler et al. (2001). The sponge structures were completely obliterated and the cavities collapsed. The surface casts are the only phenomena which betray the organisms responsible for their origin. Acknowledgements This article is dedicated to Pierre-André Bourque who was the first who introduced the sponge-theory about the stromatactis origin but, unfortunately, could not see these results. The authors wish to express their thanks to Prof. Brian Pratt (University of Saskatchewan, Canada) and Prof. Malcolm W. Wallace (University of Melbourne, Australia) for their thorough review of an earlier version of the manuscript. Their

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