Middle school geography teachers׳ professional development centered around historical photographs

The Journal of Social Studies Research ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

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Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs Cory Callahan University of Alabama, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o

abstract

Article history: Accepted 27 November 2018

This paper describes three social studies teachers’ participation in an approximately 50-h, 13-month, Lesson Study-type professional development program called Beyond Words. The program centered around promoting teachers’ understanding of historical domain knowledge through experiences with innovative visual curriculum materials and sustained collaboration. This qualitative investigation answers: To what degree can Beyond Words help in-service geography teachers design and implement powerful instruction centered around historical photographs? Throughout Beyond Words the teachers demonstrated a spirit of open-mindedness and a willingness to experiment with unfamiliar ideas; they planned and implemented a lesson that featured engaging historical photographs, thinking critically about the past, and making claims about a public issue. At the end of the program, however, they demonstrated conventional approaches toward social studies instruction, especially regarding curriculum and assessment. The work shared here suggests that helping teachers craft high-quality questions to anchor student-inquiry and scaffolding teachers’ sensemaking of student-outcome data should be high priorities for professional development providers. Copyright & 2018, The International Society for the Social Studies. Published by Elsevier, Inc.

Keywords: Social studies Professional development Lesson study Historical photographs

Introduction Here the author describes three social studies teachers’ participation in an approximately 50-h, 13-month, Lesson Studytype professional development program called Beyond Words. The program centered around promoting teachers’ understanding of historical domain knowledge through experiences with innovative visual curriculum materials and sustained collaboration. Beyond Words began when secondary social studies teachers from two public school districts formed a learning community with a researcher, a social studies education faculty member from a nearby university. As learners, the participants experienced several inquiry-based strategies that featured historical photographs from the Library of Congress's digital catalog. As teachers, they participated in educative activities to explore the underpinning tenets of Beyond Words (i.e., applying skills associated with thinking historically to interpret visual curricula, weighing contrastive evidence to develop a complex understanding of the past, and beginning to address a contemporary public issue). The learning community then separated into subject-area groups and began the Lesson Study-type professional development; the researcher joined each subject-area group. What follows is a thick, qualitative description of the experiences of one subject-area group—three middle school geography teachers—as they planned, implemented, and debriefed lessons informed by their experiences in Beyond Words. E-mail address: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003 0885-985X/Copyright & 2018, The International Society for the Social Studies. Published by Elsevier, Inc.

Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i

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This description also begins to answer the following research question: To what degree can Beyond Words help in-service geography teachers design and implement powerful instruction centered around historical photographs? Throughout Beyond Words the teachers exhibited a spirit of open-mindedness and a willingness to experiment with unfamiliar ideas; however, at the end of the program they demonstrated conventional approaches toward social studies instruction, especially in regard to curriculum and assessment. This investigation suggests that social studies professional development might be more effective if its providers were to overtly and continuously focus teacher-support on (1) helping teachers craft high-quality questions to anchor student-inquiry, and (2) scaffolding teachers’ sensemaking of student-outcome data.

Review of related literature Lesson study collaboration Several decades of research into Lesson Study has consistently suggested its norms are useful for promoting and investigating teachers’ professional improvement (Dudley, 2013; ; Gutierez, 2015; Soto Gómez, Serván Núñez, Pérez Gómez, & Peña Trapero, 2015; Lewis, 2000; Saito & Sato, 2012; Stigler & Hiebert, 2009). Lesson Study was developed two centuries ago in Japan (Sato, 2008) and researchers throughout the world—in Greece (Kanellopoulou & Darra, 2018), the Middle East and Africa (Dudley, 2013), the United Kingdom (Cajkler, Wood, Norton, Pedder, & Xu, 2015; Shúilleabháin, 2015), China (Yanping, 2017), and the United States (Perry & Lewis, 2009)—have since employed its procedures to support teachers and better understand variables within functioning classrooms. With iterations occurring across continents and cultures, scholars have developed wide “variations in the form and types of activities used” (Saito, 2012, p. 779); still, the most common feature of all Lesson Study projects is that “teachers jointly plan, observe, and discuss” instruction (Lewis, 2000, p. 3). Teachers with a variety of expertise and experience have benefitted from collaborating in Lesson Study programs. For example, pre-service (Roberts, Benedict, Kim, & Tandy, 2017; Sims & Walsh, 2009), elementary (Cheung, 2011; Gutierez, 2016), middle (Lieberman, 2009), and high school (Cajkler, et al., 2015) teachers have developed professionally; so too have college instructors (Dotger, 2011). Scholars have used Lesson Study to investigate contexts where teachers have taught students Math (Leavy & Hourigan, 2016), Science (Lewis & Tsuchida, 1997), English (Nami, Marandi, & Sotoudehnama, 2016), Modern Languages (Cajkler & Wood, 2016), and social studies (Halvorsen & Kesler Lund, 2013; Marton & Pang, 2006; Matoba et al., 2007). Teachers who participate in Lesson Study often socially construct new craft knowledge because their participation is explicitly collaborative. Hiebert, Gallimore, and Stigler (2002, p. 7) have claimed that working together encourages teachers “to make their knowledge public and understood by colleagues.” Others have further suggested collaborative efforts are most fruitful when built upon teachers’ shared commitment to openly rethink their “professional knowledge [and] theories of learning and teaching in the light of their experience(s)” (Davies & Dunnill, 2008, 4). Halverson and Kesler Lund (2013) have reported a similar finding from a Lesson Study project with fifth-grade social studies teachers. They found successful collaboration was built on “trust… cooperation, mutual respect, camaraderie, and patience,” because, in part, their subject area consisted of “conflicting interpretations… of agreed-upon facts” (p. 128). Thus, social studies teachers might especially benefit from Lesson Study because it incorporates a key aspect of their discipline(s): exploring others’ interpretations of the past (see Hubbard, 2007). Recently, Howell and Saye (2015, 2017) have reported on elementary school teachers’ experiences in a Lesson Study project nested within social studies. Their work suggests the authentic collaboration found in many Lesson Study professional development programs can help teachers think deeply about best practices (i.e., research-based knowledge), and help them create shared-understandings of practice (i.e., practitioner-based knowledge). Lesson study classrooms Investigations into Lesson Study contexts typically describe teachers’ experiences; projects have rarely emphasized students’ experiences (Saito, 2012; Saito & Atencio, 2015). Pang (2010), however, found that students who learned via Lesson Study instruction can demonstrate improved learning outcomes versus peers taught by teachers who planned instruction more traditionally. Furthermore, Marton and Pang (2006) investigated students in three secondary education classes studying economics: one class experienced Lesson Study instruction, the other two did not. Sixty-five percent of students in the Lesson Study classroom demonstrated a “significant understanding” of abstract economic concepts: that was true for only eight percent of students in the traditional classrooms. Historical domain knowledge The researcher knew that modern environments tend to be filled with visual information, and that people tend to use it to make sense of the world, both in the present and of the past (Halvorsen & Kesler Lund, 2013; Colley, 2017; Säljö, 2010). Therefore, he designed Beyond Words to help teachers experience, and then develop, instruction centered around a specific type of visual information: historical photographs. To analyze images from the past would afford learners the opportunity to practice the sensemaking skills required to understand the non-academic world away from classrooms. In short, Beyond Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i

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Words was designed to help teachers create activities to “develop the sophisticated thinking skills students need to make sense of… (contemporary) social issues” (Heafner, Handler, & Journell, 2016, p. 381). The researcher employed VanSledright and Limón's (2006) notion of historical domain knowledge to help introduce teachers to the concept of thinking historically about visual curriculum materials. Historical domain knowledge is a concept that identifies two domains, or orders, of thinking about the past. The first-order includes the “who, what, where, when, how and why questions” (VanSledright, 2014, p. 5). The second-order builds upon first-order facts; it consists of learners using strategic and conceptual approaches to interpret the past. Learners who develop second-order historical domain knowledge are able to weigh evidence, and build and support historical arguments (see Hicks & van Hover, 2014). During the professional development activities, the researcher led the teachers through the steps associated with second-order historical domain knowledge and during planning sessions he reminded them of those experiences. Conceptual framework Social studies practice has long featured instruction designed around texts that can be described as aesthetic (i.e., maps, photographs, music, art, poetry, film). Only recently, however, have social studies education researchers attempted to systematically operationalize the mental “machinery” that allows encounters with aesthetic texts “to take root” (Garrett & Kerr, 2016, p. 511). Scholars have synthesized research from several genres to construct a framework to help scholars theorize about learners’ interactions with aesthetic texts, and begin to comprehend the complex aesthetic dimension underpinning many common classroom practices (Garrett & Kerr, 2016). They synthesized research from aesthetic education (Greene, 2001), art education (Desai et al., 2009), and literacy and cultural studies (Moore, 1986); they also cited findings from political philosophy (Dewey, 1934; Rancière, 2006, 2009), curriculum theory (Grumet, 2009), and psychoanalysis (Britzman, 2010). The framework is comprised of three related, yet distinct, “explorations:” aesthetic conflict, relational aesthetics, and that which most informed this investigation, aesthetic experience. Aesthetic experience is an exploration, or lens, that can be thought to posit a type of continuum to describe interactions between learners and aesthetic texts. One end of the continuum identifies interactions where learners seem unchanged and unimaginative; they submissively accept and restate conventional conclusions. The continuum's other end identifies interactions where learners innovate, express insightful challenges to conventional thinking, and in a spirit of openmindedness, experiment with unfamiliar ideas. Products created by learners as a result of instruction are thought to be key representations of a learner's “relationship(s) to the social world” (Garrett & Kerr, 2016, p. 514). Thus, to map created products on the posited continuum would constitute an important interpretive step. In the context of this study, the “aesthetic experience” exploration provided lens through which the researcher could make sense of participants’ interactions with curriculum.

Research design The researcher employed single-case study strategies because this investigation was an “empirical inquiry about a contemporary phenomenon (e.g., a ‘case’) set within its real-world context” (Yin, 2009, p. 18). He knew a “case study methodology is versatile and can be combined with other research approaches” (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017, p. 106); therefore, the researcher also employed a type of design-based research approach with iterative cycles of designing, teaching, and debriefing instruction (see Brown, 1992; Design-Based Research Collective, 2003). Each iteration was also situated within a larger research context (see Callahan, Saye & Brush, 2014; Callahan, Saye & Brush, 2015; Callahan, 2018), and participants’ experiences in Beyond Words informed its future iterations. Participants The researcher used criterion sampling to find participants (Creswell, 2012). In a state in the southeastern United States, he contacted schools to find secondary social studies teachers who were agreeable to a year's professional development that featured (a) sustained collaboration: planning, implementing, and debriefing instruction, (b) visual curriculum, especially historical photographs, and (c) inquiry-based instructional approaches. What follows are descriptions of the participants, Abby, Betsy, and Clarence (all pseudonyms), who taught students geography at Public Middle School (pseudonym). Abby Abby was a white female in her late-40s who had taught for 15 years. She earned an undergraduate degree in secondary social studies education and was a first-career teacher who took a several-year break amid her service. She thought the central purpose for teaching students social studies was “to prepare them for the future. We have to understand our past and realize that the world is constantly changing and that we have to adapt to the changing world” (pre-interview). When asked about the ideal use of visual curriculum materials in the social studies classroom, she replied, “They should deal with what I am teaching. I also try to choose visuals that will make my students have to think about what is happening in the pictures” (pre-interview). Abby taught four sections of State History, one section of Geography, and sponsored the school's government club. Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i

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Betsy Betsy was a white female in her mid-30s who had taught for nine years. She earned an undergraduate degree with a double-major of history and social studies education, and a graduate degree in social studies education. She was a firstcareer teacher who thought the central purpose for teaching students social studies was “to educate students about the past. In doing so, students learn the relationships between social studies disciplines” (pre-interview). When asked about the ideal use of visual curriculum materials, she said, “I think they should prepare students for the real world by requiring them to think about the underlying point and message” (pre-interview). Betsy taught two sections of Geography, three sections of World History, and sponsored the school's yearbook. Clarence Clarence was an African-American male in his early-40s who had taught for four years. Before teaching, Clarence served in the nation's military and had also managed a restaurant; he said, “I like to think that I have led three professional lives.” He earned an undergraduate degree in social studies education and thought the central purpose for teaching students social studies was to teach “how the human experience evolved… and has become what is it today and to equip students to make choices in their future that benefit society” (pre-interview). When asked about the ideal use of visual curriculum materials, he said, “visuals should allow students to experience epiphany (sic). I like visuals that are filled with information that someone who is not an expert on the subject can point out and think deeply about it… they should arrive at an ‘Aha!’ moment” (pre-interview). Clarence taught one section of State History, two sections of World History, two sections of Geography, and he coached on two of the school's athletics teams. Data sources To thickly describe the teachers’ experiences, the researcher collected and analyzed “varied sources of data… gathered across space and time” (Creswell, 2016, p. 106). Data were collected throughout four investigative phases and included: the researcher's field notes, participants’ observation notes, artifacts from the participants (e.g., lesson plans, completed scaffolds, email), and transcripts of interviews (see Yin, 2012). Phase One (about 15 h) occurred during a summer; it consisted of a pre-intervention interview (audio recorded and transcribed) and a two-day Beyond Words seminar. To begin the seminar, the researcher projected several historical photographs from the early 20th century (see Fig. 1 for an example) and asked the teachers questions to promote critical thinking and historical domain knowledge. The researcher then engaged the teachers in a type of dynamic tableau vivant: participants acted-out the photographs in an interactive role-play (see Orlich, et al., 2013, p. 257). The researcher corrected ahistorical extrapolations and assumptions as the teachers made sense of the experience. Next, he posited an evaluative question about the era and asked the teachers to formulate tentative answers by using information gleaned from their explications of the photographs. After several minutes, the researcher distributed primers he had prepared for the historical photographs (see Fig. 2 for an example) and led a lengthy debriefing discussion that emphasized how the previous activities were compelling, scaffolded for multiple ways of knowing, and featured secondorder historical domain knowledge. The teachers then further explored each aforementioned characteristic of dynamic

Fig. 1. An historical photograph used during the first Beyond Words seminar.

Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i

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Fig. 2. Researcher-made Primer for a historical photograph.

social studies online via educative curriculum materials (see Denzin, 2009; Halvorsen & Kesler Lund, 2013; Callahan, Saye & Brush, 2014). Phase one concluded when teachers began to brainstorm potential topics from which to develop a lesson. Phase Two (about 10 h) occurred during the Fall semester of the academic year; it began when the teachers and researcher collaboratively planned a lesson; they met three different times, including once at a local archive library. Precisely in the following order, they (1) decided on a topic, (2) located aesthetic texts to use during instruction, (3) brainstormed instructional activities, and then (4) formulated an essential question. The researcher played the role of mentor: he facilitated communication by asking Socratic-type questions to promote critical thinking (see Callahan, 2018). Each planning session was audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Clarence then taught the lesson while everyone else in the collaborative team observed and made notes; substitute teachers taught the participants’ classes that day. They debriefed the lesson thereafter and began to think about potential revisions. The researcher made field notes and collected copies of each teacher's notes. Phase Three (about 10 h) occurred during the second academic semester; it consisted of a one-day Beyond Words refresher and work sessions for teachers to revise their lesson. Abby then taught the revised lesson while, again, everyone else observed and took notes. Substitute teachers taught the participant's classes that day, and the researcher and the teachers debriefed the lesson. The researcher again collected copies of each teacher's notes (Table 1). Phase Four (about 15 hours) occurred during the second summer of support; it consisted of a two-day Beyond Words seminar that closely resembled Phase One with the addition of overall debriefing discussions and a post-intervention interview (audio recorded and transcribed). Again, the researcher compiled field notes.

Table 1 Demographics of Public Middle School (pseudonym). African American White Latino/a Asian Total Student Enrollment ¼ 455 (grades 6–8) Students who qualify for Free and Reduced Lunch ¼ 86%

50% 40% 9% 1%

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Data analysis and reflexivity The following six-step process comprised the researcher's data analysis: (1) intense reading and re-reading of all data sources: (2) making descriptive notes, (3) generating interpretations of emergent and a priori themes; (4) sharing interpretations with participants as member checks and to generate additional insights; (5) re-reading data through the lens of aesthetic experience, the study's conceptual framework; and (6) reflexive reporting. This systematic and interactive process grounded the study's findings and helped establish validity and credibility. The researcher's engaged time in the field also helped establish trustworthiness (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). The study's findings were corroborated by multiple participants (i.e., participant triangulation; Denzin, 2009) and by disinterested colleagues who critiqued the researcher's reflexive reports (i.e., peer debriefing; Creswell & Miller, 2000). The researcher in this qualitative case study—because he designed and collaboratively participated in it—recognized that his interactions with data were informed by his positive beliefs about Beyond Words. To mitigate his decreased distance from the data, the researcher emphasized reflexivity, both as a concept and a process (see Palaganas, Sanchez, Molintas, & Caricativo, 2017). As he made sense of data, the researcher (1) was mindful that his context (i.e., beliefs and assumptions) affected his research practice, (2) conducted routine member checks, and (3) made reflexive reports to colleagues for review and critique.

Findings The following findings, grouped thematically, begin to answer the question: To what degree can Beyond Words help in-service geography teachers design and implement powerful instruction centered around historical photographs? Lesson study collaboration Participation in Beyond Words seemed to inform Abby, Betsy, and Clarence's design of classroom events and discussions of social studies instruction. Most notably, they demonstrated an understanding of second-order historical domain knowledge through their initial creation of an essential question intended to anchor student-inquiry. Table 2 summarizes the two iterations of the teachers’ lesson, beginning with the essential questions; it may provide useful context. Table 2 Summary of this investigation's research lesson(s). Initial Lesson

Revision

Essential question

● What's a fair way to revitalize our downtown?

Lesson focus

 Students are to understand the tools for urban revitalization  Students are to analyze two sets of historical photographs and

● Using at least two tools for urban revitalization, what change to downtown would you make? Be sure to describe why it's a FAIR change.  Students are to understand the four tools for urban revitalization  Students are to analyze one set of historical photographs and find evidence of continuity and change  Student pairs are to make a claim that answers the essential question ● One set of historical photograph Set A: three street-level photos of a downtown intersection in 1905, 1970, 2000 ● Advanced Organizer

find evidence of continuity and change

 Students are to make a claim that answers the essential question Key resources

Students’ tasks

Overall objective

Teacher's tasks

● Two sets of historical photographs Set A: three street-level photos of a downtown intersection in 1905, 1970, 2000 Set B: three aerial photos of the downtown bridge in 1960, 1980, and 2010 ● Advanced Organizer  Analyze two sets of photographs using the advanced organizer  Analyze one set of photographs using the advanced organizer and identify evidence of continuity and change and identify evidence of continuity and change  Describe the tools of urban revitalization  Describe the four tools of urban revitalization  Cite the tools of revitalization in an answer the essential  Cite two specific tools of revitalization in an answer the question essential question ● Using information collected from the historical photographs ● Using information collected from the historical photographs and the subsequent classroom discussion, student-pairs will and the subsequent classroom discussion, student-pairs will write one claim concerning the compelling question. The claim write one claim concerning the essential question. must (1) employ at least two tools of revitalization, (2) be supported by 3–5 historical facts, and (3) logically connect the facts to the claim.  Introduce essential question and the urban revitalization tools  Introduce essential question and the urban revitalization tools  Make and scaffold student-pairs  Make and scaffold student-pairs  Distribute photographs and advanced organizer  Distribute photograph and advanced organizer  Collect and evaluate student-pairs’ claims  Collect and evaluate student-pairs’ claims using the data-analysis checklist

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Planning Three times the researcher met with the teachers to collaboratively craft the first iteration of the lesson. The first meeting occurred after school in Clarence's classroom; it began in earnest when the researcher asked, “What's a topic that y’all are interested in and that's worth our time and that we can build our… lesson around (sic)?” After several seconds of silence, Clarence said, “I’m thinking [reading from his computer screen] Standard 15: ‘Explain urban revitalization policies… goals and strategies’…. because it's the last one and I pretty much never get to it, and if there's one that I want to work on… it's that one.” When Abby and Betsy agreed, the researcher immediately asked, “Okay, then, how might we use historical photographs to get at that?” For the next several minutes, the teachers shared examples of aesthetic texts they had recently used in their classrooms. Abby and Clarence discussed how the students’ geography textbook contained a picture of a nearby city's skyline; it led Betsy to say, “We could even take a photo of downtown [teachers’ hometown].” Abby said, “What a cool idea! We could take a picture… and talk about the changes that have occurred in their lifetime, and further back too.” Advancing the conversation, Clarence shared a possible classroom activity: It would be good if we could find or take a few different pictures of [teachers’ hometown] and get students to do like what we did with [Researcher]: think about the photos, take notes, discuss them and, maybe, act them out. During the next few minutes, the collaborative team broached several important aspects of the lesson: assessment, authenticity, engagement, and critical thinking. Researcher: To what end is all of this going toward? I mean, what do we want students to be able to know and do because of whatever activity we create for the… lesson? Clarence: Know the standard. (Abby and Betsy nodded). Researcher: What does that mean exactly to us? I like the idea, I am just thinking ahead a little. How will we know which students know and can do, and which ones can’t? Clarence: We can pick something up at the end. Abby: Yeah, I think we can show them the pictures and them have them describe a change. Betsy: Or make a change. Abby: That's good! Really good. Betsy: We could go out and take a picture of downtown [teachers’ hometown], then show that to students, and discuss it and then ask them to make a change that they’d like to see made. Researcher: Could be something that in the real world real people do (sic). Clarence: Or we could get a(n) (online) screen shot from above… a birds-eye view. That way they could see blocks and blocks at a time, not just a picture's worth of view. That might help avoid students just adding a [chain restaurant], that's what I hear a lot about…. Researcher: That's where… a [multimedia presentation] at the front of the lesson can come in. They can take notes on the standard and then use the notes to make the change. Abby: That's where… a [multimedia presentation] at the front of the lesson can come in. They can take notes on the standard and then use the notes to make the change. The above interactions formed a tentative outline for the lesson. A few logistical and theoretical concerns were addressed; first, the lesson would present students with photographs of the teacher's hometown, from both the past and the present (Abby later suggested a photograph “before some revitalization effort and then another one after and see if they can notice the differences?” She then compared the activity to “those cartoons in the paper, you know, where it's the same drawing side-by-side only there are like ten differences in one of them and you have to find as many of the differences as you can”). Next, the differences students noticed were to be a starting point for a discussion, accompanied by a multimedia presentation of common revitalization strategies. The lesson would conclude with student-pairs using the revitalization strategies to make a change to their hometown. During an email exchange it was decided the next planning session would occur at a local archive-library; the teachers and researcher wanted to find historical photographs of the teachers’ hometown. They devoted about ninety minutes to searching online (e.g., the Library of Congress's digital archive) and working with archivist-librarians (e.g., exploring books, albums, and file folders). After discussing their findings, the collaborative team decided to present students with two sets of historical photographs: three street-level photographs of the same downtown intersection in 1905, 1970, and 2000; and three aerial photographs of the same bridge location in 1960, 1980, and 2010. Given both sets of photographs, student-pairs were to identify examples of continuity and change, describe plausible objectives for each change, and participate in an interactive presentation to further define typical tools of urban renewal. Finally, students were to suggest a revitalizing change and provide a rationale. The researcher then asked, “What's an essential question that you can write on the board?” Clarence suggested, “What are the four strategies of urban renewal… and how can they change [teachers’ hometown]?” The researcher responded, “can we ratchet it up a bit… make it more evaluative to challenge students to make not just any change—remember (chain

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restaurant)—but a change that… in some way asks the students to weigh the benefits against the costs?” Abby suggested the essential question include the phrase “a change that is fair” and, after writing a few sentences in a notebook, she posited, “What's a fair way to revitalize our downtown?” The researcher asked: “What does everyone think? [all nodded agreement]. So, what then is the connection to the photographs? Do the students need the photographs to complete the tasks? Help me understand that, please.” Abby answered, the photographs were to help “students really learn what the tools are for revitalization. We’re not just giving them the tools, they’re kind of figuring them out through the photos.” She continued, “That's what the [multimedia presentation] does too, but that only reinforces what they’ve figured out and adds what they need but didn’t figure out.” “That's how I see it, too,” added Betsy, “the photographs are how they’ll figure out as much as they can before we use the [multimedia presentation] to fill in the gaps.” The collaborative team met a third time, again in Clarence's classroom, to finalize the lesson. They decided to assign students to complete a graphic organizer for each set of historical photographs, and they reviewed definitions and examples of contemporary urban revitalization efforts. The first iteration Clarence taught students the collaborative lesson while Abby, Betsy, and the researcher observed and made notes. Afterward, they met in the school's library to debrief the implementation. Pessimistic about the students’ claims, Clarence said, “Those will not be great,” as he pointing to the stack of collected papers. He continued, “They were rushed. I was rushed. I took too long with the (multimedia presentation) slides, but I had to talk about the tools; otherwise they wouldn’t have anything to change, or to change with (sic).” Abby said, “Well, there was just so much to do. So, don’t feel bad at all.” Later in the debriefing conversation when addressing the lesson's effectiveness, Clarence said, “I could see my principal walking in and asking ‘did they really get the content’ and I would have to say ‘I don’t know.’” He concluded his initial thoughts by describing a few just-in-time conversations with students. The collaborative team then invested about fifteen minutes in reviewing the students’ claims (i.e., revitalization changes and rationale for being fair). The researcher asked, “only a couple of groups… overtly mentioned the tools of urban renewal… Why was that? Any thoughts there?” Abby answered, “Time? Maybe if they had… more time to write the claim it would have, maybe, given them the chance to think about and write about the tools.” Clarence said, “For sure, but there's probably more to it, I think.” When Betsy agreed, the researcher asked for additional thoughts. Clarence said, “I mean, ‘fairness’ is pretty much what middle schoolers are all about. Arguing about what is and isn’t right. We know that. So anything asking about right and wrong is going to go over well.” The researcher then asked, “So you think it's because we asked about ‘fairness’ in the essential question? And we didn’t ask overtly about the tools, at least in the question. Is that fair to say?” Abby said: Obviously, yes. I mean, right? The lesson asked students to formally address the question of fairness in the (essential) question and it didn’t address the way to go about it. [Clarence] did stress the tools throughout the whole day, but when it came down to writing the claim, the grade for the day, they focused on the ‘fairness’ factor. The researcher asked, “what do we want to do about that? How might we revise—assuming we do want to revise, but I think that we do want to—revise the essential question for the next time (sic)? [Abby], you’ll be teaching the lesson then, what do you think?” Abby said, “I think we ask them to use the tools first and then defend them as fair (sic).” The teachers then discussed how many of the tools should be required within student-claims (Clarence: “All of the tools? Or just some of them? Or leave that to them to decide?” and Betsy: “Maybe ‘at least two’ is the phrasing we could use”). Eventually, they revised the essential question to read, “Using at least two tools for urban revitalization, what change to downtown would you make? Be sure to describe why it's a FAIR change.” After revising the essential question, Abby reprised the topic of students needing more time to construct claims. She said, “I want students to have the discussions that we were having when we planned the lesson, but they just didn’t have the chance.” She continued, “They were really busy noticing and getting all of the information about those changes, but they didn’t get to talk about the reasons the changes were made.” Betsy added, “Or who was behind the changes and why. And who supported, or not supported, those changes (sic).” The researcher asked, “What might we be able to do with this lesson to help them get to have those conversations?” Abby answered: Personally, I think there are too many photos. I don’t know what y’all think, but I think the two sets do pretty much the same thing. They tell the same story, really: people moving, taking down buildings, new buildings, and all to better the community. We can still get there with either one of the photo sets. After several minutes of discussion, Clarence concluded, “I think the bridge photos, while they’re good, they aren’t as clear about ‘relocation of people.’ The intersection photos get students there quicker because of the apartments.” The researcher said, “Do we all agree that the intersection photos more clearly illustrate the tools of urban revitalization… and the next lesson should feature only those three photos?” Each teacher agreed. Summarizing, Abby said, “that will free-up a lot of time.”

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The collaborative team met the following semester and continued to discuss the lesson. Abby then taught students the revised version of the lesson. The second iteration While Abby taught the lesson, the collaborative team again observed and made notes; they debriefed in the library afterward. Clarence said, “They enjoyed this lesson. [Abby] got them working and they never gave up… Nobody wanted to suggest a change that wouldn’t work; so, they took it very seriously.” When asked why he thought students took the activity so seriously, Clarence said “[Abby] made it seem important and then carved out… time for them to really get into it. Everyone seemed to think their change really mattered (sic).” Abby added, “What we did today, was to focus on one thing, really: a change to downtown. I concentrated on getting them to answer the question and gave them time to do it.” Later she added, “using just the one set of photos was a good idea.” When the researcher asked the teachers to address the changes they made to the essential question, only Betsy and Abby made substantive replies. Betsy, first to respond, said, “For one thing, here [Abby] asked them to specifically use the tools and if we’re looking for specific references (in the claims), then shouldn’t we be more specific in asking them to be specific? I mean, yeah, that makes sense (sic).” Then, Abby said, “This time we were more like ‘if you don’t use the term, then you don’t get the credit’ which seems better, because that's what we wanted.” Developing second-order historical domain knowledge As the teachers planned and implemented the lesson, Beyond Words informed their design of classroom events and discussions of social studies instruction. Explicit examples occurred when Abby said, “I want students to have the discussions that we were having when we planned the lesson,” and when Clarence suggested the lesson encourage “students to do like what we did with [Researcher].” More implicit examples also occurred. For example, the teachers aspired to create meaningful opportunities for students to (1) explicate historical photographs for the purpose of discovering facts, (2) weigh the facts discovered from different sources, and (3) posit an answer to a question that centered around a public issue. These wise-practice tenets were clearly introduced and supported throughout Beyond Words; the teachers also experienced them as learners. As the teachers initially created the lesson they seemed to think of the essential question as a means to establish studentinquiry. As they revised the lesson, however, the teachers used the essential question differently: as an accountability measure. The teachers also sought to provide more time for students to address the question. The teachers considered it vital for students to explicate the historical photographs, write claims to address a public issue, and have sufficient time to accomplish the tasks. The teachers wanted to facilitate student-thinking in ways consistent with second-order historical domain knowledge as introduced and experienced throughout Beyond Words. Still, stakeholder accountability— real or perceived—and the overall difficulty of their tasks may have led the teachers to rely on more traditional approaches. Student outcome data The first iteration Despite Clarence's pessimism—or perhaps because of it—the teachers seemed eager to review the students' claims. No one had previously mentioned awarding grades to the assignment; however, Clarence said he wanted to give the students a “daily grade” for their efforts. This pronouncement prompted the researcher to suggest an impromptu checklist of criteria: “found evidence from historical photographs,” “tools of revitalization,” and “a fair change.” Each member of the collaborative team agreed, took out a blank piece of paper, and quickly constructed a checklist. They devoted about fifteen minutes to reading and critiquing the claims. The teachers drew two strong conclusions about the students’ claims, (1) nearly every pair made a change to downtown that was argued to be “fair,” and (2) very few pairs cited a revitalization tool. After a discussion of the students’ specific changes to downtown, the researcher asked about the checklist: only Betsy clearly thought it was helpful. She said, “Yes… I can look at it and tell that the students had a tough time connecting all of the facts from the photographs to a change they’d like to make.” She continued, “I have a lot of checks for information… but only a few for the tools.” Aside from “I like it” (Abby) and “I guess it makes (grading)… less subjective” (Clarence), the teachers had little to say about the checklist. Yet, everyone agreed when the researcher asked if they should develop a more formal assessment heuristic for the next iteration. The researcher volunteered to create a rough draft of a formal “claims analysis scaffold,” send it to everyone via email, and allow their comments to inform revisions. At the end of the conversation, Clarence decided to award each student full credit for a “daily grade.” The second iteration The claims analysis scaffold was one of three major revisions the teachers made to their lesson, the others were a new essential question and fewer historical photographs. When the collaborative team assembled in the library to debrief, the

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Fig. 3. Analysis scaffold for students’ claims, second iteration of the research lesson.

claims analysis scaffold was quickly put to use (see Fig. 3). Following a few initial comments, the teachers read the claims and completed the scaffold. When everyone seemed ready to discuss the findings, the researcher asked, “So, everybody… What do we make of the students’ claims?” Abby:

I mentioned before that I thought they got it, even if not everyone could give a textbook answer. I think anyone reading these [claims] would know that they got it, right? Clarence:I think so, too. [looking at his scaffold] I have each pair making some type of change to the downtown area. Betsy: Me, too. Clarence:And I have… [looking at his scaffold] twelve of the fourteen pairs explaining their change with terms that refer to improving, or making the area better than before the change. The problem is… that I have only eight pairs using anything close to something that could be seen as a ‘tool for revitalizing’ an urban area. And that's being real lenient (sic). Abby: I have [looking at her scaffold] ten, but maybe because that's because I’m being too lenient, too. Betsy: I have only five, but I am only counting… specific terms and then an accurate description, or at least an example that describes the term within it. Does that work? I was looking for really specific references, because we were specific.

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The teachers continued to discuss their findings and eventually arrived at a consensus. Because Abby also decided to assign a grade to the students’ claims, she awarded full credit to the five pairs whose claims specifically referred to urban revitalization tools and partial credit to those whose claims included only vague references (four pairs) or failed to mention a tool (five pairs). It should also be noted that neither the teachers nor the researcher formally answered any of the three open-ended questions at the bottom of the scaffold. While the collaborative team did generally discuss the notion underpinning each question, they largely ignored the second half of the scaffold. Scaffolding teachers’ review of student outcome data The teachers increasingly used support from the researcher to make better sense of the student outcome data. The impromptu checklist (first version) seemed of little use to the teachers. The formal checklist (second version), however, was a starting point for more substantive discussions of student-claims. The teachers referred to the scaffold and cited it in support of their conclusions about the degree to which students accomplished tasks. The scaffold and its emphasis on second-order historical domain knowledge was a point of departure for their conversation about assessing what students knew and could do as a result of instruction.

Implications The findings reported here are not generalizable; results would have varied had any number of variables occurred differently. The teachers’ awareness of being studied may also have affected their participation (see McCambridge, Witton, & Elbourne 2014). Limitations notwithstanding, the findings tentatively suggest the following implications for providing meaningful support for teachers in similar contexts. The priority of high-quality questions Professional development nested within an inquiry-based approach should begin with explicit support of teachers’ ability to craft high-quality questions to anchor student-inquiry. Beyond Words was a program of teacher-support that concentrated specifically on developing participants’ capacity to employ historical photographs to promote second-order historical domain knowledge; only after teachers experienced, discussed, and practiced those skills did the researcher emphasize the notion of tethering them to an inquiry-based approach. Moreover, a pivotal moment occurred when the teachers selected “urban revitalization policies” as their topic. Instead of immediately asking “how might we use historical photographs to get at that?” the researcher should have asked “what's an essential question that can anchor students' investigation into urban revitalization.” This foregrounding of the essential question would have afforded the teachers a clearer instructional purpose throughout their planning (e.g., a lens through which they could have searched for historical photographs). The state standard was not specific enough for teachers to use it as a foundation for problem-based instruction; they needed an essential question. The teachers eventually crafted a question they thought would engage students; however, when they revised it for the second iteration, they used a different criterion. They turned the question into a directive to cite content, which would be considered “conventional” or “traditional” through an aesthetic experience lens. The teachers seemed to position the revised essential question to generate proof they taught students the prescribed standard. Instead of an anchor for substantive inquiry, the question became an accountability measure. Culpability for the collaborative team co-opting the essential question rests squarely with the professional development provider: the researcher. He should have first supported the teachers’ understanding of high-quality questions for inquiry-based instruction. Only then should he have focused their efforts toward complementary aspects of powerful social studies planning and instruction (e.g., selection of resources, thinking historically, explicating visual curriculum materials, collaboration). The researcher also may have inadvertently encouraged the teachers’ appropriation of the question when he concluded, “So you think it's because we asked about ‘fairness’ in the essential question? And we didn’t ask overtly about the tools, at least in the question.” The researcher's decision-making underscores the crucial role of professional development provider(s); “to gain proficiency… novices must be mentored and guided by those who have more expertise in the inquiry conventions that novices are being asked to master” (Saye, 2017, p. 336). Abby, Betsy, and Clarence were not novices in the traditional sense of teaching service; however, they were new to second-order historical domain knowledge. This implication is consistent with contemporary research into the theory and practice of inquiry in social studies settings. Scholars have emphasized the need to help teachers develop a meaningful understanding that their "capacity to develop questions to frame and advance inquiry” is “central to rich social studies experiences” (NCSS, 2013, p. 23). It has been suggested that questions grounding social studies instruction should focus students’ learning on enduring social concerns, promote deliberation of the common good, involve the substantive exploration of historical events, and relate to students’ lives and concerns (Brooks, 2014; NCSS, 2013; Saye & Brush, 2004). Furthermore, Mueller (2018) suggested a professional development strategy for supporting teachers: programs might include “structured exercises (e.g., Question Development Task) to strengthen teachers’…. use of compelling questions” (p.11). Teachers might also be encouraged to read from and discuss Berger's (2014, p. 50) A more beautiful question: The power of inquiry to spark breakthrough ideas where Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i

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the author, in the second chapter, explores whether “a school [can] be built on questions?” Inquiry-based professional development designers and providers should consider it a top-priority to support teachers’ ability to construct high-quality questions that anchor student-inquiry. Supporting teachers' sensemaking of student outcome data The three in-service geography teachers who participated in this study experienced several of the “structural” characteristics that scholars have suggested are conducive to successful teacher-collaboration concerning student outcome data: common planning time, willingness to de-privatize their practice, and a positive communication dynamic (Van Gasse, Vanlommel, Vanhoof, & Van Petegem, 2016). Still, teachers need additional support beyond those characteristics to systematically review student outcome data and, in turn, translate findings into action steps for future teaching iterations. While the participants invested a lot of time during each debriefing session to reading, re-reading, and discussing the student's claims, they seemed to engage in very little sensemaking of the data. Instead, they found verification that students did-or-did-not follow directions by explaining a “fair change” to downtown. The researcher should have led the teachers in a deeper investigation into the degree to which the students met the lessons’ goals and learning objective (i.e., thought at higher cognitive levels, weighed contrastive evidence). A meaningful claims-analysis scaffold, and the discussion surrounding it, could have afforded the collaborative team the opportunity to systematically discuss, understand, and interpret student outcome data. Instead, the researcher crafted a simple graphic organizer that provided a space to collect mostly declarative information about the student-claims. Also, the researcher did not facilitate the teachers’ discussions of the completed scaffolds to include a thorough investigation into the level of thinking students demonstrated as a result of instruction. The researcher should have more overtly supported the teachers’ sensemaking capacity as it concerned student-outcome data. Also, it is worth noting that in both debriefing sessions, teachers mentioned additional stakeholders and the potential need to provide evidence of having taught students the content (e.g., Clarence in the first iteration said, “I could see my principal walking in…” and Abby said “I think anyone reading these (claims) would know…” in the second iteration). These comments were consistent with statements made during the pre-interviews; each teacher made a reference to school administrators asking teachers to submit “brief-sketch lesson plans… that include the standards being covered… and the ‘before, during, and after’ for each day” (Betsy). Clarence described it as: “every two weeks we’re to submit plans for each of our classes… I’m able to get one class on one side of a piece of paper, so it's not really that much.” The pressures of accountability, albeit low-stakes in this example, may have led the teachers to associate student-outcomes more with stakeholders’ opinions than with students’ learning. This implication is consistent with contemporary research which suggests that student data has become “important for not only accountability but also instructional improvement” (Bertrand & Marsh, 2015, p. 862). Scholars have emphasized that, while “(d)ata are becoming more… important for teachers’ day-to-day decisions, … more insight into teachers’ learning activities with regard to discussing data, interpreting data, diagnosing data and taking actions upon data is needed.” (Van Gasse, et al., 2016, p. 387). Although current high-stakes accountability environments require data to explicitly inform instruction (see Civic Impulse, 2018) this emphasis has not been accompanied by corresponding “human and financial resources to successfully use data to drive improvement” (Kerr, Marsh, Ikemoto, Darilek, & Barney, 2006, p. 497). Analyzing student-outcome data has potential for profound teacher-learning (Van Gasse, et al., 2016); yet, teachers “often do not know how to make sense of… data” (Schifter, Natarajan, Ketelhut, & Kirchgessner, 2014, p. 419) and often have a low “capacity to support data-driven inquiry” (Kerr, et al., 2006, p. 500). Teachers need access to professional learning opportunities that center around educational research: its purposes, implications, and especially how to collect, interpret, and draw conclusions from student outcome data. For example, teachers could learn how to address “cognitive biases” and “to consider all data, not just those that confirm their beliefs’’ (Katz & Dack 2014, p. 40). Also, in order to begin to improve teachers’ ability to understand, interpret, and use student outcome data meaningfully, it would be helpful for professional development initiatives to avoid presenting teachers with hypothetical data sets or cases. Instead, support efforts could, as Beyond Words did in this study, ”focus on structured approaches to dialogue about… the educators’ own real-life data” (Kerr, et al., 2006, p. 497).

Conclusion This qualitative study contributes to the growing literature concerning theoretical and logistical groundwork for meaningful professional development, especially in the social studies. Recent teacher-support efforts have attempted to help practitioners better understand student-outcome data and use it as decision-making criteria (see Light, Wexler, & Heinz, 2005; Mandinach & Gummer, 2013). The experiences of the teachers described here also suggest elements of Lesson Studytype approaches have potential to promote positive change in teachers’ practice as it concerns crafting questions to anchor student-inquiry and making sense of student-outcome data. Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i

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Funding The professional development work and materials presented here are sponsored in part by the Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Midwest Region Program, coordinated by Illinois State University.

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Please cite this article as: Callahan, C. Middle school geography teachers' professional development centered around historical photographs. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.11.003i