- Email: [email protected]
Milk Processing in Rural Areas to Support Dairying in Developing Countries
OUR INDUSTRY T O D A Y Milk Processing in Rural Areas to Support Dairying in Developing Countries M A R C R. B A C H M A N N Institute of Food Science Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zi.irich, Switzerland ABSTRACT
Postcolonial collaboration in dairying between developed and developing countries has been taking place for 30 yr. The result of that collaboration has not always been successful. North - South transfer of dairying systems often leads to "development ruins". For people in developing countries, milk is a valuable supplement but not a basic food. Nevertheless, milk processing may contribute to building up a rural industry based on agriculture. The rural location of such an industry provides additional working and earning opportunities and counteracts rural exodus. To avoid expensive, artificial cooling, and road transports, the collection radius for milk should be small. This leads to decentralized milk processing in small rural plants. The simple equipment of such plants should be manufactured in the developing country itself. Thus, milk processing may promote development of other sectors of domestic industry and become less dependent on imported equipment, which is difficult to maintain and replace. Plants and equipment have to be adapted to the special conditions in a developing country as well as the products. They should have good shelf-life, be marketable without artificial cooling, and be within reach of people with modest purchase power. INTRODUCTION
In a critical review in April 1983 the Commission of the European Economic Community (EEC) seriously questioned its development programs in third world countries. The EEC technical cooperation with 63 countries of Africa, West Indies, and Pacific is determined in
Received July 26, 1983. 1985 J Dairy Sci 68:2134--2139
the agreement of L o m & l (1976 to 1981) and Lom&2 (1981 to 1985). However, despite annual developmental aid of approximately 6 billion dollars, which is more than one-fifth of the total home investments, there has been a constant decrease of agricultural production, of exports, and of per capita income in these countries. What is the reason for this alarming situation? Why does not the massive development aid of EEC and of other countries at least prevent decrease of production and decrease of per capita income? As we read in certain press comments (4), the EEC Commission believes that the type and method chosen for developmental aid is responsible for this unfortunate situation. Partly blamed are the food aid programs that seem to prevent production increase of local agriculture and that allow governments to pay farmers unrealistically low prices for their products. According to EEC it is agricultural development above all that should be supported in the future. This development should not be guided by "imported models" but mainly should take into account realities of the country in which it takes place. High priority is given to the energy sector. Monster projects like giant dams and large power stations should be subsidized no longer, but energy sources for the "man in the street," such as firewood and other renewable sources, should be sponsored instead. Industry in the future should have its roots in activities of the country, especially in agriculture. The import of entire industrial plants is considered a serious mistake. Present statements of EEC Commission are equally valid for the entire developmental aid of the past 20 yr. It is time to collect experiences, to reconsider them, and to draw conclusions for future developmental work. Since 1960 I have had the opportunity to get to know numerous dairy projects in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. On behalf of the Swiss Government's technical cooperation, I was engaged in promotion of dairy development in various countries, partly as project author and
21 34
OUR INDUSTRY TODAY partly as project director. The following recommendations for dairy programs are based on this long experience. Nevertheless, there may be eases where these recommendations have to be modified. Developing countries are quite varied and, therefore, conditions for dairy development so different in each country that readymade recommendations cannot be followed. Subsequent statements are in no way "recipies" but are intended to give new ideas and draw attention to some critical points of dairy projects in developing countries. For working out some generally valid recommendations, experiences of many specialists of a great number of countries would be necessary. Commission B, Technology, of the International Dairy Federation (IDF), therefore, has accepted a suggestion to collect and publish experiences in the field of dairy technology in developing countries. For this purpose, a group of experts representing several industrial and developing countries has been appointed to take up this major task. The first results were submitted to the IDF annual meeting 1984 in Prague. The following recommendations mainly concern developing countries in the tropics. It is especially in these countries in which the difficulties for dairy development accumulate. Obstacles are climatic conditions, economic problems of the country, and low purchase power of a large segment of the population. This paper discusses primarily technological problems. Serious problems in animal husbandry and milk production exist also. However, these problems will be treated in a separate paper. For better understanding of the following recommendations, I further discuss a few general questions regarding the importance of milk in the diet of people in developing countries.
T E C H N O L O G Y A D A P T E D TO C O N D I T I O N S IN D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S
Adapting dairy technology to conditions in developing countries means understanding the difference between the role that milk plays in industrialized countries and in developing countries. In many tropical countries milkproducing animals are of great importance for utilization of fodder rich in roughage and for utilization of agricultural by-products. However,
2135
milk is not the most important factor of production. Meat, skins, wool, working capacity, and even manure are more important than milk. Purebred milk animals do not meet demands of developing countries. The draft power of cattle and buffalo as well as their production of manure for fuel is usually of greater importance for the people of many Asian and African countries than the animal's productiorfof milk. The same applies to sheep and goats. Their worth as suppliers of wool, skins, and meat is considered much higher than their value as milk producers. Similar examples could be found among other potential milk animals, such as yaks, tsauris [crossbred yak × cattle (9)], camels, horses, etc. A second consideration is the minor significance given to milk for human nutrition in these countries. Nutrition of most people in developing countries is based mainly on cereals or starchy roots. Milk and meat are only of minor importance because of their limited availability and their relatively high price (1). However, this situation could and should be improved. As the FAO agricultural Study No. 89 (5) showed, small quantities of milk to supplement a mainly vegetarian diet would lower the demand for such food and would guarantee, at the same time, the protein supply. A 4-yr-old child weighing 16 kg has to eat 330 g of rice per day to cover its demand of essential amino acids. If this child would drink 100 g of milk, 215 g of rice would be sufficient to guarantee an equally good protein supply. A regular, small consumption of milk also would provide the child with minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, for growth. However, not only the children's food but also the diet of pregnant and breast feeding women should be supplemented regularly with a small quantity of milk. Despite this, it is not only the population's improved supply of animal proteins and minerals that makes milk production so important for developing countries. Its great advantage is the possibility it offers to small farmers, and even to the landless farm workers, to provide additional work and income. A study carried out a few years ago in Pakistan (1) showed that many landless farmers own up to five animals that are fed along ditches and roads and on common land. For these families, income from sale of a few kilograms of milk a day is vital. At the same time, these people have to be provided Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
213 6
BACHMANN
with additional working and earning opportunities to keep them in the villages. Provision of work counteracts rural exodus and uncontrolled growth of urban slums. It is possible to process milk in simple small plants into marketable products with a good keeping quality. The tools and simple machines that are used for milk processing in such plants can be manufactured in any country of the world. For this reason, milk is well suited to initiate an industrialization based on agriculture. However, milk can only play its important role in improvement of nutrition and income and as a provider of working and earning opportunities if milk production and milk processing are adjusted to the special conditions in tropical developing countries. Technology to Suit Rural Population
It is inconceivable to transfer dairy systems of industrial countries with moderate climates into tropical developing countries. Neither milk processing plants nor milk products of the industrial countries are adjusted to the specific conditions and demands of the developing countries. Dairy plants of the industrial world are highly mechanized and automatic. They are designed to save labor. The few workers needed are extremely well-trained specialists. In developing countries, however, a great number of working opportunities must be created for untrained laborers. Dairy Factories of industrial countries depend on a highly qualified maintenance service and on a well-functioning repair system. But in developing countries, there are hardly any such specilists available. In the dairy factories of industrial countries pasteurized milk, fresh cheese, soft cheese, and fresh butter are produced, all of which have to be stored cold from production to consumption. However, in developing countries cooling facilities cannot be expected. Moreover, chilled products would exceed the purchasing power of most consumers. Dairy plants of industrial countries depend on a regular supply of fuel, electricity, machinery and its spare parts, packaging material, chemicals, and other resources, whereas in developing countries most of these resources are limited. They have to be imported at high costs. The result is dependency on foreign supplies and, worse, loss of foreign exchange Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No, 8, 1985
for the developing country. The less imports that milk processing demands, the more created purchasing power remains within the country and, thus, promotes development of home economy. If milk processing is adjusted to the demands and realities of a developing country it will become a usefui instrument for social and economic change (6). Location of Plant. A rule of thumb for food processing in developing countries is that the more perishable and unwieldy a raw material is the shorter the distance must be between the producer and processing plant (3). In a warm climate and with hygienically problematic production, milk is extremely perishable. Furthermore, milk contains 87% water. To collect milk over longer distances and under circumstances of a developing country, cold and motorized road transports are necessary. However, artificial cooling is extremely expensive and unreliable in developing countries. Road transports in rural areas of developing countries are also expensive and, because of bad roads, equally unreliable. Collection of raw milk over long distances, therefore, results in great price increase of milk products. For dairy projects milk processing plant should be located in the milk production area, ideally collection radius of 2-h distance. It is the amount of time between milking and processing that is responsible for perishing or keeping of milk and not the kilometers it has been transported. The distance that can be covered within 2 h depends on type of transport, whether it is by foot or with the help of a donkey, horse, or other means. A small collection radius leads to a small daily milk processing capacity and to small dairy plants, both of which are desirable in a developing country. Location of the plant in the rural area and direct milk delivery by the milk producers offers four additional advantages. First, milk price can be fixed at the dairy. Milk collection can be organized by the milk producers themselves. And because the milk price paid in the dairy is a little higher than the price paid at the farm, milk delivery is a regular and additional source of income for the producer. Second, quality control of milk and its appropriate payment quickly can be made in the presence of the producer (2). This direct contact between producer and milk processor is a good basis for improvement of the quality of the raw material.
OUR INDUSTRY TODAY Such daily communication helps to build mutual understanding and assistance. The milk processor, for instance, may announce needing additional help for a certain period, or the milk producer may receive information concerning the animals' health, fodder, and fodder crop, etc., from the people in the dairy. Third, it is easier for the milk producers to form a cooperative or another group of interests if the dairy plant is located in the neighborhood. Financial participation by the milk producers is only possible if they are in contact with the place of milk processing. Fourth, every provision of additional working and earning opportunities in the rural areas of developing countries is highly welcome. In most developing countries, the rural population is underemployed. Unemployment is the main reason for the younger people's migration to the cities and for the subsequent growing of urban slums. The concentration of working possibilities in trade and industry in towns naturally has great attraction to the rural population. However, the extremely high costs of living in the towns result in an alarming pauperization of these uprooted people. Working and earning opportunites must be created in the rural areas of developing countries. The rural population should be allowed to earn its bread without having to migrate and leave its traditional family structures with their social security. Size of Rural Milk Processing Plant. As mentioned, the size of the processing plant depends on the collection radius of the raw material. For milk, the collection radius is small and necessarily leads to small processing plants. However, it is also for other reasons that small decentralized dairies are more adequate compared to big plants. In a small plant it is easier to apply simple equipment and manual labor. The small plant is controlled easily and is much less difficult to manage than a large and complicated factory. Furthermore, if a breakdown should occur, the risk of loss is naturally much smaller than in a large enterprise. Figure 1 shows a cross-section of one of three dairies built in Afganistan between 1974 and 1979 according to the author's suggestions. The capacity of the plant is 2000 to 4000 kg milk per day. To avoid pumping of milk the plant has different processing levels (cascade system). Finally, it is possible to use locally available, renewable energy sources for small, decentral-
2137
ized plants, which is not feasible for large, highly mechanized dairy factories. The use of solar energy, biogas, wood, etc., is more realistic in a small dairy. Moreover, it is easier to find solutions for sewage and waste disposal problems of small factories than for large industries.
Mechanical Equipment of a Small, Rural Dairy. If the mechanical equipment of a dairy industry in a developing country is to function, it has to be simple. Use and maintenance have to be uncomplicated. This equipment, as far as possible, should be purchased and constructed in t h e country where it will be used. This is a certain quarantee for avoidance of serious breakdowns. There are countless dairies in developing countries that had to be closed for a long period because spare parts, tools, or the necessary "know-how" for the repair work were not available. In dairies that work with imported equipment "cannibalism" is frequent, meaning that one machine serves as a supplier of spare parts to another similar machine. This is usually the beginning of the end of an installation. If equipment is purchased locally, operating conditions are usually better. For breakdowns o r problems, the manufacturer is within reach and can be paid in local currency. Technology to Promote Development of Other Sectors of Home Economy
The question arises whether small dairy plants as outlined are a viable proposition and whether it is possible to process milk into marketable products with good shelf-life in such small and simple dairy plants. To answer these questions, the case of Switzerland is cited. In Switzerland, 1.4 million tons of milk are processed annually into 124,000 tons of cheese
Figure 1. "Cascade-type" dairy factory with a daily capacity of 2000 to 4000 liters milk. Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
2138
BACHMANN
(8) in over 1700 plants. The average quantity of daily processed milk is, therefore, only 2250 kg. Among these processing plants are also a few hundred alpine cheese plants with daily milk processing capacity of only 100 to 500 liters. Even in these small plants, cheese of highest quality and of perfect marketability is produced with simple means. Until a few decades ago, small alpine cheese factories were built and equipped by the farmers owning the alpine pasture. Farmers usually built the premises, and the cheese maker made his tools and equipment. The copper cheese vat was the only piece of purchased equipment, which was from the coppersmith of the village or the valley. Nowadays, many cheese makers of alpine cheese factories still manufacture part of their equipment. In Switzerland, as well as in other industrial countries, important and large industries have grown out of such small milk processing plants; NestM is only one example. Milk processing is a starting point for the entire food industry. The dairy industry also has provided work for the wood and metal processing industry and later for numerous manufacturers of machines and packaging materials. For this reason, milk in developing countries must be considered an important possiblity for providing l~tbor and for initiating an industrialization based on agriculture. In India, e.g., there exist many small and big manufacturers of tools and equipment for milk processing. Even complicated machines such as cream separators are being manufactured in the country. In New Delhi, e.g., I visited three different workshops manufacturing handoperated cream separators. If they are managed well, such small workshops can grow and develop into factories offering earning and working opportunities to hundreds or thousands of people. Development of simple tools and equipment can be assisted by specialists from industrialized countries. The Laboratory of Dairy Science of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ZUrich, developed several pieces of equipment for small rural dairies in developing countries. The following Figures 2, 3, and 4 give a few examples. Figure 2 shows a hand-operated cheese melting pan. It has been proven useful in Madagascar, India, Afghanistan, and other developing countries for making processed cheese. Figure 3 shows a simple solar heated Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
cheese vat used for the transformation of sheep milk into cheese and ghee with nomads in Northern Afghanistan. Figure 4gives an example of uncomplicated equipment invented and developed by me for sterilizing milk in 20-liter containers. This equipment is being used for field tests in Tanzania. Technology to Meet Needs of Low-I ncome Population
In developing countries it is not only the methods of fabrication but also the products themselves that should be adapted to the environment. It is odd that in a tropical country whose population has a modest purchasing power the same expensive dairy products are manufactured as in rich industrial countries with moderate or even cool climates, It is unreasonable that in almost every developing country the attempt is made to produce pasteurized milk in retail packages. Are the dairy specialists all over the world so unimaginative that they cannot think of anything better than to produce pasteurized milk in one-way packages for people living in hot climates without refrigeration facilities and with extremely modest incomes? Why can milk not be sterilized in a rural dairy and be sold without chilling within a few days? What use is aseptically packed milk and its expensive and indigestible package to a consumer who, anyway, has only enough money to buy himself the food of the day?
3/
--
"\'~"7
Figure 2. Hand-operated cheese-melting pan. 1. Steam pipe for steam injection (steam generated in an ordinary pressure cooker); 2. stirrer; 3. scraper; 4. crank handle; 5. heating water; 6. jacket; 7. melting pan.
OUR INDUSTRY TODAY
2139
Figure 3. Double-jacketed vat with solar heating~ for eheese and ghee fabrication. 1. cheese vat; 2. hot water tank; 3. flat plate solar collector.
Thanks to the President of the Indian Dairy Development Board, Dr. Kurien, the idea of direct selling of milk through vending booths could be realized by "Mother Dairy" in New Delhi. In hundreds of vending booths milk can be bought directly into the consumer's milk pail. When developing the mentioned equipment for sterilization of milk in portable containers, this idea of avoiding the use of retail packages has been adopted. Cultured milk, compared with pasteurized and retail packaged milk, is a much more appropriate product in a tropical developing country. At the Department of Food Science and Technology at the University of Nairobi, a milk cultured with mesophilic lactic acid bacterias was developed. Such cultured milk can be kept for several days without artificial cooling and without further souring. Acceptability of the product with respect to texture and flavor is good (7). Apart from cultured milk, there are other traditional, well-accepted milk products in developing countries such as Ghee in India and Nepal, Khoa in India and Pakistan, and various types of hard cheese in Afganistan and in the Andes, etc. These are products perfectly adjusted to the climate of a developing country and to the eating habits of its population. They should serve as models for the development of new dairy products.
Figure 4. Prototype of the equipment for sterilizing milk in 20-liter containers. 1. rotating milk containers; 2. butane or methane gas burner. REFERENCES
1 Bachmann, M. 1978. Adapted techniques for the collection, processing and marketing of milk in developing countries. I. Some reflections on the place of milk in the diet of the people in developing countries. Milchwissenschaft 34:267. 2 Bachmann, M. 1978. Quality control of milk in developing countries. Brief commun. 20th Int. Dairy Congr., Paris, 202. 3 Bachmann, M. 1982. Der Standort des Lebensmittelverarbeitungsbetriebes im Eutwicklungsland. Lecture Food Technol. Dev. Countries, ETH, Ziirich. 4 B~nziger, A. 1983. Die EG mtJchte ihre Entwicklungshilfe radikal umgestalten. Tages-Anzeiger. 91(85):2. 5 Food and Agricultural Organ. 1973. Paiement du lait a la qualitY. Etudes agricoles de la FAO No. 89, FAO, Rome. 6 International Dairy Federation. 1977. Motto of the XIX Int. Dairy Congr., New Delhi. 7 Kurwijila, R.L.N. 1980. Low cost optimization of the consistency, flavour and keeping quality of fermented milk with particular reference to consumer acceptability in Kenya. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Nairobi, Nairobi. 8 Milchstatistik der Schweiz. 1982. Statistische Schriften des Schweizerischen Bauernsekretariates, Brugg. 9 Schulthess, W. 1967. Yak and Tsauri in Nepal. World Rev. Anita. Prod. 3:88.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
Postcolonial collaboration in dairying between developed and developing countries has been taking place for 30 yr. The result of that collaboration has not always been successful. North - South transfer of dairying systems often leads to "development ruins". For people in developing countries, milk is a valuable supplement but not a basic food. Nevertheless, milk processing may contribute to building up a rural industry based on agriculture. The rural location of such an industry provides additional working and earning opportunities and counteracts rural exodus. To avoid expensive, artificial cooling, and road transports, the collection radius for milk should be small. This leads to decentralized milk processing in small rural plants. The simple equipment of such plants should be manufactured in the developing country itself. Thus, milk processing may promote development of other sectors of domestic industry and become less dependent on imported equipment, which is difficult to maintain and replace. Plants and equipment have to be adapted to the special conditions in a developing country as well as the products. They should have good shelf-life, be marketable without artificial cooling, and be within reach of people with modest purchase power. INTRODUCTION
In a critical review in April 1983 the Commission of the European Economic Community (EEC) seriously questioned its development programs in third world countries. The EEC technical cooperation with 63 countries of Africa, West Indies, and Pacific is determined in
Received July 26, 1983. 1985 J Dairy Sci 68:2134--2139
the agreement of L o m & l (1976 to 1981) and Lom&2 (1981 to 1985). However, despite annual developmental aid of approximately 6 billion dollars, which is more than one-fifth of the total home investments, there has been a constant decrease of agricultural production, of exports, and of per capita income in these countries. What is the reason for this alarming situation? Why does not the massive development aid of EEC and of other countries at least prevent decrease of production and decrease of per capita income? As we read in certain press comments (4), the EEC Commission believes that the type and method chosen for developmental aid is responsible for this unfortunate situation. Partly blamed are the food aid programs that seem to prevent production increase of local agriculture and that allow governments to pay farmers unrealistically low prices for their products. According to EEC it is agricultural development above all that should be supported in the future. This development should not be guided by "imported models" but mainly should take into account realities of the country in which it takes place. High priority is given to the energy sector. Monster projects like giant dams and large power stations should be subsidized no longer, but energy sources for the "man in the street," such as firewood and other renewable sources, should be sponsored instead. Industry in the future should have its roots in activities of the country, especially in agriculture. The import of entire industrial plants is considered a serious mistake. Present statements of EEC Commission are equally valid for the entire developmental aid of the past 20 yr. It is time to collect experiences, to reconsider them, and to draw conclusions for future developmental work. Since 1960 I have had the opportunity to get to know numerous dairy projects in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. On behalf of the Swiss Government's technical cooperation, I was engaged in promotion of dairy development in various countries, partly as project author and
21 34
OUR INDUSTRY TODAY partly as project director. The following recommendations for dairy programs are based on this long experience. Nevertheless, there may be eases where these recommendations have to be modified. Developing countries are quite varied and, therefore, conditions for dairy development so different in each country that readymade recommendations cannot be followed. Subsequent statements are in no way "recipies" but are intended to give new ideas and draw attention to some critical points of dairy projects in developing countries. For working out some generally valid recommendations, experiences of many specialists of a great number of countries would be necessary. Commission B, Technology, of the International Dairy Federation (IDF), therefore, has accepted a suggestion to collect and publish experiences in the field of dairy technology in developing countries. For this purpose, a group of experts representing several industrial and developing countries has been appointed to take up this major task. The first results were submitted to the IDF annual meeting 1984 in Prague. The following recommendations mainly concern developing countries in the tropics. It is especially in these countries in which the difficulties for dairy development accumulate. Obstacles are climatic conditions, economic problems of the country, and low purchase power of a large segment of the population. This paper discusses primarily technological problems. Serious problems in animal husbandry and milk production exist also. However, these problems will be treated in a separate paper. For better understanding of the following recommendations, I further discuss a few general questions regarding the importance of milk in the diet of people in developing countries.
T E C H N O L O G Y A D A P T E D TO C O N D I T I O N S IN D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S
Adapting dairy technology to conditions in developing countries means understanding the difference between the role that milk plays in industrialized countries and in developing countries. In many tropical countries milkproducing animals are of great importance for utilization of fodder rich in roughage and for utilization of agricultural by-products. However,
2135
milk is not the most important factor of production. Meat, skins, wool, working capacity, and even manure are more important than milk. Purebred milk animals do not meet demands of developing countries. The draft power of cattle and buffalo as well as their production of manure for fuel is usually of greater importance for the people of many Asian and African countries than the animal's productiorfof milk. The same applies to sheep and goats. Their worth as suppliers of wool, skins, and meat is considered much higher than their value as milk producers. Similar examples could be found among other potential milk animals, such as yaks, tsauris [crossbred yak × cattle (9)], camels, horses, etc. A second consideration is the minor significance given to milk for human nutrition in these countries. Nutrition of most people in developing countries is based mainly on cereals or starchy roots. Milk and meat are only of minor importance because of their limited availability and their relatively high price (1). However, this situation could and should be improved. As the FAO agricultural Study No. 89 (5) showed, small quantities of milk to supplement a mainly vegetarian diet would lower the demand for such food and would guarantee, at the same time, the protein supply. A 4-yr-old child weighing 16 kg has to eat 330 g of rice per day to cover its demand of essential amino acids. If this child would drink 100 g of milk, 215 g of rice would be sufficient to guarantee an equally good protein supply. A regular, small consumption of milk also would provide the child with minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, for growth. However, not only the children's food but also the diet of pregnant and breast feeding women should be supplemented regularly with a small quantity of milk. Despite this, it is not only the population's improved supply of animal proteins and minerals that makes milk production so important for developing countries. Its great advantage is the possibility it offers to small farmers, and even to the landless farm workers, to provide additional work and income. A study carried out a few years ago in Pakistan (1) showed that many landless farmers own up to five animals that are fed along ditches and roads and on common land. For these families, income from sale of a few kilograms of milk a day is vital. At the same time, these people have to be provided Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
213 6
BACHMANN
with additional working and earning opportunities to keep them in the villages. Provision of work counteracts rural exodus and uncontrolled growth of urban slums. It is possible to process milk in simple small plants into marketable products with a good keeping quality. The tools and simple machines that are used for milk processing in such plants can be manufactured in any country of the world. For this reason, milk is well suited to initiate an industrialization based on agriculture. However, milk can only play its important role in improvement of nutrition and income and as a provider of working and earning opportunities if milk production and milk processing are adjusted to the special conditions in tropical developing countries. Technology to Suit Rural Population
It is inconceivable to transfer dairy systems of industrial countries with moderate climates into tropical developing countries. Neither milk processing plants nor milk products of the industrial countries are adjusted to the specific conditions and demands of the developing countries. Dairy plants of the industrial world are highly mechanized and automatic. They are designed to save labor. The few workers needed are extremely well-trained specialists. In developing countries, however, a great number of working opportunities must be created for untrained laborers. Dairy Factories of industrial countries depend on a highly qualified maintenance service and on a well-functioning repair system. But in developing countries, there are hardly any such specilists available. In the dairy factories of industrial countries pasteurized milk, fresh cheese, soft cheese, and fresh butter are produced, all of which have to be stored cold from production to consumption. However, in developing countries cooling facilities cannot be expected. Moreover, chilled products would exceed the purchasing power of most consumers. Dairy plants of industrial countries depend on a regular supply of fuel, electricity, machinery and its spare parts, packaging material, chemicals, and other resources, whereas in developing countries most of these resources are limited. They have to be imported at high costs. The result is dependency on foreign supplies and, worse, loss of foreign exchange Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No, 8, 1985
for the developing country. The less imports that milk processing demands, the more created purchasing power remains within the country and, thus, promotes development of home economy. If milk processing is adjusted to the demands and realities of a developing country it will become a usefui instrument for social and economic change (6). Location of Plant. A rule of thumb for food processing in developing countries is that the more perishable and unwieldy a raw material is the shorter the distance must be between the producer and processing plant (3). In a warm climate and with hygienically problematic production, milk is extremely perishable. Furthermore, milk contains 87% water. To collect milk over longer distances and under circumstances of a developing country, cold and motorized road transports are necessary. However, artificial cooling is extremely expensive and unreliable in developing countries. Road transports in rural areas of developing countries are also expensive and, because of bad roads, equally unreliable. Collection of raw milk over long distances, therefore, results in great price increase of milk products. For dairy projects milk processing plant should be located in the milk production area, ideally collection radius of 2-h distance. It is the amount of time between milking and processing that is responsible for perishing or keeping of milk and not the kilometers it has been transported. The distance that can be covered within 2 h depends on type of transport, whether it is by foot or with the help of a donkey, horse, or other means. A small collection radius leads to a small daily milk processing capacity and to small dairy plants, both of which are desirable in a developing country. Location of the plant in the rural area and direct milk delivery by the milk producers offers four additional advantages. First, milk price can be fixed at the dairy. Milk collection can be organized by the milk producers themselves. And because the milk price paid in the dairy is a little higher than the price paid at the farm, milk delivery is a regular and additional source of income for the producer. Second, quality control of milk and its appropriate payment quickly can be made in the presence of the producer (2). This direct contact between producer and milk processor is a good basis for improvement of the quality of the raw material.
OUR INDUSTRY TODAY Such daily communication helps to build mutual understanding and assistance. The milk processor, for instance, may announce needing additional help for a certain period, or the milk producer may receive information concerning the animals' health, fodder, and fodder crop, etc., from the people in the dairy. Third, it is easier for the milk producers to form a cooperative or another group of interests if the dairy plant is located in the neighborhood. Financial participation by the milk producers is only possible if they are in contact with the place of milk processing. Fourth, every provision of additional working and earning opportunities in the rural areas of developing countries is highly welcome. In most developing countries, the rural population is underemployed. Unemployment is the main reason for the younger people's migration to the cities and for the subsequent growing of urban slums. The concentration of working possibilities in trade and industry in towns naturally has great attraction to the rural population. However, the extremely high costs of living in the towns result in an alarming pauperization of these uprooted people. Working and earning opportunites must be created in the rural areas of developing countries. The rural population should be allowed to earn its bread without having to migrate and leave its traditional family structures with their social security. Size of Rural Milk Processing Plant. As mentioned, the size of the processing plant depends on the collection radius of the raw material. For milk, the collection radius is small and necessarily leads to small processing plants. However, it is also for other reasons that small decentralized dairies are more adequate compared to big plants. In a small plant it is easier to apply simple equipment and manual labor. The small plant is controlled easily and is much less difficult to manage than a large and complicated factory. Furthermore, if a breakdown should occur, the risk of loss is naturally much smaller than in a large enterprise. Figure 1 shows a cross-section of one of three dairies built in Afganistan between 1974 and 1979 according to the author's suggestions. The capacity of the plant is 2000 to 4000 kg milk per day. To avoid pumping of milk the plant has different processing levels (cascade system). Finally, it is possible to use locally available, renewable energy sources for small, decentral-
2137
ized plants, which is not feasible for large, highly mechanized dairy factories. The use of solar energy, biogas, wood, etc., is more realistic in a small dairy. Moreover, it is easier to find solutions for sewage and waste disposal problems of small factories than for large industries.
Mechanical Equipment of a Small, Rural Dairy. If the mechanical equipment of a dairy industry in a developing country is to function, it has to be simple. Use and maintenance have to be uncomplicated. This equipment, as far as possible, should be purchased and constructed in t h e country where it will be used. This is a certain quarantee for avoidance of serious breakdowns. There are countless dairies in developing countries that had to be closed for a long period because spare parts, tools, or the necessary "know-how" for the repair work were not available. In dairies that work with imported equipment "cannibalism" is frequent, meaning that one machine serves as a supplier of spare parts to another similar machine. This is usually the beginning of the end of an installation. If equipment is purchased locally, operating conditions are usually better. For breakdowns o r problems, the manufacturer is within reach and can be paid in local currency. Technology to Promote Development of Other Sectors of Home Economy
The question arises whether small dairy plants as outlined are a viable proposition and whether it is possible to process milk into marketable products with good shelf-life in such small and simple dairy plants. To answer these questions, the case of Switzerland is cited. In Switzerland, 1.4 million tons of milk are processed annually into 124,000 tons of cheese
Figure 1. "Cascade-type" dairy factory with a daily capacity of 2000 to 4000 liters milk. Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
2138
BACHMANN
(8) in over 1700 plants. The average quantity of daily processed milk is, therefore, only 2250 kg. Among these processing plants are also a few hundred alpine cheese plants with daily milk processing capacity of only 100 to 500 liters. Even in these small plants, cheese of highest quality and of perfect marketability is produced with simple means. Until a few decades ago, small alpine cheese factories were built and equipped by the farmers owning the alpine pasture. Farmers usually built the premises, and the cheese maker made his tools and equipment. The copper cheese vat was the only piece of purchased equipment, which was from the coppersmith of the village or the valley. Nowadays, many cheese makers of alpine cheese factories still manufacture part of their equipment. In Switzerland, as well as in other industrial countries, important and large industries have grown out of such small milk processing plants; NestM is only one example. Milk processing is a starting point for the entire food industry. The dairy industry also has provided work for the wood and metal processing industry and later for numerous manufacturers of machines and packaging materials. For this reason, milk in developing countries must be considered an important possiblity for providing l~tbor and for initiating an industrialization based on agriculture. In India, e.g., there exist many small and big manufacturers of tools and equipment for milk processing. Even complicated machines such as cream separators are being manufactured in the country. In New Delhi, e.g., I visited three different workshops manufacturing handoperated cream separators. If they are managed well, such small workshops can grow and develop into factories offering earning and working opportunities to hundreds or thousands of people. Development of simple tools and equipment can be assisted by specialists from industrialized countries. The Laboratory of Dairy Science of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ZUrich, developed several pieces of equipment for small rural dairies in developing countries. The following Figures 2, 3, and 4 give a few examples. Figure 2 shows a hand-operated cheese melting pan. It has been proven useful in Madagascar, India, Afghanistan, and other developing countries for making processed cheese. Figure 3 shows a simple solar heated Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985
cheese vat used for the transformation of sheep milk into cheese and ghee with nomads in Northern Afghanistan. Figure 4gives an example of uncomplicated equipment invented and developed by me for sterilizing milk in 20-liter containers. This equipment is being used for field tests in Tanzania. Technology to Meet Needs of Low-I ncome Population
In developing countries it is not only the methods of fabrication but also the products themselves that should be adapted to the environment. It is odd that in a tropical country whose population has a modest purchasing power the same expensive dairy products are manufactured as in rich industrial countries with moderate or even cool climates, It is unreasonable that in almost every developing country the attempt is made to produce pasteurized milk in retail packages. Are the dairy specialists all over the world so unimaginative that they cannot think of anything better than to produce pasteurized milk in one-way packages for people living in hot climates without refrigeration facilities and with extremely modest incomes? Why can milk not be sterilized in a rural dairy and be sold without chilling within a few days? What use is aseptically packed milk and its expensive and indigestible package to a consumer who, anyway, has only enough money to buy himself the food of the day?
3/
--
"\'~"7
Figure 2. Hand-operated cheese-melting pan. 1. Steam pipe for steam injection (steam generated in an ordinary pressure cooker); 2. stirrer; 3. scraper; 4. crank handle; 5. heating water; 6. jacket; 7. melting pan.
OUR INDUSTRY TODAY
2139
Figure 3. Double-jacketed vat with solar heating~ for eheese and ghee fabrication. 1. cheese vat; 2. hot water tank; 3. flat plate solar collector.
Thanks to the President of the Indian Dairy Development Board, Dr. Kurien, the idea of direct selling of milk through vending booths could be realized by "Mother Dairy" in New Delhi. In hundreds of vending booths milk can be bought directly into the consumer's milk pail. When developing the mentioned equipment for sterilization of milk in portable containers, this idea of avoiding the use of retail packages has been adopted. Cultured milk, compared with pasteurized and retail packaged milk, is a much more appropriate product in a tropical developing country. At the Department of Food Science and Technology at the University of Nairobi, a milk cultured with mesophilic lactic acid bacterias was developed. Such cultured milk can be kept for several days without artificial cooling and without further souring. Acceptability of the product with respect to texture and flavor is good (7). Apart from cultured milk, there are other traditional, well-accepted milk products in developing countries such as Ghee in India and Nepal, Khoa in India and Pakistan, and various types of hard cheese in Afganistan and in the Andes, etc. These are products perfectly adjusted to the climate of a developing country and to the eating habits of its population. They should serve as models for the development of new dairy products.
Figure 4. Prototype of the equipment for sterilizing milk in 20-liter containers. 1. rotating milk containers; 2. butane or methane gas burner. REFERENCES
1 Bachmann, M. 1978. Adapted techniques for the collection, processing and marketing of milk in developing countries. I. Some reflections on the place of milk in the diet of the people in developing countries. Milchwissenschaft 34:267. 2 Bachmann, M. 1978. Quality control of milk in developing countries. Brief commun. 20th Int. Dairy Congr., Paris, 202. 3 Bachmann, M. 1982. Der Standort des Lebensmittelverarbeitungsbetriebes im Eutwicklungsland. Lecture Food Technol. Dev. Countries, ETH, Ziirich. 4 B~nziger, A. 1983. Die EG mtJchte ihre Entwicklungshilfe radikal umgestalten. Tages-Anzeiger. 91(85):2. 5 Food and Agricultural Organ. 1973. Paiement du lait a la qualitY. Etudes agricoles de la FAO No. 89, FAO, Rome. 6 International Dairy Federation. 1977. Motto of the XIX Int. Dairy Congr., New Delhi. 7 Kurwijila, R.L.N. 1980. Low cost optimization of the consistency, flavour and keeping quality of fermented milk with particular reference to consumer acceptability in Kenya. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Nairobi, Nairobi. 8 Milchstatistik der Schweiz. 1982. Statistische Schriften des Schweizerischen Bauernsekretariates, Brugg. 9 Schulthess, W. 1967. Yak and Tsauri in Nepal. World Rev. Anita. Prod. 3:88.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 68, No. 8, 1985