- Email: [email protected]
Milton Keynes. Image and Reality
Book Reviews theories and studies referred to will be familiar to business school graduates but they are concisely summarized in a way that is useful to both graduates with short memories and nongraduates. Both books contain comprehensive bibliographies and references within the text which will enable readers to deepen their knowledge of specific topics. SARA COLE, Director, George Cole Technologies plc
Motivation and Work Behavior, tk. J. STEERSand L. W. PORTER, McGraw-Hill, London (1991), 594 pp., £17.95. The content of this book can be evaluated on two distinct levels. Taken at face v a l u e - a s a review of mainstream American psychological research into motivation and work - - i t can be regarded as a successful attempt to draw together and illustrate the major theories which have emerged. In order to achieve this the authors have organized the book as a series of articles written by the ' . . . foremost scholars in the field'. Brief overviews link the groups of articles together and the material is ordered into five sections: an introduction to the concept o f motivation; motivational theories; central issues in motivation at work; techniques of motivation; and motivation theory in perspective. Although such a format gives the reader a more accurate exposition of particular theories (often by their originators), and a feel for the diversity of psychological approaches and theories which have been generated, it does have disadvantages. Thus, it is not helpful for those managers looking for straightforward guidance in diagnosing and solving issues of motivation faced in his or her organization. As might be expected in such a text, the articles cover theories ranging from those which are overcomplex and have a potential application seemingly in inverse proportion to the apparently extensive research carried out (e.g. equity theory), to those which, by contrast, appeal as elegant jewels of simplicity, whose value might be quickly harvested by many organizations, /f correctly applied. In the latter category is Latham and Locke's controlled experimental work on goalsetting, the principles of which are of particular relevance to managers considering the motivation and productivity of staff who provide the direct output in organizations. For those reading this review who are saying to themselves 'but we are already using goal-setting' a note of caution. As Latham and Locke indicate, managers will argue that they are using goalsetting when in fact they often are not (as evidenced by the beneficial results when the correct principles are adopted). Taking a more analytical view of the content of this book, its major flaw is that it informs the reader only of a narrow reality. I believe this reflects the dominant reductionistic paradigm which pervades the field of applied psychology and work. Let me outline two of the more obvious criticisms. Firstly, no consideration is given to any of the differences there might be in motivation at work for individuals of different ages (or for men and w o m e n ) - - a n important consideration for organizations faced with complex choices about the age composition of their work forces in relation to achieving sustainable competitive advantage (and when most have capitalized on the vast under-used potential of the female work-force). It appears that the blinkers of the psychological 'scientists' are firmly on, one aspect of this being the extensive use of cross-sectional experimental design. None of the contributors in this book use the alternative---longitudinal design (which, for example, has been used to make an
143
important contribution to our understanding strategy formation). Secondly, while extensive consideration is given of the concept of motivation (including the whole of the first chapter), scant attention is paid to the concept of work, and the organization as a complex system (for example, a discussion of the meaning of work is relegated to a few paragraphs in the closing chapter). As such the main body of research presented appears sterile--out of touch with the questions faced by managers who are seeking to improve their organizations' effectiveness over the longer term. Motivation at work can only be properly addressed in its organizational context and, in particular, with a clear understanding of the accountability hierarchy. Only through an understanding of the accountability hierarchy can managers begin to address important questions such as: h o w should responsibility be defined at different organizational levels (e.g. w h o is responsible for what resources, for hiring and firing, for team performance, for bottom-line outcomes, etc); how can the optimum number of organizational levels be created so that each level adds maximum value to the next; what is the difference in the nature of work which is operational and that which is strategic? Flowing from this, the key question for many organizations, how do we understand (and identify) the capability of some individuals to work strategically, and others w h o will make their best contribution in the operational sphere, and what is the role of motivation in this? Managers interested in the answer to such questions might be surprised to find that the most penetrating theoretical analysis of work and organizations was published over 15 years ago, by Elliott Jaques (A General Theory of Bureaucracy, Heinemann, London, 1976). In recent years Jaques' general theory of work has been built upon and developed by Dr Gillian Stamp, 1 at Brunel University. Her work, carried out in a variety of cultures in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations of all sizes, has highlighted the mutual benefit which can be gained from delineating and clarifying the relationship between individual capability and the definition and scope of work at different levels. The practical outcomes have included increased individual motivation and the creation of the necessary conditions for the regeneration and growth of organizational capability. To summarize. Busy managers are unlikely to find that reading Motivation and Work Behavior from cover to cover will be sufficiently rewarding to repay their efforts. However, dipping into selected key topics such as goal-setting and work design might be valuable for some. Managers seeking a broader perspective of work and practical solutions to their problems in this areas might do better to follow up the aforementioned work carried out in Britain. MICHAEL CHURCH,Independent Consultant Psychologist
References (1) Further details of the approach taken by Dr Gillian Stamp may be obtained from the Jayne Baker, General Manager, Individual and Organizational Capability Unit, BIOSS, Brunel University, Uxbridge UB8 3PH. Tel. (0895) 270072.
Milton Keynes. Image and Reality, TERENCE BENDIXSON and JoaN PLA~, Granta Editions, U.K. (1992), 301 pp., £14.95. The concept of building the new town of Milton Keynes in an
144
Long Range
Planning
V o l . 26
February
1993
area o f 35 square miles is one o f the major post war United K i n g d o m projects but there has been very little detailed study o f this.
is hard landscaping o f city centres. The other is the use o f flat roofs. A great deal o f m o n e y has been spent in replacing flat roofs with pitched roofs in Milton Keynes.
The plan for new towns was seen as a long term project based on w o r k done by Patrick Abercrombie. This was linked to the concept o f urban renewal in the Victorian cities. The objective was to encourage m o v e m e n t to new towns so that the older cities could be rebuilt. H o w e v e r this long term strategy has been long forgotten by politicians with a renewed interest in urban renewal only happening after riots in these run d o w n areas.
H o w e v e r there is no hard landscaping within the area o f the Shopping centre, the public library and a cinema and leisure complex. Members o f a recently formed Milton Keynes Forum are studying this problem. M y view is that the two roads in this immediate area should by closed and hard landscaped. W e will then have a city centre for people and not the m o t o r car.
There has been little in depth study o f the overall concept o f Milton Keynes, its successes and failures, which I attempted to redress in an article in this journal. 1 The w o r k under review starts with a fascinating description o f h o w the master plan evolved with many disagreements until the final plan was published. This was zoned into areas o f e m p l o y m e n t , housing, open space and leisure activities. The decision was to mix development in terms o f e m p l o y m e n t and housing to reduce travel. Also housing estates would be mixed in terms o f low and high cost housing. The master plan is still w o r t h reading as the importance o f environmental planning is recognized long before the rise o f the green movement. 2 Further chapters deal with quality o f design and the importance o f image promotion. There is a detailed description o f the development o f the shopping centre and retailing in general. The Central Milton Keynes shopping centre has been very successful and has been described as a cathedral to the consumer society. An ecumenical cathedral has just been completed which should redress this imbalance. Possibly the most interesting chapter describes the j o b creation policy with the concept o f target marketing which was novel at the time outside Japan and the wide p r o m o t i o n to overseas companies. In this the D e v e l o p m e n t Corporation has been very successful. This resulted in the creation o f many jobs with an u n e m p l o y m e n t level o f only 2 per cent. H o w e v e r with the recession this is n o w about 7 per cent but Milton Keynes is well placed to take advantage o f an up turn in the economy. W h a t is fascinating about this b o o k is that John Platt, as secretary to the Board, has access to their minutes. An analysis o f these minutes is the basis o f this b o o k which has been written by Terrence Bendixson, a free lance writer with John Platt. Thus it is possible to look at the results achieved and link this to the discussion to see if the right decisions have been made. The other factor is that agreed objectives were often hampered by politicians changing their minds with short term thinking. In fact reading the difficulties that the Board had from time to time it is surprising that the project continued. This b o o k has been published to mark the 25th anniversary o f this project. The Commission for N e w T o w n s takes over from the C o r p o r a t i o n this year in order to complete this project. However, it seems that they will be p r o m o t i n g Milton Keynes in a very similar manner so w h y the change. 2 Overall Milton Keynes can be seen as a success with g o o d roads, good rail links, spacious attractive landscaping and, except for some early estates, well designed housing. Due to the recession the area reserved in the City Centre for leisure activities has not yet been developed. N e w towns have two images, one g o o d and one bad. The first
Most people like living here but with the greatest discontent coming from teenagers. A more viable city centre could reduce this discontent. This b o o k is well produced with many illustrations and diagrams and is w o r t h reading for those who are just interested in h o w major decisions evolve from in depth discussions.
Rgfg?'gnggs (1) Brian Burrows, Milton Keynes: a model for regenerating our cities? Long Range Planning, 20 (1), 67-77 (1987). (2) The Plan for Milton Keynes, Two vols, Milton Keynes Development Corporation 1970. (Few copies still available from City Discovery Centre 106 Tanners Drive, Blakelands. Milton Keynes MK14 5BP. Vol 1 £7.70 (plus postage), vol 2 £10.00 (plus postage).
BRIAN BURROWS,Futures Information Associates
R e v i e w Briefs The following notes on books received are not detailed reviews. T h e y are mainly brief descriptions o f each book to enlighten the reader on its general intention and approach. The expectation is that more books can be described to readers than has proved possible by publishing only critical reviews. The descriptive information should enable interest in the books to be raised beyond that induced by just listing the titles. However, it is recognized that a critical review can be far more informative about a b o o k than is attempted with R e v i e w Briefs and, accordingly, offers to review any books are solicited. Having been described in R e v i e w Briefs, a review should critically examine the contents o f a publication as an assessment o f whether its stated intentions have been met and whether the way it achieves these intentions is attractive to the reader. It is expected that each review will require 1000-1500 words and will be fully attributed. The reviewer keeps the b o o k but Long Range Planning makes no payment. As an alternative, it m a y be apparent that either a single 'milestone' class publication or several books on a single topic could constitute a wider perspective Essay Review. This would be expected to comprise an article o f some 3000-4000 words and w o u l d have a written introduction by the R e v i e w Editor. The Journal w o u l d make its usual article contribution payments to the author o f an Essay Review. Readers interested to review any b o o k in R e v i e w Briefs should be prepared to offer a copy deadline some 3 months ahead which can be relied on in planning the Journal. As a
Motivation and Work Behavior, tk. J. STEERSand L. W. PORTER, McGraw-Hill, London (1991), 594 pp., £17.95. The content of this book can be evaluated on two distinct levels. Taken at face v a l u e - a s a review of mainstream American psychological research into motivation and work - - i t can be regarded as a successful attempt to draw together and illustrate the major theories which have emerged. In order to achieve this the authors have organized the book as a series of articles written by the ' . . . foremost scholars in the field'. Brief overviews link the groups of articles together and the material is ordered into five sections: an introduction to the concept o f motivation; motivational theories; central issues in motivation at work; techniques of motivation; and motivation theory in perspective. Although such a format gives the reader a more accurate exposition of particular theories (often by their originators), and a feel for the diversity of psychological approaches and theories which have been generated, it does have disadvantages. Thus, it is not helpful for those managers looking for straightforward guidance in diagnosing and solving issues of motivation faced in his or her organization. As might be expected in such a text, the articles cover theories ranging from those which are overcomplex and have a potential application seemingly in inverse proportion to the apparently extensive research carried out (e.g. equity theory), to those which, by contrast, appeal as elegant jewels of simplicity, whose value might be quickly harvested by many organizations, /f correctly applied. In the latter category is Latham and Locke's controlled experimental work on goalsetting, the principles of which are of particular relevance to managers considering the motivation and productivity of staff who provide the direct output in organizations. For those reading this review who are saying to themselves 'but we are already using goal-setting' a note of caution. As Latham and Locke indicate, managers will argue that they are using goalsetting when in fact they often are not (as evidenced by the beneficial results when the correct principles are adopted). Taking a more analytical view of the content of this book, its major flaw is that it informs the reader only of a narrow reality. I believe this reflects the dominant reductionistic paradigm which pervades the field of applied psychology and work. Let me outline two of the more obvious criticisms. Firstly, no consideration is given to any of the differences there might be in motivation at work for individuals of different ages (or for men and w o m e n ) - - a n important consideration for organizations faced with complex choices about the age composition of their work forces in relation to achieving sustainable competitive advantage (and when most have capitalized on the vast under-used potential of the female work-force). It appears that the blinkers of the psychological 'scientists' are firmly on, one aspect of this being the extensive use of cross-sectional experimental design. None of the contributors in this book use the alternative---longitudinal design (which, for example, has been used to make an
143
important contribution to our understanding strategy formation). Secondly, while extensive consideration is given of the concept of motivation (including the whole of the first chapter), scant attention is paid to the concept of work, and the organization as a complex system (for example, a discussion of the meaning of work is relegated to a few paragraphs in the closing chapter). As such the main body of research presented appears sterile--out of touch with the questions faced by managers who are seeking to improve their organizations' effectiveness over the longer term. Motivation at work can only be properly addressed in its organizational context and, in particular, with a clear understanding of the accountability hierarchy. Only through an understanding of the accountability hierarchy can managers begin to address important questions such as: h o w should responsibility be defined at different organizational levels (e.g. w h o is responsible for what resources, for hiring and firing, for team performance, for bottom-line outcomes, etc); how can the optimum number of organizational levels be created so that each level adds maximum value to the next; what is the difference in the nature of work which is operational and that which is strategic? Flowing from this, the key question for many organizations, how do we understand (and identify) the capability of some individuals to work strategically, and others w h o will make their best contribution in the operational sphere, and what is the role of motivation in this? Managers interested in the answer to such questions might be surprised to find that the most penetrating theoretical analysis of work and organizations was published over 15 years ago, by Elliott Jaques (A General Theory of Bureaucracy, Heinemann, London, 1976). In recent years Jaques' general theory of work has been built upon and developed by Dr Gillian Stamp, 1 at Brunel University. Her work, carried out in a variety of cultures in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations of all sizes, has highlighted the mutual benefit which can be gained from delineating and clarifying the relationship between individual capability and the definition and scope of work at different levels. The practical outcomes have included increased individual motivation and the creation of the necessary conditions for the regeneration and growth of organizational capability. To summarize. Busy managers are unlikely to find that reading Motivation and Work Behavior from cover to cover will be sufficiently rewarding to repay their efforts. However, dipping into selected key topics such as goal-setting and work design might be valuable for some. Managers seeking a broader perspective of work and practical solutions to their problems in this areas might do better to follow up the aforementioned work carried out in Britain. MICHAEL CHURCH,Independent Consultant Psychologist
References (1) Further details of the approach taken by Dr Gillian Stamp may be obtained from the Jayne Baker, General Manager, Individual and Organizational Capability Unit, BIOSS, Brunel University, Uxbridge UB8 3PH. Tel. (0895) 270072.
Milton Keynes. Image and Reality, TERENCE BENDIXSON and JoaN PLA~, Granta Editions, U.K. (1992), 301 pp., £14.95. The concept of building the new town of Milton Keynes in an
144
Long Range
Planning
V o l . 26
February
1993
area o f 35 square miles is one o f the major post war United K i n g d o m projects but there has been very little detailed study o f this.
is hard landscaping o f city centres. The other is the use o f flat roofs. A great deal o f m o n e y has been spent in replacing flat roofs with pitched roofs in Milton Keynes.
The plan for new towns was seen as a long term project based on w o r k done by Patrick Abercrombie. This was linked to the concept o f urban renewal in the Victorian cities. The objective was to encourage m o v e m e n t to new towns so that the older cities could be rebuilt. H o w e v e r this long term strategy has been long forgotten by politicians with a renewed interest in urban renewal only happening after riots in these run d o w n areas.
H o w e v e r there is no hard landscaping within the area o f the Shopping centre, the public library and a cinema and leisure complex. Members o f a recently formed Milton Keynes Forum are studying this problem. M y view is that the two roads in this immediate area should by closed and hard landscaped. W e will then have a city centre for people and not the m o t o r car.
There has been little in depth study o f the overall concept o f Milton Keynes, its successes and failures, which I attempted to redress in an article in this journal. 1 The w o r k under review starts with a fascinating description o f h o w the master plan evolved with many disagreements until the final plan was published. This was zoned into areas o f e m p l o y m e n t , housing, open space and leisure activities. The decision was to mix development in terms o f e m p l o y m e n t and housing to reduce travel. Also housing estates would be mixed in terms o f low and high cost housing. The master plan is still w o r t h reading as the importance o f environmental planning is recognized long before the rise o f the green movement. 2 Further chapters deal with quality o f design and the importance o f image promotion. There is a detailed description o f the development o f the shopping centre and retailing in general. The Central Milton Keynes shopping centre has been very successful and has been described as a cathedral to the consumer society. An ecumenical cathedral has just been completed which should redress this imbalance. Possibly the most interesting chapter describes the j o b creation policy with the concept o f target marketing which was novel at the time outside Japan and the wide p r o m o t i o n to overseas companies. In this the D e v e l o p m e n t Corporation has been very successful. This resulted in the creation o f many jobs with an u n e m p l o y m e n t level o f only 2 per cent. H o w e v e r with the recession this is n o w about 7 per cent but Milton Keynes is well placed to take advantage o f an up turn in the economy. W h a t is fascinating about this b o o k is that John Platt, as secretary to the Board, has access to their minutes. An analysis o f these minutes is the basis o f this b o o k which has been written by Terrence Bendixson, a free lance writer with John Platt. Thus it is possible to look at the results achieved and link this to the discussion to see if the right decisions have been made. The other factor is that agreed objectives were often hampered by politicians changing their minds with short term thinking. In fact reading the difficulties that the Board had from time to time it is surprising that the project continued. This b o o k has been published to mark the 25th anniversary o f this project. The Commission for N e w T o w n s takes over from the C o r p o r a t i o n this year in order to complete this project. However, it seems that they will be p r o m o t i n g Milton Keynes in a very similar manner so w h y the change. 2 Overall Milton Keynes can be seen as a success with g o o d roads, good rail links, spacious attractive landscaping and, except for some early estates, well designed housing. Due to the recession the area reserved in the City Centre for leisure activities has not yet been developed. N e w towns have two images, one g o o d and one bad. The first
Most people like living here but with the greatest discontent coming from teenagers. A more viable city centre could reduce this discontent. This b o o k is well produced with many illustrations and diagrams and is w o r t h reading for those who are just interested in h o w major decisions evolve from in depth discussions.
Rgfg?'gnggs (1) Brian Burrows, Milton Keynes: a model for regenerating our cities? Long Range Planning, 20 (1), 67-77 (1987). (2) The Plan for Milton Keynes, Two vols, Milton Keynes Development Corporation 1970. (Few copies still available from City Discovery Centre 106 Tanners Drive, Blakelands. Milton Keynes MK14 5BP. Vol 1 £7.70 (plus postage), vol 2 £10.00 (plus postage).
BRIAN BURROWS,Futures Information Associates
R e v i e w Briefs The following notes on books received are not detailed reviews. T h e y are mainly brief descriptions o f each book to enlighten the reader on its general intention and approach. The expectation is that more books can be described to readers than has proved possible by publishing only critical reviews. The descriptive information should enable interest in the books to be raised beyond that induced by just listing the titles. However, it is recognized that a critical review can be far more informative about a b o o k than is attempted with R e v i e w Briefs and, accordingly, offers to review any books are solicited. Having been described in R e v i e w Briefs, a review should critically examine the contents o f a publication as an assessment o f whether its stated intentions have been met and whether the way it achieves these intentions is attractive to the reader. It is expected that each review will require 1000-1500 words and will be fully attributed. The reviewer keeps the b o o k but Long Range Planning makes no payment. As an alternative, it m a y be apparent that either a single 'milestone' class publication or several books on a single topic could constitute a wider perspective Essay Review. This would be expected to comprise an article o f some 3000-4000 words and w o u l d have a written introduction by the R e v i e w Editor. The Journal w o u l d make its usual article contribution payments to the author o f an Essay Review. Readers interested to review any b o o k in R e v i e w Briefs should be prepared to offer a copy deadline some 3 months ahead which can be relied on in planning the Journal. As a