Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient initiative towards a sustainable transport system

Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e11

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Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient initiative towards a sustainable transport system
ski a, b Lech Borowik a, *, Artur Cywin a b

Cze˛ stochowa University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Al. Armii Krajowej 17, 42-201 Cze˛ stochowa, Poland Omega Projekt s.j., ul. Topolowa, 43-100 Tychy, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 12 January 2015 Received in revised form 24 November 2015 Accepted 24 November 2015 Available online xxx

Trolleybuses may be an eco-efficient solution for public urban transport. The present paper describes the effects resulting from the modernization of an existing trolleybus transport system in Tychy, Poland. The novel solutions concerning traction design and the use of modern vehicles equipped with traction batteries and generation systems made it possible to achieve the expected positive effects related to environment protection e energy savings and limitation of emission of greenhouse gases e in particular carbon dioxide. Positive experiences have resulted in green light for successive investments e development of a new line almost 5 km long and purchase of new vehicles equipped with traction batteries which make them capable of running the distance of 20 km without traction. The paper provides insights for municipality policy makers responsible for urban transport. It stresses the fact that public transport based on trolleybus networks provides new opportunities for sustainable development of cities. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Public urban transport Trolleybuses Sustainable transport

1. Introduction Sustainable urban development is related to a number of political, economic, cultural, technological, environmental and legal factors (Zavadskas et al., 2007; Wamsler et al., 2013; Ernst et al., 2015). It balances environmental, social and economic objectives (Bongardt et al., 2011). A more sustainable transportation system is the one that: - allows basic access to and development of people's needs to be met safely and promotes equity within and between successive generations (social dimension), - is affordable within the limits imposed by internationalization of external costs, operates fairly and efficiently, and fosters a balanced regional development (economic dimension), - limits emissions of air pollution and greenhouse (GHG) gases as well as waste and minimises the impact on the use of land and the generation of noise (environmental dimension),

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ48 34 3250 822; fax: þ48 34 3250 803. E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Borowik).

- is designed in a participatory process, which involves relevant stakeholders in all levels of the society (degree of participation) (Bongardt et al., 2011). The concept of sustainable development of urban transport system may be easily visualized using the Venn diagram, as depicted in Fig. 1 (Tica et al., 2011; Bayulken and Huisingh, 2015a). It should however be recalled that this representation is to some extent over-simplified and may not capture all the peculiarities of the dynamics of sustainability process (Lozano, 2008). As pointed out in a recent study (Moriarty and Honnery, 2013), cleaner and more sustainable production in the transport sector plays an ever increasing role, as passenger and freight transport worldwide consumes approximately a quarter of total global primary energy. Only in the USA the transport sector accounts for 28% of all GHG emissions, 34% of all carbon dioxide emissions and 68% of total oil consumption (Ren et al., 2015). From the global perspective, the respective values have been reported: 22% of carbon dioxide emissions, nearly 60% of oil demand (Geng et al., 2013). The depletion of natural fossil resources worldwide and the unstable political situation in several areas of Middle East, Northern Africa and Eastern Europe as well as the necessity to introduce ecoefficient energy-conversion solutions stimulated among others by international regulations (like the Kyoto protocol) concerning

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072 0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


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Fig. 1. The Venn diagram concerning sustainable urban transport (SD e Sustainable Development). Source: own work, based on (Tica et al., 2011; Bayulken and Huisingh, 2015a).

limitation of the footprint of greenhouse gases on the environment or the European Commission directives in Europe require redefinition of the aims of municipal transport policy. Urban development strategies may benefit a lot from concepts such as sustainable development and ecological modernization (Bayulken and Huisingh, 2015a, b). The present paper focuses on an eco-efficient solution for public urban transport, namely trolleybus networks. The co-benefits resulting from modernization of an existing trolleybus network are discussed upon the example of Tychy, a city in southern Poland. The paper is structured as follows: section I briefly discusses the challenges in sustainable development of cities and the most important documents from international agendas and European Commission related to the issue. Next the social and economic context of development of trolleybus networks in Poland and Eastern European countries in the years 1945e1990 (until the collapse of the USSR) is outlined. The present revival of interest in trolleybuses as an eco-friendly transport means within the European Union may be justified by representative data concerning emission levels of greenhouse gases, what is illustrated using data concerning the Lithuanian city Kaunas. The highlights of the Trolley project carried out simultaneously in a number of European cities are briefly discussed in the subsequent section. The success of the initiative has given rise to similar actions taken in Tychy e the next part of the manuscript focuses on the experiences gained after the modernization of urban trolleybus infrastructure. 2. Sustainable public transport in cities Sustainable development of cities requires simultaneous solution of the following issues (World Economic and Social Survey, 2013): -

investment in renewable energy sources, efficiency in the use of water and electricity, design and implementation of compact cities, retrofitting of buildings and increase of green areas, fast, reliable and affordable public transport, improved waste and recycle systems.

At present the majority of the world's population live in cities and urban areas (Dixon, 2011) and more than 70% of the global population are expected to dwell in urban areas by 2050 (UNHabitat, 2010; McCormick et al., 2013). The increase in urban population poses a number of challenges like: unavoidable traffic congestion, noise (Oltean-Dumbrava et al., 2013) and GHG emission

leading to climate changes (Wamsler et al., 2013). As pointed out in European Commission reports, transport is the only major sector in the EU where carbon dioxide emissions are still rising (European Commission, 2013). At present, an ambitious “Smart Cities & Communities Initiative” of the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) is being introduced throughout Europe, aimed at a 40% reduction of GHG emission by 2020 through sustainable use and production of energy (European Commission, 2009a). In the context of municipal transport, the initiative promotes the development of alternative fuel (including electric) vehicles, low consumption vehicles and smart public transport means. Other relevant EU documents concerning the development of sustainable transport policy are depicted in Fig. 2. It may be expected that in the future individual car transport in the cities may become problematic due e.g. to traffic jams (Morgadinho et al., 2015). Therefore the role of public transport systems and practical solutions like “park-and-go” may become crucial for addressing the needs and demands of city inhabitants (Font Vivanco et al., 2015). The precursor of contemporary trolleybus was a rail-free electric vehicle powered by an overhead wire introduced by Siemens in 1886 (Wołek and Wyszomirski, 2013). At the end of the 19th century and during the first decades of the 20th millennium the trolleybus networks throughout Europe did not come up to the level of tram networks and were commonly regarded as a complementary transport means. From 1945 until 1989 Poland was a part of the so-called Eastern bloc. Solutions introduced in the former Soviet Union were copied and implemented throughout Central European satellite countries. Trolleybus networks have been in use in a number of cities. Still nowadays, trolleybuses are a significant segment of contemporary municipal transport e.g. in Vilnius, Lithuania (18 lines, 136,793,000 passengers), in Bucharest, Romania (19 lines, 89,600,000 passengers) or in Budapest, Hungary (15 lines, 81,853,000 passengers) (annual data of 2004, after (Krzywkowska, 2004)). In Russia and Eastern European countries there are approximately 12,035 trolleybuses in service in 88 cities (Tica et al., 2011). Moscow has 85 routes of 918 km in total length with 1242 operating vehicles, which provide transport for 23.1% of all passengers. The former USSR countries (Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Baltic countries) have approximately 11,200 trolleybuses in their vehicle fleet inventory, whereas other Eastern European countries have about 2800 vehicles nowadays (Tica et al., 2011). As in the USSR and former socialist countries privately-owned cars were considered as luxury goods, there was a stringent need to develop public transport systems. At that time trolleybuses have proven their superiority over buses equipped with inefficient petrol engines, what resulted in the development of their infrastructure in numerous cities. It is interesting to remark that the longest trolleybus line was built in the Crimea Peninsula. It covered more than 86 km (Murray, 2000). Despite the history of trolleybus transport in Poland dates back to 1930, this form of public transport evolved in the socialist era. Until 1999 trolleybuses were used in twelve cities: De˛ bica (1988e1993), Gdynia (since 1943), Legnica (1943e1956), Lublin
(1930e1970), Słupsk (since 1953), Olsztyn (1939e1971), Poznan (1985e1999), Tychy (since 1982), Wałbrzych (1944e1973), Warsaw (1946e1973) and Piaseczno (1983e1995) (Załuski, 2012). Tychy is a peculiar city on the map of Poland as it has a relatively short history. Its fast development has begun in the fifties of the last century thus in the former Communist era. The city of Tychy was envisaged as a ‘’bedroom’’ for the workers either commuting to Katowice, the nearby capital of Upper Silesia, or working on the spot in one of the industrial plants (the FSM automotive factory, where Fiats on Italian license used to be


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


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Fig. 2. Some significant EU documents concerning sustainable urban transport published between 2001 and 2011. Source: own work, based on (Wołek and Wyszomirski, 2013).

produced, the century-old brewery or some smaller associated enterprises). A decision to develop the “bedroom-city” was taken by the Polish Government on 4th October 1950. Already twelve months later the construction of the first city district began (set up in the soc-realistic style). In 1952 the town planning contest was resolved (assumed number of inhabitants was 100,000 people). The number of inhabitants grew very quickly e from 13,000 in 1950, 26,000 in 1955 up to approximately 130,000 at present. The city dwellers originated both from overcrowded agglomerations of Upper Silesia as well as from rural regions of Poland. Quite a large number of those new inhabitants were people displaced from those parts of the Soviet Union, which had been the part of Poland before the Second World War. From the “bedroom-city” Tychy has evolved into an agglomeration with modern automotive industry. Later Tychy used to be nicknamed the automotive capital of Poland or Polish Detroit. The city has evolved not only due to civil engineering and industry, but also due to developments of infrastructure and public transport (Kaczmarek, 2010). The history of trolleybuses in Tychy began during the period of martial law (introduced in December 1981 by Gen. W. Jaruzelski). The interest in development of trolleybus infrastructure was to some extent the result of economic sanctions imposed by the USA and Western European countries on the regime, which ruled Poland at that time. The Western embargo resulted among others in a very bad situation on the fuel market. Insufficient supplies of diesel oil, as well as its poor quality, which resulted among other in fuel freezing during winter, brought about the necessity to decrease the number of passenger buses and to search for alternative solutions.

In 1982 local authorities of Silesian District took a decision to prepare an experimental trolleybus line. Tychy had been selected due to its preferable road conditions (wide roads), lack of crosssections with trams and railway, as well as sufficient passenger volumes. On the 1st October 1982 the first line No. 1 (4 km long) was put into operation. It should be remarked that the whole investment process, starting from the moment of decision taking, through the make-up and implementation of the design took approximately eight months. In successive years more and more sections of the trolleybus network were put into operation and in late 1985 its total length was equal to 22 km (Jackiewicz, 2004), cf. Fig. 3. Despite enormous development plans and visions since 1985 for 17 years no further progress was made and the investment activity was limited to ongoing use and failures handling. After the political and economical turn-over at the beginning of the nineties in the last century, Poland faced a number of economical difficulties, which resulted in a sudden set-back of trolleybus transport systems. Such a situation was typical for most Central and Eastern European countries undergoing transitions, including the former Soviet republics. Some systems did not withstand financial distress, under-investment and the degradation of their fleet and infrastructure. A trend promoting bus transport systems was clearly noticeable at that time, the environmental benefits were considered not so important as the operating costs of both solutions (Wołek and Wyszomirski, 2013). By 2012 almost 30 European trolleybus systems out of 266 operating in 1990 have been closed. On the other hand, a number of new systems were built at that time e mainly in Italy, but also in Sweden, Spain, Slovakia and the Czech Republic.


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072

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Fig. 3. A sketch of Tychy city plan from eighties of the last century e the development of trolleybus lines.

As pointed out previously, for more than four decades of the socialism era in the Peoples' Republic of Poland a self-owned car was a luxury commodity available to few people. Moreover, limited access to fuel (controlled e. g. by the introduction of coupons for every driver) resulted in an increased interest on the citizens' part in public transport. The period of transformation from socialism to capitalism in Poland (early nineties of the last century) was the time of extremely dynamic progress of motorization. The number of personal cars during the years 1989e2013 increased several times, yet the highest increase rate was observed after Poland entered the European Union (2004), the most important reason

Fig. 4. The number of officially registered personal cars in thousands. (source: Polish statistical office GUS).

was the import of used cars. The increase in the number of registered cars in Poland is depicted in Fig. 4. In 2013 in Poland there were 504 cars per one thousand of citizens, whereas in Japan e 463, in the USA e 404, in South Korea e 300, on the average throughout European Union e 487 (source: ACEA, 2012). However 81.8% of cars in Poland are more than 10 years old and only 8.8% are less than 4 years old. The increase in the number of cars with obsolete motors means an increase in pollution, in particular in carbon dioxide. Possession of own car by every second statistical citizen and common rapture for this form of transport has resulted in a recent decline in the use of public transport. A private car is still the symbol of material status in Poland. Other reasons for the decreased number of passengers in urban transport are de-urbanization and sub-urbanization leading to the development of settlement structures e hard or even impossible to be handled by the public transport; limitation of the offer and lowering the public transport functionality caused by a depletion of funds available to town communes; conservative and inflexible management style by the public transport enterprises, which is not always aimed at the benefits of the passengers and an effective fulfillment of the needs of city dwellers. For some years the gross amount of passengers is kept at a similar level, approximately 4,000,000 thousand passengers per year, a slight downward trend might be observed, whereas at the beginning of the transformation period the respective value was twice as much, cf. Fig. 5. In the middle of the eighties of the last century the number of passengers exceeded nine billion passengers. Halting the undesirable processes and turning back the present trends are not simple tasks. Apart from substantial financial expenditures related to restoration of the transport means so that the expected quality and comfort of travel is achieved, it is crucial to develop a comprehensive and consistent communication program adjusted to the expectations of city dwellers and to promote public transport as the most economical and eco-friendly one possible.


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


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Europe. The paper by (Del Pero et al., 2015) points out that the transport industry is currently the second largest contributor to GHG emissions within the European Union. As remarked in the review paper by (Moriarty and Honnery, 2013), passenger transport accounts for about 60% of total energy use in transport and GHG emissions. The fleet of public transport in Europe may be divided approximately as follows. 89% vehicles are equipped with Diesel motors, 7% are fueled with compressed natural gas (CNG), 2.3% - with bioethanol, hydrogen and LPG, whereas the remaining 1.2% are supplied from electric drives. The EU Directive 2009/33/EC (The Clean Vehicles Directive, abbreviated as CVD) (European Commission, 2009b) obliges all public authorities and public transport operators to take into account: Fig. 5. The number of city transport passengers in Poland, in millions. Source: Polish statistical office GUS.

The paramount aim is to strive at such level of quality of the public transport, so that it becomes competitive against individual car transport. Above all, the public transport has to be competitive as far as timings and journey costs are concerned. One of the town communes, which has noticed this emerging problem and has taken actions aimed at development of a selfconsistent system for urban transport, being an alternative for private cars, is the city of Tychy. The actions exerted by the European Union aimed at promotion of development of eco-friendly means of public transport, expressed with financial support within the framework of the projects “Infrastructure and Environment” (National Strategy of Integration) has allowed the city authorities to carry on with the continuous development of trolleybus network. Fig. 6 depicts the state-of-the-art status of trolleybus network in Tychy as well as prospective new lines which are about to be put into operation in the near future. Similar trends may be noticed in other European Union cities, in particular in new EU member states. Increasing eco-consciousness of the EU policy makers and successively introduced law regulations which promote the limitation of GHG emissions have contributed to the renaissance of the trolleybus systems in Central

 fuel consumption  carbon dioxide emissions  harmful local emissions (NOx, particulate matter (PM), nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC)). On the example of Germany we may state that the limitation of carbon dioxide in the transport area is definitely the lowest in comparison to other branches of economy - in the years 1990e2010 all economy sectors (apart from transport itself) have reduced carbon dioxide emissions by 30%, whereas the corresponding decrease in the transport sector was only 9.8% (Heinen, 2012). Throughout the whole Europe the carbon dioxide emission in the transport area is growing constantly. The problem has become so noticeable that the French government has announced the introduction of system solutions in order to limit the number of cars fueled with Diesel motors and to replace them with electrical and hybrid units. So far Diesel motors were favoured in France and their percentage in cars was about 80% (Reuters, 2014). As Poland strives at fulfilling the obligations resulting from the climate-energy package of the European Union and the Kyoto Protocol, it is necessary to replace gradually the contemporary public transport media with new, environmentally clean fleet. The question which transport means are the best ones has appeared for the first one at the transport congress in Berlin in 1886, when

Fig. 6. State-of-the-art plan of trolleybus network in Tychy.


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


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horse driven carriages were compared to electrical vehicles (Clean Fleet). Today we may choose between buses with Diesel motors Euro VI, hybrid drives, gas-propelled (CNG) ones, electrobuses or trolleybuses. In terms of pollution and noise emissions, vehicles with electric drives are unmatched under the assumption that the whole energy is green electric energy from hydroelectric power stations. A comparison of the purchase, maintenance or fuel/energy costs, for the vehicles 12 m long running along similar routes with a similar load is presented in Table 1 below. The assumptions are: usage period - 12 years, 80,000 km annually. Comparable values have been reported elsewhere (Kühne, 2010). Fig. 7 depicts the information on total cost per km for different types of vehicles in the graphical form. The presented results point out that aside from the environmental aspect, trolleybuses are the best solution from the economic point of view, of course for agglomerations which already posess the traction lines. It should be remarked that some authors have carried out in-depth analyses on energy consumption, environmental impacts and cost-benefits for different urban transport means (Tzeng et al., 2005; Geng et al., 2013; Lajunen, 2014; Ren et al., 2015; Font Vivanco et al., 2015); yet these analyses did not take trolleybuses into account. As stated previously trolleybuses may indeed be an eco-friendly solution to the public transport, what can be proven e.g. by inspection of data provided in the study (Kliucininkas et al., 2012). The authors have carried out a comparative analysis of public transport alternatives on the example of the Lithuanian city of Kaunas. They have carried out the assessment of environmental burdens of different transport systems using the well-known Life Cycle Assessment methodology. The results of their analysis for the “pump-to-wheels” stage, i.e. the stage, at which conversion of fuel energy into vehicle motion takes place, is depicted in Fig. 8. Comparable values have been reported by other authors, e.g. in the paper (Tica et al., 2011). From the analyses by (Kliucininkas and Matulevicius, 2009; Kliucininkas et al., 2012) it follows that the development of trolleybus systems may substantially contribute to limitation of fuel consumption and GHG emissions. Trolleybuses are readily used in narrow streets of European old city centres, to mention the examples of Rome, cf. (Musso and Corazza) or Riga (Brazis et al., 2010). Some parts of their routes may be covered using batteries, what is justified especially in the vicinity of historical landmarks, where the overhead wires would spoil the sights. In order to obtain the desired performance level, contemporary trolleybuses are equipped with additional supply systems, which include supercapacitors (Faggioli et al., 1999; Guerrero et al., 2009; Anosov et al., 2011; Hamacek et al., 2014) and traction batteries (Gizioski et al., 2011; Devie et al., 2012; Bartłomiejczyk et al., 2013).

Table 1 Costs for chosen vehicles (source: own study based on Putz, 2013)). Type of drive system

Purchase costs

Usage

Fuel consumption and costs

Diesel EURO VI

240,000 V

13,500 V/annum

Diesel hybrid type

300,000 V

16,000 V/annum

CNG Euro VI

245,000 V

15,000 V/annum

Electro-bus

500,000 V

16,000 V/annum

Trolleybus

310,000 V

19,000 V/annum

38.80 l/100 km 1.10 V/l 35.0 l/100 km 1.10 V/l 55.0 m3/100 km 0.71 V/m3 103.0 kWh/100 km 0.10 V/kWh 138.0 kWh/100 km 0.10 V/kWh

Fig. 7. A comparison of costs for different types of vehicles (source: own study based on Putz, 2013)).

3. The Trolley project The TROLLEY project was implemented under the Operational Program of Central Europe i.e. a European Union program aimed at supporting transnational co-operation between the countries of this part of Europe in order to increase innovation, accessibility, the state of the environment, the competitiveness and attractiveness of particular cities and regions (Trolley Project; Barnim, 2014; Rulaff, 2013). The fundamental goal of the TROLLEY project was promoting trolleybuses as the cleanest and most economical mode of transport for cities and regions of Central Europe. The project started in February 2010 and lasted until March 2013. The Project Coordinator was Salzburg AG (Austria). Salzburg is recognized in Europe as the leading trolleybus city. Other project participants were the municipalities of Brno (the Czech Republic) and Gdynia (Poland), transport operators (Barnim Bus GmbH, Eberswalde, Germany, TEP S.p.A., Parma, Italy, Leipziger Verkehrsbetriebe LVB, Leipzig, Germany and SZKT, Szeged, Hungary), the Polish University of Gdansk and TrolleyMotion e the leading European trolleybus interest group. Bringing together scientists and trolleybus practitioners to find solutions to current challenges of trolleybus networks (e.g. efficient energy use, increased operation speed, reshaped image of trolleybuses) is a unique idea not only in Central Europe but on the global scale as well. The Trolley project was the biggest enterprise of European Commission program “INTERREG Central Europe”. The total budget of the project was 4.2 million Euro, of which 3.2 million was the input of European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). The aims of the project may be summarized as follows: - elaboration and implementation of innovative concepts aimed at facing technical and environmental challenges to public transport systems based on trolleybuses, - development of manuals and guides on advanced energy storage and possibility to convert diesel buses to trolleybuses, - feasibility studies on trolleybus network extension to low density urban areas, - promotion of trolleybuses as an eco-efficient urban transport means, - exchange of experiences and state-of-the-art knowledge on sustainable electric public transport in Europe, - definition of directions and determinants of trolleybus transport development in the future.


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


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Fig. 8. Fuel consumption and chosen GHG emissions per km for different types of public transport systems. Notation: DB e diesel bus, T (HGO) e heavy oil fuel trolleybus, T (NG) e natural gas trolleybus, CNGB e compressed natural gas bus, CBB e compressed biogas bus. Source: own work based on data provided by (Kliucininkas et al., 2012).

3.1. Modernization and development of trolleybus network in Tychy Positive experiences gained by Trolley project participants have stimulated further interest in trolleybus-based transport in Poland. Thanks to EU financial support within the project carried out by the
˛ skie (Silesian Trams) titled “Modernization company Tramwaje Sla of tram and trolleybus infrastructure in the Upper Silesia Megalopolis, together with the supporting infrastructure” partnered by the city of Tychy, the following design assumptions concerning modernization have been made: - modernization of a fragment of ovehead power line, 6.5 km long, - making up a new fragment, 1.2 km long, - making up two car parks for transfer centers, - making up a bus station, integrating bus and trolleybus transport as well as fast commuter trains. The undertaken actions have addressed the concept of sustainable development of transport means as well the strategy of the National Strategy of Integration because the most important aims to be fulfilled covered the following tasks: - limitation of the negative impact of transport on the environment, - integration of different transport branches by development of transfer nodes and systems “park & go”,

- development of integrated network of transport infrastructure, - change of social habits of the city inhabitants (stop using private cars in order to get to work and back), - increase of the number of city inhabitants using public transport (reduction of the congestion problem), - implementation of “smart” city transport. Novel solutions have been introduced. Their aims are as follows: - priority passing of trolleybuses through cross-roads and roundabouts, - limitation of network losses (decrease of the times the vehicles either brake or accelerate, - limitation of noise emission, - increase in the passengers' comfort, - installation of batteries, which supply the vehicles when traction is absent. The tasks financed with EU support covered additionally a part not directly related to the overhead power network and trolleybuses e construction of two multi-level cark parks and a modern bus station with two platforms designed for trolleybuses, which are the crucial components of the integrated public transport e connection of trolleybus and bus lines with fast commuter railways and bus transport within the framework of “park-and-go” philosophy aimed at a substantial reduction of bus and car transport mainly on the route Tychy-Katowice (the capital of the region and


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072

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main city in the Silesian conurbation - the biggest urban organism in Poland). Multi-level car parks have been located in nodes, where the fast commuter trains, bus and trolleybus lines intersect. Due to setting up of commuter connection two out of four bus lines have been eliminated and the total number of runs was limited from 220 down to 172 per 24 h, i. e. by 22%. The introduction of convenient connections, modern and comfortable vehicle fleet and adjustment of schedules for trolleybuses and commuter trains in order to minimize waiting and change times have resulted in a noticeable change in social attitudes. City dwellers more and more often choose the connection trolleybus-train instead of their own cars and do it with a full awareness of their own comfort and preservation of the environment, and not due to the lack of the car or fuel, as it used to be in the past. Within the project fifteen modern trolleybuses Solaris Trollino 12 MB have been purchased as well. The buses are equipped with two traction nickel-cadmium batteries STH600 x84 type, with the capacity of 60 Ah and rated voltage 220 V DC. The batteries have been built in the rear part of the trolleybuses so that they do not limit the passengers' area. They make the vehicle move without a traction line. The use of NieCd batteries in an eco-friendly transport means may arouse some concern and doubts about the correctness of the solution, as this kind of batteries is commonly considered as less efficient and more harmful to the environment than e.g. those based on lithium compounds (Vazquez et al., 2010). However it should be remarked that the batteries used are produced in accordance with the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) principles and after their “life” is finished they are returned to the producer in accordance with the “bring-back” program. The cadmium coming from the electrodes is transformed during a pyro-metallurgical process (SNAM/SAVAM) into cadmium oxide and recycled as part of the electrode in the new battery. In the preliminary stage it was expected that the batteries are used only in emergency situation, e.g. detour from a road crossing after a voltage break-down or during maintenance. The experience gained during exploitation as well as a number of carried out measurements and analyses have made it possible to determine the tracks which may be substituted by the battery-run trolleybuses without the traction supply, assuming optimal conditions for battery operation (chargeedischarge), which in turn has made it possible to determine alternative routes available when actions related to road maintenance works and traction modernization are carried out. The trolleybus transport has become more flexible. The experiences gained by city transport companies from Lublin and Gdynia (Trolley, Rulaff, 2013) have also been taken into account. The maximum distance to be covered, assuming a full load of passengers and a lack of excessive climbing terrain is about 2.5 km. The fast charging time from the level 30% up to 100% is equal to 98 min. The analyses and measurements have however proven that the capacity of batteries is too low to allow regular scheduled routes along the street not equipped with traction. The control system switches off all appliances (including heating and air conditioning) apart from drive and lighting. This is troublesome during frosty wintertime and hot summertime. The drive systems of new trolleybuses uses regenerative braking. Recovery of mechanical energy during vehicle braking is common for electric and hybrid drive systems. The acquired braking energy is transferred back to the network, only a small portion of it is used for charging its own batteries due to too high current levels generated during braking (80e90 A), which well exceed the value of charging current (20e30 A). The possibilities to absorb energy by the network are however limited and in fact depend on the number of vehicles running the considered line and on their instant work mode (the possibility to pick up energy). Lack of possibility to feed the dispatcher network with the extra energy results from the fact that the traction is

supplied through rectifier stations. The measurements carried out on the drive system have made it clear that the braking/generation time is about 14% of total running time, which is significantly more than in the case of rail or metro, taking into account the peculiarity of street transport systems. Transfer losses between the trolleybusgenerator and trolleybus-receiver are also hard to be estimated precisely. New vehicles have been introduced since April 2013, whereas the replacement of the traction line was finished in April 2014. Table 2 presents a summary concerning the average value of energy required to overcome the distance of 1 km in the months from January to August in the years 2012e2014 (the number of kilometers covered monthly slightly exceeds 100,000 km). For the comparative analysis and estimation of the obtained savings the months June-July-August were assumed as most representative, taking into account the limited road traffic and a comparable number of passengers. Winter months were excluded from the analysis because of the high impact of weather conditions on the number of passengers and because of the impact of temperature on energy consumption (heating of the vehicles). The analysis of energy efficiency concerning the carried out modernization has revealed a 24% decrease of electric energy consumption due to replacement of the stock, whereas due to modernization of the traction itself e around 3%. The savings in energy consumption in the case of fleet replacement are due to the application of energy recovery systems during braking (82%) and to the assembly of asynchronous AC motors fed from power electronics inverters, which have good control capabilities (8%). Similar values concerning lower energy consumption due to the use of recuperative systems have been obtained in public transport companies in Rotterdam, Zurich, Vienna, Stockholm, Bremen (Clean bus procurement, 2013). Table 3 presents the percentage values of energy savings after modernization. Considering total annual energy consumption from the year 2012, equal to 3038 MWh, the estimated annual savings are as follows: 90 MWh due to network modernization, 760 MWh due to replacement of the stock. The estimates of decreased annual emissions of harmful substances are as follows: 34 kg particulates, 538 kg sulphur dioxide, 670,650 kg carbon dioxide and 338 kg nitrogen oxides. The decrease in emission has been calculated taking into account the influence of electrical energy production on the environment with respect to emission levels for individual types of fuel and other primary fossils. For the successive years the trolleybus enterprise has decided to purchase energy only from hydropower plants (Tauron Eco Premium system), thus trolleybus transport in Tychy shall become “zero emission”. The obtained savings at the 3% level due to modernization of the traction network were on the one hand expected at this approximate level, on the other hand e they have become a stimulus for further analyses aimed at consecutive limitation of network losses. In the first stage the measurements of load for the network rectifier were carried out for two configurations of vehicle traffic: in the first

Table 2 Monthly energy requirements (kWh/km) for 2012e2014. 2012

kWh/km

2013

kWh/km

2014

kWh/km

January February March April May

2932 3016 2510 2328 2050

January February March April May

2954 2834 2631 2036 1689

January February March April May

2306 1956 1766 1641 1551

June July August

2026 1900 1893

June July August

1502 1439 1426

June July August

1469 1369 1398


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


ski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e11 L. Borowik, A. Cywin Table 3 Energy savings gained due to modernization.

June July August Average

Vehicles

Traction

Altogether

25.84% 24.26% 24.66% 24.92%

2.20% 4.89% 1.98% 3.02%

27.47% 27.96% 26.16% 27.20%

configuration a line fragment with two trolleybuses during an ordinary course on a labor-free day, in the second configuration just one vehicle was considered (without passenger load during night hours). Fig. 9a depicts the time dependence of load current in the rectifier for a single one, and starting from the 6th minute e with two vehicles. The expected maximum line load current for a single vehicle was 90 A, whereas for two vehicles e 180 A. Fig. 9b depicts the time dependence of line supplying traction for a typical mode of operation of two vehicles between two stops. Table 4 describes the states of individual vehicles for a representative segment of the route in particular time instants from t1 to t7, with distinguished periods of generation and recovery of the produced energy. Time of simultaneous braking of one vehicle and acceleration of another one is about 17% of total time of passing the route between two stops, lowering of line load current due to energy generation during braking is about 80 A. It should be remarked that half of the generated energy remains unused. Fig. 10 depicts the time dependence for current load for a single trolleybus. The expected value of maximum line load current equal to 90 A is also marked. The current surges above this value should be eliminated, as they are very harmful to the devices and the supply line. Moreover the transfer loss is proportional to the value of traction current squared. The registered time dependencies depict load of traction line, which features high variability and considerable current surges related to start and acceleration of the vehicles. On the basis of the obtained measurement results it has become necessary to estimate potential energy savings relying on limitation of the aforementioned current surges up to preset values and development of solutions aimed at more effective use of energy produced during braking. The advantage gained from lowering the peak values of currents is the substantial lowering of energy losses occurring in the drive supply systems (Chłodnicki and Koczara, 2005; Gizioski et al., 2011; Grbovic et al., 2012). Carried out calculations and measurements concerning network losses due to current surges occurring during starting and sudden acceleration of the vehicles,

9

Table 4 The states of individual trolleybuses at chosen time instants for a representative route. Time instant

Vehicle no. 1 S

t1 ¼ 8.1s

B

Vehicle no. 2 CV

þ

t2 ¼ 4.0s

þ

S

B

CV

e

e

e

þ

t3 ¼ 2.3s t4 ¼ 0.8s

þ þ

þ

t5 ¼ 2.1s t6 ¼ 7.2s t7 ¼ 4.0s

þ

þ

þ þ þ

þ þ

Notation: S e start (acceleration), B e braking (generation), CV e constant velocity.

taking into account the method of supplying the traction network (length and cross-sections of cable lines joining the rectifier stations with the overhead line), length of electric circuits in the overhead line, as well as averaged vehicle traffic, have indicated that it might be possible to reduce energy consumption by another 4%. One of the possibilities to reduce the level of current surges in the supply line may be the use of a super-capacitor-based supply (Brazis et al., 2010; Faggioli et al., 1999; Chłodnicki and Koczara, 2005). This is, however, related to the engagement of additional considerable funds, whereas the use of a simple controller for the supply with an algorithm based exclusively on transfer of full power to and back from the drive may lead even to larger energy losses than in the case when such a supply is absent (Radecki and Chudzik, 2014). An important advantage of a capacitor supply is the possibility to load with high current during vehicle braking and load with full current during start or acceleration, whereas the number of charge/discharge cycles has practically no impact on the life length of the supply. The analysis of experience gained in the public transport company TEP S.p.A. in Parma, Italy within the framework of European project Trolley has been very useful in decision making concerning the choice of method of reduction of network losses due to current surges. The traction line of the aforementioned company is 20 km long and is serviced by 34 vehicles running four lines. The magnitude of traction network is therefore comparable to the one serviced in Tychy. Within the framework carried out by TEP S.p.A the vehicles have been equipped with Maxwell capacitor batteries composed of four capacitors, 2600 F each, operating in dependence on voltage/capacitance priority either in the series or in the parallel connection. In practice the average system capacity was equal to 9.1 kF at the voltage

Fig. 9. Recorded time dependencies: a) load current in the supply rectifier e a line with one and two vehicles b) load current e a line with two vehicles e braking and energy recovery.


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072

10


ski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e11 L. Borowik, A. Cywin

Fig. 10. Time dependence for load current for a single trolleybus.

300e700 V and power approximately 200 kW. The results of simulations have shown that the possibility to reduce energy consumption by some 26% might be achieved for a system of trolleybuses with built-in super-capacitors, whereas the measurements carried out in the real-life system (carried out in Parma in January 2013) have indicated that the savings were equal to 28.61% (Barnim, 2014). On the basis of tests and experience of the company TEP S.p.A. in Parma a conclusion may be drawn that the use of a super-capacitor supply for trolleybuses in Tychy shall make it possible to reduce current surges down-to the assumed level marked in Figs. 9 and 10 i.e. by some 120 A for each vehicle, which in turn shall make it possible to obtain additional energy savings about 4%, thus including 24.92% saved due to exchange of the vehicles from the old ones to new ones e 28.92% in total, which is close to the value obtained during tests in Parma (28.61%). Positive experience gained during the modernization of traction line and promotion of the development of electricity-supplied transport as a safe and sustainable mobility scheme by European Commission have resulted in the design of a new trolleybus line in Tychy, approximately 5 km long. The development of the line is scheduled for 2015. The test for the vehicles supplied with supercapacitors carried out in Tychy are very promising. Similar results have been obtained during tests carried out in Eberswalde, Germany in January 2013 within the framework of Trolley project. In Eberswalde hybrid-drive trolleybuses (supply from traction line and from batteries) have been equipped with lithium-ion batteries, 72 kWh. They have made it possible to run about 4 km without the traction line, re-charge time was estimated at 20 min and life length of the battery at 12,000 cycles (Barnim, 2014). The results of preliminary tests carried out in Eberswalde are comparable to those obtained in Tychy. The consequence of the afore-described analyses was the decision to purchase five new trolleybuses from Solaris, supplied with traction batteries, which make it possible to run the distance of 25 km without the network infrastructure and which have the possibility to have their batteries charged in distributed small rectifier stations located at line terminals. The developed technical solutions have increased the flexibility of urban transport in Tychy e trolleybus lines begin to cover the whole area of the city, what may eliminate the need to use bus transport in the future. One of the purchased vehicles shall be also equipped with a super-capacitor-based supply in order to have the possibility to carry out further tests and confirm the possibility to reduce network losses by the assumed 4%. The social effects related to the development of trolleybus traffic system and integrated public transport should not be overlooked. A

train, a trolleybus, a transfer center e are the synonyms of a modern city and eco-conscious society. The city inhabitants choose the train-trolleybus transport instead of their own cars more and more frequently. Another interesting fact comes from statistical data which prove that among bus drivers there are 97% men and just 3% women, whereas in trams or in trolleybuses women work as drivers approximately 10 times more frequently (Urbanowicz, 2014). In Tychy trolleybus lines eight out of 22 employed trolleybus drivers are women (36%). Therefore the development of trolleybus transport may be perceived as an action which supports the employment of women.

4. Conclusions The modernization and development of trolleybus network carried out in Tychy is a good example of eco-friendly investments in the public urban transport. Novel solutions concerning traction design and the use of modern vehicles equipped with traction batteries and generation systems made it possible to achieve the expected positive effects related to environment protection e energy savings and limitation of emission of greenhouse gases e in particular carbon dioxide. Positive experiences have resulted in green light for successive investments e the development of a new line almost 5 km long and the purchase of new vehicles equipped with traction batteries which make it possible to run the distance of 20 km without traction. The trolleybus transport is becoming more flexible and accessible for the whole city area. The experience gained during the realization of the Trolley project as well as own results of research have made it possible to design a prototype vehicle equipped with the super-capacitor-based supply, which shall be used for further tests on lowering network losses. These actions have successfully addressed the concept of sustainable development in the transport area and the national strategy of transport development, which has set a number of goals to be achieved by 2030 e among others the development of modern and consistent network of transport infrastructure, the elimination of negative environmental burden as well as an increase in the number of passengers in order to reduce the congestion problems. The project assumptions are moreover consistent with the recommendations of the European Commission concerning shaping of future urban transport systems (“smart” urban transport and an increase in its efficiency, integration of different transport branches, development of intermodal systems i.e. change nodes, “park-and-go” systems etc.).


ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072


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ski, A., Modernization of a trolleybus line system in Tychy as an example of eco-efficient Please cite this article in press as: Borowik, L., Cywin initiative towards a sustainable transport system, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.072