Motivating frontline employees: Role of job characteristics in work and life satisfaction

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-hospitalityand-tourism-management

Motivating frontline employees: Role of job characteristics in work and life satisfaction Xinyuan (Roy) Zhao a, Richard Ghiselli b, Rob Law c, *, Jing Ma b a

Department of Hospitality and Service Management, Business School, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China The School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, 900 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2115, USA c School of Hotel & Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 25 May 2015 Received in revised form 31 December 2015 Accepted 23 January 2016

This study examined the intrinsic motivation for hospitality jobs and the effects of job characteristics on job satisfaction, job stress, and life satisfaction. Data were obtained from the survey responses of 401 frontline employees working at six full-service, upscale hotels in China. Results indicated that autonomy, task identity, and task significance reduced job stress, feedback increased job satisfaction, and task significance enhanced life satisfaction. Surprisingly, skill variety was negatively associated with job satisfaction, but positively associated with job stress. The composite Motivating Potential Score was positively associated with job satisfaction, but negatively associated with job stress. One recommendation is for hospitality organizations to analyze their service jobs to improve the intrinsic motivation of their employees. © 2016 The Authors.

Keywords: Job characteristics Intrinsic motivation Job satisfaction Job stress Life satisfaction

1. Introduction Certain hospitality businesses such as hotels operate 24 h a day, seven days a week (24/7). The nature of such businesses also requires considerable “face time” between service staff and clients. The work environment can be considered stressful because of this demand (O'Neill & Xiao, 2010). Hence, job characteristics may be the key to determining the affective outcomes of employees (Wan & Chan, 2013). Academic studies and (common-sense) observations have indicated that several hospitality-specific job qualities, such as “anti-social” working hours and seasonality, induce dissatisfaction and stress among employees (Dawson, Abbott, & Shoemaker, 2011; Law, Pearce, & Woods, 1995; Tromp & Blomme, 2012). To increase employee morale and reduce withdrawal attitudes, researchers have suggested redesigning and enriching hospitality jobs (Lin, Wong, & Ho, 2013a). However, practices may be difficult to change because certain aspects of the industry are inherent to the nature of such jobs. For example, although management may have little control over the hours of operation (Arnold & House,

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (X. Zhao), [email protected] (R. Ghiselli), [email protected] (R. Law), [email protected] (J. Ma). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.01.010 1447-6770/© 2016 The Authors.

1980; Dawson et al., 2011), human resource managers may be able to reduce the negatives effects by examining the deep-seated job characteristics, the influence of these characteristics on the attitudes and behaviors of hospitality employees, and the extent to which hotel management jobs can motivate individuals intrinsically. Job characteristics are the motivational dimensions that affect employee experiences of meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge relating to work activities (Loher, Noe, Moeller, & Fitzgerald, 1985). The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposed by Hackman and Oldham (1976) can be used to examine hospitality jobs. The JCM comprises five core job characteristics/dimensions, namely, skill variety, autonomy, task identity, feedback, and task significance. These dimensions are regarded as specific attributes that describe and measure job characteristics (Boonzaier, Ficker, & Rust, 2001; Rungtusanatham & Anderson, 1996). These dimensions are used to calculate the Motivational Potential Score (MPS), which measures the motivating potential of a job. Kuruüzüm, Anafarta, and Irmak (2008) have indicated that job characteristics are strong predictors of stress among hotel middle-level managers in Turkey. Moreover, a study of 319 frontline employees of five-star hotels in Mumbai suggests a positive relationship between job characteristics and psychological empowerment (Jha & Nair, 2008). Hospitality research examining the role of JCM dimensions and

28

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

MPS in enriching jobs and motivating employees is limited. Traditionally, hospitality studies have focused on the impact on affective outcomes such as job satisfaction (Cheung & Law, 1998; Kuruüzüm et al., 2008), but have infrequently examined how the dimensions could affect employee well-being (Lin et al., 2013a). Studies on the factors influencing life satisfaction could explain how employees could come to work in a good mood and why employees are not highly engaged in and even quit their jobs (Kim & Jogaratnam, 2010). Early JCM studies in tourism and hospitality were principally conducted in Western countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia (Lee-Ross, 1998a, 1998b, 2005; Lee-Ross & Pryce, 2005). By contrast, very few studies on this subject have been carried out in the Eastern regions (Jha & Nair, 2008). Findings from various cultural backgrounds would then extend the existing knowledge and generalizability of JCM (Shirazi, GolestaniNia, MehrganRad, & Naghdali, 2012). In fact, the hospitality industry in China has become a focus of researchers and practitioners worldwide after its rapid development in the last 30 years (Gross & Huang, 2011; Okoroafo, Koh, Liu, & Jin, 2010). Several studies have examined human resource management issues, such as leadership style (Wong & Chan, 2010), career management (Kong, Cheung, & Song, 2011), and creativity/innovation (Chang, Gong, & Shum, 2011; Hon & Leung, 2011) in Chinese hospitality organizations. Unfortunately, very few studies have investigated the perception of Chinese employees on hospitality job characteristics. This study aims to extend our knowledge on the role of job characteristics in enriching hospitality jobs and improving attitudes toward work and life. Specifically, the investigation explores why and how the five dimensions of JCM may influence job attitudes, the extent to which hospitality jobs contain motivational potential to employees, and how job attitude mediates the effect on life satisfaction. This paper initially reviews the JCM literature and the relevant studies in the hospitality context, and subsequently proposes the potential effects of job characteristics on job satisfaction, job stress, and life satisfaction. The study examines the hypothesized effects, and the paper concludes with implications for hospitality organizations. 2. Theoretical framework 2.1. Research progress on hospitality job dimensions Researchers and practitioners recognize the various aspects of hospitality jobs that primarily induce job satisfaction and stress (Chiang, Birtch, & Cai, 2014; Kim, 2008; Kim, Shin, & Umbreit, 2007). Several studies have defined, identified, and explored these features. Law et al. (1995) identified four (negative) features of hospitality jobs, namely, anti-social working hours, insufficient pay, poor management, and requirements for dealing with the public every day. Tepeci and Bartlett (2002) developed a hospitality industry culture profile to describe frontline positions. Øgaard, Marnburg, and Larsen (2008) suggested that hospitality organizational modes could be organic or mechanistic. Dawson et al. (2011) indicated that hospitality industry positions could be characterized by low wages, little job security, long working hours, lack of opportunities for personal development, and seasonality. According to Wan and Chan (2013), hospitality jobs are different from others based on the dimensions of rest time, regular shift work, and  (2013) irregular working schedule. Ineson, Benke, and L aszlo explained hospitality job conditions in a more general sense by discussing training, skill development, working hours, job variety, and job security. Although previous research has described hospitality jobs, the results lack consensus because most findings and discussion were based on divergent theoretical grounds. This lack

of consensus has induced difficulty in connecting and comparing research findings as well as in fleshing out meaningful and consistent recommendations. Moreover, several studies have limited their scope to outcome variables within the workplace, and ignored the potential, indirect but important relationships of hospitality job characteristics to life satisfaction as well as job satisfaction and stress (Duncan, Scott, & Baum, 2013; Lin et al., 2013a; Tromp & Blomme, 2012; Yeh, 2013; see Zhao, Qu, & Ghiselli, 2011). Job satisfaction is “an internal state that is expressed by affectively and/or cognitively evaluating an experienced job with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Brief, 1998, p. 86). Job stress refers to the reactions of employees to “work environment characteristics that appear threatening to the individual” and indicates “a poor fit” between individual capabilities and work environment amid excessive job demands (Jamal, 1990, p. 728). Life satisfaction is a construct that measures the overall wellbeing resulting from an evaluation of life in general (Graves, Ohlott, & Ruderman, 2007; Karatepe & Baddar, 2006). These dimensions are critical attitudes that shape the behaviors of employees. The application of a well-established theoretical model (i.e., Job Characteristics Model) is necessary to illuminate the role of hospitality jobs and their relationship with job satisfaction, job stress, and life satisfaction. 2.2. Job characteristics model The Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) is a formal theory that illustrates the extent to which the essential attributes of jobs influence employee attitudes and behaviors (Rungtusanatham & Anderson, 1996). The model identifies the five core dimensions of jobs, namely, skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Based on these dimensions, a “composite” score or the motivational potential score (MPS) can be calculated to gauge the extent to which a job motivates employees (Boonzaier et al., 2001; Hinton & Biderman, 1995; Saavedra & Kwun, 2000). The JCM explains intrinsic (workplace) motivation via three critical psychological states (Rungtusanatham & Anderson, 1996). First, skill variety, task significance, and task identity reflect the experienced meaningfulness of the work (e.g., Behson, Eddy, & Lorenzet, 2000). According to Hackman and Oldham (1976), skill variety refers to the extent to which employees can use various personal and professional skills to perform their jobs. Task significance reflects the degree to which jobs may influence the work of others. Task identity describes the extent to which jobs would comprise the entire (vs. a recognizable piece of the) work. Employees are also more likely to sense higher levels of meaningfulness when they use their personal abilities (Cummings & Bigelow, 1976; Lawler & Hall, 1970). Moreover, their job outcomes may help other colleagues, and their work considered to be more independent (Cerasoli, Nicklin, & Ford, 2014; Futrell, 1977; Pearce, 1983). Consequently, employees will feel a higher level of intrinsic motivation to continue doing their jobs better, be satisfied with their jobs, experience less work stress, and ultimately increase their happiness in life (Karatepe & Tekinkus, 2006; Kim & Jogaratnam, 2010; Vittersø, 2003; Wiesner, Windle, & Freeman, 2005). In light of these effects, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1a. Skill variety positively affects job satisfaction. H1b. Task significance positively affects job satisfaction. H1c. Task identity positively affects job satisfaction. H2a. Skill variety negatively affects job stress. H2b. Task significance negatively affects job stress.

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

H2c. Task identity negatively affects job stress. H3a. Skill variety positively affects life satisfaction. H3b. Task significance positively affects life satisfaction. H3c. Task identity positively affects life satisfaction. Second, autonomy reflects experienced responsibility (Saavedra & Kwun, 2000). Autonomy denotes the degree of freedom that work procedures provide to individuals (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Employees with higher job autonomy are able to complete work tasks in a more comfortable manner, and feel responsible for achieving higher performance (Cerasoli et al., 2014; Salinasnez, Arte s, & Salinas-Jime nez, 2010). Such employees are Jime more likely to have positive attitudes, less stress, and greater life satisfaction (Barney & Elias, 2010; Byrd, Hageman, & Isle, 2007). Hence, the following hypotheses are proposed:

29

Ho, 2013b; Uysal, Sirgy, Woo, & Kim, 2016). Hence, the following hypotheses summarize the model suggested in Fig. 1. H4. Job satisfaction positively affects life satisfaction. H5. Job stress negatively affects life satisfaction. 3. Methods 3.1. Participants and procedures

H2e. Feedback negatively affects job stress.

Six full-service, upscale hotels in the Pearl River Delta area of China voluntarily supported the survey. The surveyed hotels are located in metropolitan areas with a considerable business clientele because of the local economic status of the locations. One hundred questionnaires were distributed to frontline employees (restaurant, bar, front office, and housekeeping staff) in each hotel. The respondents were randomly selected from a list that the human resource departments provided. Sealed envelopes containing the survey instrument and a blank return envelope were placed in the mailboxes of the participating employees. The questionnaire explained the purpose of the research and assured the respondents that their participation was voluntary and confidential. The employees were given a week to fill out and return the surveys to a collection box in the human resource office of each hotel. The valid responses from 401 employees were included in the data analysis (response rate ¼ 66.83%). Table 1 shows the gender ratio of the sample in which females (54.3%) outnumbered males (45.7%). Three-quarters of the participants were married, and approximately 65% had high school education or less. On average, respondents were 26 years old, had two dependents approximately, and nearly five years of work experience. The human resource managers indicated that the respondents were representative of the frontline employees of their hotels.

H3e. Feedback positively affects life satisfaction.

3.2. Measurement

2.3. Job satisfaction, job stress, and life satisfaction

Participants were asked to rate the (five) characteristics of jobs (Hackman & Lawler, 1971) on a seven-point Likert-type scale. Job characteristic scores were combined to calculate the Motivating Potential Score (MPS). The MPS measures the extent to which a (hospitality) job may affect employee behaviors and attitudes. The formula for the MPS is as follows:

H1d. Autonomy positively affects job satisfaction. H2d. Autonomy negatively affects job stress. H3d. Autonomy positively affects life satisfaction. Finally, feedback pertains to the knowledge of the employee regarding work outcomes (e.g., Rungtusanatham & Anderson, 1996). Feedback indicates how effective a job has been accomplished (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). When obtaining timely and useful feedback, employees tend to adjust their work actions and achieve better performance in a manner that the organization desires (Klein & Verbeke, 1999; Sultan, 2012; Teas, 1983). Feedback subsequently increases satisfaction toward a job, reduces work anxiety and exhaustion, and engenders happiness (Dalton, Davis, & Viator, 2015; Ozturk, Hancer, & Im, 2014; Uruthirapathy & Grant, 2015; Wininger & Birkholz, 2013). Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1e. Feedback positively affects job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction refers to the affective and/or cognitive evaluation of the employee of his/her job experience “with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Brief, 1998, p. 86). Job stress reflects the employee appraisal of threat (Grandey, Dickter, & Sin, 2004) and is experienced as an unpleasant emotional event that is “associated with elements of fear, dread, anxiety, irritation, annoyance, anger, sadness, grief, and depression” (Motowidlo, Packard, & Manning, 1986, p. 618). Job satisfaction and stress are positive and negative indicators, respectively, of employee attitudes in the workplace. Life satisfaction is a construct that measures the overall well-being of an individual, which results from an evaluation of life in general (Graves et al., 2007; Karatepe & Baddar, 2006). Work attitudes will eventually influence the life satisfaction of employees (Lin et al., 2013a; Wan & Chan, 2013). The present study considers job satisfaction and stress as partial mediators that influence life satisfaction. Spillover theory and previous research findings suggest that job satisfaction could transfer positive moods and appraisal to life satisfaction, whereas job stress may convey negative feelings and evaluations (Adams, King, & King, 1996; Bamundo & Kopelman, 1980; Ghiselli, La Lopa, & Bai, 2001; Higgins, Duxbury, & Irving, 1992; Ilies, Wilson, & Wagner, 2009). Hospitality employees who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to feel satisfied with life. At the same time, employees who sense stronger job stress are more likely to have low life satisfaction (Karatepe & Baddar, 2006; Lin, Wong, &

MPS ¼

Skill Variety þ Task Identity þ Task Significance 3  Autonomy  Feedback:

The measurement of job satisfaction was adapted from

Fig. 1. Hypothesized model. Note: The hypotheses are indicated above or below the corresponding paths, and the hypothesized effect directions are provided in the parentheses (positive: þ; negative: e).

30

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

Table 1 Sample descriptions. Variables Gender Education

Marriage status

Age Work experience Number of dependents

Male Female Below high school High school Diploma College Graduates Single Married Divorced Married but separated M ¼ 25.75, SD ¼ 6.45 M ¼ 4.90, SD ¼ 5.42 M ¼ 1.62, SD ¼ 2.11

Number

%

164 195 76 157 93 31 5 98 273 5 3

45.7 54.3 21.0 43.4 25.7 8.6 1.4 25.9 72.0 1.3 .8

Note: N ¼ 401 (missing values randomly exist in the responses); M represents mean, and SD represents standard deviation.

Hackman and Lawler (1971). The participants answered the sevenpoint Likert-type scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Twelve of the 15 items assessed employee satisfaction levels on specific job features. Sample items included the feeling of self-esteem or self-respect a person gets from being in my job; the opportunity for personal growth and development in my job; and the prestige of my job inside the company (that is, the regard received from others in the hotel). Life satisfaction was measured with five items adapted from Diener and Fujita (1995). Respondents were asked to reflect over the last year and provide their opinion on a seven-point Likert-type scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher scores represented greater life satisfaction. Following Schaubroeck, Cotton, and Jennings (1989), we measured job stress with three statements reflecting perceived anxiety and stress in the workplace. The responses were once again based on a seven-point Likert-type scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicated greater stress. All of the variables/scales were adapted from published studies of general management, and reworded to ensure their relevance to hospitality jobs. Given that the studies were in English, a backtranslation procedure, as suggested by researchers in crosscultural contexts, was adopted to reinforce the validity and reliability of the scales (e.g., Yang, Chen, Choi, & Zou, 2000). The translated version was further refined by Chinese linguistic experts, who made the survey more realistic in the Chinese context. Several demographic variables were included such that these variables can affect work and life attitudes (e.g., Yavas, Babakus, & Karatepe, 2008). The variables included gender, age, educational attainment, marital status, work experience, and number of dependents. These demographic items were used as control variables. 3.3. Data analysis Data analysis strategy followed the two-step approach of Structural Equation Modeling (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). First, the measurement model was examined. The convergent and discriminant validity of the variable measurements were evaluated by applying Cronbach's a, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), square root values of AVEs, and confirmative factor analysis (CFA). Correlation coefficients among variables were illustrated and used to compare research findings (e.g., common and different observations between previous and present findings) and methodological concerns (e.g., commonly high intercorrelations among variables). Finally, structural models were compared based on a series of models, and the regression

coefficients of the best-fit model were applied to examine the hypotheses. 4. Results 4.1. Analyzing means The response rate was 66.8% (401/600). The job characteristic with the highest score was feedback (M ¼ 5.17). Based on the size of the means (see Table 2), the other characteristics in order of importance were task significance (M ¼ 5.03), task identity (M ¼ 4.33), autonomy (M ¼ 3.59), and skill variety (M ¼ 3.08). Generally, higher scores reflect more desirable job characteristics. For example, a higher feedback score indicates that more feedback is being provided, and a higher task significance score indicates the job has more impact. Average MPS was 76.72 (SD ¼ 66.69), which was relatively less than the average score obtained by Saavedra and Kwun (2000) (MPS ¼ 138.50, SD ¼ 71.71). Their study collected data from 370 managers in 26 service, sales, and manufacturing organizations. However, the finding of this study was similar to the average score (MPS ¼ 72.0, SD ¼ 49.6) for 742 male and female employees of a chemical manufacturing company (Zaccaro & Stone, 1988). Moreover, the score from this study falls within the range of scores for enriched (95.6) and unenriched jobs (37.7) that were calculated from an experiment on 42 MBA students (O'Reilly III & Caldwell, 1979). This result suggests the potential to enrich hospitality jobs. Job satisfaction plays a critical role in hospitality employee attitudes and behaviors (Khalilzadeh, Chiappa, Jafari, & Borujeni, 2013). The participants in the current study reported that their job satisfaction level was 4.15 (average). This result is similar to the results of other Asian samples. For example, the average job satisfaction score was 4.11 in a study of 260 frontline employees in Seoul (Choi & Kim, 2012). In another study of 302 hotel employees in Hong Kong, the job satisfaction score averaged 4.35 after being converted to a seven-point scale (Chiang et al., 2014). Once again, after conversion, the average job satisfaction score for 220 frontline servers in South Korea was 4.48 (Magnini, Lee, & Kim, 2011). The average job satisfaction scores in the Asian samples are seemingly lower than the scores of American respondents. For instance, in a study of 234 hospitality respondents in the United States, the average job satisfaction score was 6.02 (Y. G. Choi, Kwon, & Kim, 2013). In another study of 213 unionized cooks at a major U.S. city, the average score was 5.03 (Young & Corsun, 2010). The participants reported the average level of life satisfaction to be 3.35 (SD ¼ 1.31). This score was slightly lower than the scores reported in other Chinese studies. For example, the average life

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

31

Table 2 Descriptive statistics and measurement validation.

Motivating Potential Score (MPS) (1) Skill variety (2) Autonomy (3) Task identity (4) Feedback (5) Task significance (6) Job satisfaction (7) Life satisfaction (8) Job stress Gender Age Education Marital status Work experience Number of dependents

M

SD

a

CR

AVE

MPS

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

76.72 3.08 3.59 4.33 5.17 5.03 4.15 3.35 3.57 e 25.75 e e 4.90 1.62

66.69 2.03 1.96 1.92 1.87 2.25 .94 1.31 1.80 e 6.45 e e 5.42 2.11

e e e e e e .83 .79 .73 e e e e e e

e e e e e e .91 .90 .85 e e e e e e

e e e e e e .40 .64 .66 e e e e e e

e .32** .69** .22** .45** .29** .23** .07 e.12* e .18** e e e.01 .00

e .07 .04 .00 .08 e.05 e.07 .08 e .14** e e e.01 .12*

e .00 .10þ .10þ .25** .18** e.12* e .15** e e e.02 e.00

e .10þ e.08 e.02 e.01 e.08 e .02 e e e.10* .03

e .17** .15** .05 e.07 e .18** e e .05 .09þ

e .10* .14** e.19** e .09þ e e .00 .08

.63 .41** e.13* e .19** e e .05 e.04

.79 e.06 e .10* e e .01 .01

.81 e e.11* e e .05 .02

Note: N ¼ 401. M: mean; SD: standard deviation; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted. The square root values of the AVEs of the variables are provided in bold on the diagonal. þ p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

satisfaction among 121 Chinese hotel sales managers was 3.90 (Zhao et al., 2011). The average level of 104 hotel expatriates in the greater China area, including Hong Kong, mainland China, and Singapore, was 5.33 (Li & Tse, 1998). The figure is also lower than the average found in several hospitality studies from other regions; for instance, the average life satisfaction score in a study of 189 frontline employees in Jordan was 4.12 (Karatepe & Baddar, 2006); for 107 frontline hotel employees in Albania, the average was 4.28 (Karatepe & Bekteshi, 2008); the average score of 386 hospitality employees in a midwestern city in the United States was 4.96 (Susskind, Borchgrevink, Kacmar, & Brymer, 2000); and 443 hotel employees in Turkey had an average score of 5.10 (Kara, Uysal, Sirgy, & Lee, 2013). The respondents in the current study reported their average job stress level to be 3.57 (SD ¼ 1.80), which reflected the common (worldwide) perception that hospitality jobs are stressful. For example, 62% of 96 hotel managers and 40% of hourly employees in the United States indicated that their stress levels in the workplace were high (O'Neill & Davis, 2011). In another study, 151 hotel employees in Central Florida rated their job stress level to be 3.42 (Shani & Pizam, 2009). Among 620 customer service employees in northeastern states, the average score was 3.85 (Vanderpool & Way, 2013), and 191 hotel service employees in Washington State indicated their stress level to be 2.72 (Kim et al., 2007). In Turkey, 443 hotel employees (Kara et al., 2013) reported higher stress levels (M ¼ 3.72) than 139 mid-level managers (M ¼ 2.95) (Kuruüzüm et al., 2008). Finally, 305 Taiwanese flight attendants perceived their (average) stress level to be 3.82 (Chen & Kao, 2012). In sum, the mean level of job stress found in the current study was similar to that reported in other countries. 4.2. Relations among variables Among the five job characteristics that comprised the MPS score, autonomy had the strongest correlation to the MPS score, followed by feedback. This result was consistent with the manner the score was calculated (see Section 3.2). Moreover, feedback was significantly correlated with task identity and task significance. This result suggested that providing feedback would be an efficient approach for guiding employees to form their job identities and understand what they should do to improve their performance. The correlation of autonomy to task significance was only marginally significant. The MPS score was significantly correlated with job satisfaction and job stress, but not life satisfaction. This finding suggested that

companies have the opportunities to improve the job satisfaction of employees and reduce their perceived level of job stress. Hence, autonomy and task significance played more significant roles than the other job characteristics. The human resource strategies to enrich frontline jobs will yield better outcomes if they focused on enhancing the sense of autonomy and empowerment of employees to help them realize their value and importance in the company. Consistent with the hypothesized expectations, job satisfaction was (significantly) correlated with life satisfaction, but negatively correlated with job stress. 4.3. Demographic differences Table 2 shows that age was positively correlated with most of the job characteristics, job satisfaction, and life satisfaction, but negatively correlated with job stress. However, work experience was negatively correlated with task identity. Additionally, a significant positive association was found between the number of dependents and skill variety, and the number of dependents and feedback. Age, work experience, and number of dependents should be expected to correlate because they reflect the life experience of employees. For instance, older employees often had more life experience in taking care of others, and such experiences may form their real expectations on job and life and facilitate them to cope with stressors and become satisfied with job and life. ANOVA was used to examine differences among participants because gender, educational background, and marital status were categorical in nature. With regard to gender, males had higher scores on skill variety (F ¼ 10.99, p < 0.01; male ¼ 3.50, female ¼ 2.81), autonomy (F ¼ 2.83, p ¼ 0.09; male ¼ 3.78, female ¼ 3.42), job satisfaction (F ¼ 4.34, p ¼ 0.04; male ¼ 4.23, female ¼ 4.03), life satisfaction (F ¼ 3.00, p ¼ 0.08; male ¼ 3.22, female ¼ 3.46), and job stress (F ¼ 2.92, p ¼ 0.09; male ¼ 3.78, female ¼ 3.45). Participants with various levels of education responded differently in terms of perceived level of autonomy (F ¼ 2.39, p ¼ 0.05), job satisfaction (F ¼ 3.03, p ¼ 0.02), and job stress (F ¼ 3.56, p ¼ 0.01). Specifically, the post hoc LSD analyses indicated that employees with the lowest level of education (M ¼ 3.48) had the lowest perceived level of autonomy (p ¼ 0.09). Employees with high school education (M ¼ 3.35) also had lower autonomy perceptions than individuals with a diploma (p ¼ 0.01) and/or college education (p ¼ 0.03). Similarly, individuals with an educational background below high school (M ¼ 3.99) perceived less job satisfaction than those with a diploma (M ¼ 4.31, p ¼ 0.03) and/or

32

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

Table 3 Examining structural models. Models

c2

df

(1) MPS as a latent variable with five job dimensions (2) Model (1) with three continuous control variablesa (3) Five job dimensions (MPS is not a latent variable) (4) Model (3) with three continuous control variables Compared model (1) and (2) Compared model (1) and (3) Compared model (2) and (4) Compared model (3) and (4)

531.68 638.75 521.50 636.24

322 394 315 390

Dc2

107.07 10.18 2.51 114.74

Ddf

72 7 4 75

Dc2/Ddf

1.49** 1.45 .63 1.53**

Sig.

p p p p

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

RMSEA

GFI

AGFI

NFI

CFI

IFI

.04 .04 .04 .04

.92 db .92 db

.89 e .89 e

.81 .79 .81 .78

.91 .90 .91 .90

.92 .91 .92 .91

0.005 0.179 0.643 0.002

Notes: a Three continuous control variables are age, work experience, and the number of dependents. b GFI and AGFI values were unavailable in AMOS outputs because of the randomly missing responses.

an undergraduate degree (M ¼ 4.40, p ¼ 0.04). Similarly, individuals with high school education (M ¼ 4.01) had less job satisfaction than those with a diploma (p ¼ 0.01) and/or an undergraduate degree (p ¼ 0.03). Employees with education below high school (M ¼ 4.23) perceived a considerably higher job stress than those with higher levels of education. With regard to marital status, feedback (F ¼ 4.40, p < 0.01) and task significance (F ¼ 2.67, p ¼ 0.05) were rated differently. Specifically, married employees (M ¼ 5.73) perceived more feedback than single individuals (M ¼ 4.97); meanwhile, married participants (M ¼ 5.51) also felt a stronger task significance than participants who are single (M ¼ 4.82). Compared with single employees, married employees perceived that their jobs provide information about (effective) performance and job importance. 4.4. Measurement validation Measurement scales were examined to demonstrate reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity (see Table 2). The Cronbach's a of the latent constructs ranged from .74 to .83; all of the items exceeded the suggested cut-off value of .70 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Moreover, the CR values were well above the suggested value of .70 (ranging from .85 to .91), except for job satisfaction (AVE ¼ .40). The AVEs of both life satisfaction and job stress exceeded the suggested .50 cut-off value (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The square roots of AVEs (ranging from .63 to .81) were all greater than the partial correlations between the construct and other variables (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; see Kleijnen, Ruyter, & Wetzels, 2007). The CFA results based on the four-factor model (MPS, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and job stress) suggested an adequate fit: c2 (324) ¼ 562.09 (p < 0.01), GFI ¼ .91, AGFI ¼ .89, IFI ¼ .90, NFI ¼ .80, CFI ¼ .90, RMSEA ¼ .04 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The relationships between job characteristics and attitudinal outcomes may be significant because of common method variance (CMV) from social information processing (Glick, Jenkins, & Gupta, 1986). Given that the present responses of dependent and independent variables were collected from a single self-reporting questionnaire survey, CMV concerns may exist and should be examined (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Harman's one-factor test (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Lee, 2003) allows researchers to examine any potential internal validity concerns that result from mono-method bias. A principal component analysis, testing all of the measurement items, extracted eight factors (initial eigenvalue > 1, rather than a single factor). These factors accounted for 58.51% of the variation, and the first and largest factor did not account for the majority of the variance (17.56%), indicating that mono-method bias should not be a major concern. 4.5. Examining the structural models The structural models were examined to identify the best-fit

pattern for the relationships among variables. As previously discussed, MPS could be a latent variable. The five dimensions might directly influence the attitudinal outcomes because they were not loaded equally. Second, the researchers tested whether continuous control variables should be included in the overall model. Age, work experience, and the number of dependents, as indicated in Section 3.2, were measured on continuous scales and influenced work and life attitudes. Taken together, the four models were constructed to identify the best-fit model. (1) MPS in the model was measured by five job dimensions; (2) Model 1 added three continuous variables; (3) five job dimensions were measured explicitly (MPS was not a latent variable); and (4) Model 3 added three continuous variables. The four models were tested, and their pairwise comparisons of fitness are shown in Table 3. Adding three control variables significantly improved the model fit of Model 1; however, whether treating MPS as a latent variable (model 3 vs. model 1) is a better approach remains unclear. Model 4 demonstrated better fitness than Model 3 when the control variables were considered. The results indicated that Model 4 exhibited the best fit; that is, we should differentiate the five job dimensions and include the control variables in the structural model. 4.6. Testing the hypotheses The path coefficients in Model 4 were used to examine the hypotheses (see Table 4). Skill variety was positively associated with job stress, but negatively associated with job satisfaction. The proposed relationships in H1a and H2a were both significant, but the directions were reversed because employees who experience stress were less satisfied when they feel that their jobs require a more diverse skill set. The findings implied that the efforts to enrich jobs by increasing skill variety would actually cause additional problems instead of provide a solution. Task significance had significant negative associations with job stress at .05 level. Its positive association with job satisfaction was significant at .10 level. Thus, H2b was supported, while H1b was marginally supported. Employees who perceived that their jobs were more important would feel less stress and have high levels of satisfaction. The strategies that aim to help employees realize their individual values and the importance of their contributions would be helpful in reducing job stress and improving motivations for employees. Task identity had a significant negative relationship with job stress, but did not have a significant relationship with job satisfaction. H2c was supported, but H1c was not. This result implied that employees with a stronger sense of task identity would feel less stress in the workplace, but this relationship would not hold between task identity and job satisfaction. The results indicated that clarifying job requirements to employees will help reduce their stress levels but will not motivate them. Autonomy negatively affected job stress and had no significant

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

33

Table 4 Path coefficients for testing hypotheses. DVs

IVs

B

S.E.

b

C.R.

Sig.

Tested hypotheses

Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Job Stress Job Stress Job Stress Job Stress Job Stress Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Job Stress Job Satisfaction Job Stress Job Satisfaction Job Stress Job Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction Life Satisfaction

Skill Variety Task Significance Task Identity Autonomy Feedback Skill Variety Task Significance Task Identity Autonomy Feedback Skill Variety Task Significance Task Identity Autonomy Feedback Job Satisfaction Job Stress Age Age Work Experience Work Experience Number of Dependents Number of Dependents Age Work Experience Number of Dependents

.04 .03 .01 1.55 .04 .12 .15 .09 .09 .01 .01 .12 .02 .04 .01 .93 .04 .04 .02 .03 .00 .09 .03 .01 .00 .04

.02 .01 .02 2.16 .02 .05 .04 .05 .05 .05 .03 .03 .03 .03 .03 .17 .04 .02 .01 .02 .01 .05 .02 .01 .01 .03

.13 .09 .02 4.86 .13 .14 .20 .11 .10 .02 .02 .23 .03 .07 .01 .50 .06 .14 .18 .11 .01 .11 .10 .03 .02 .08

2.47 1.80 .33 .72 2.43 2.47 3.58 1.89 1.83 .27 .29 4.37 .65 1.25 .15 5.39 .88 2.16 2.89 1.63 .18 1.76 1.83 .46 .33 1.46

.01 .07 .74 .47 .02 .01 <.01 .06 .07 .78 .77 <.01 .52 .21 .88 <.01 .38 .03 <.01 .10 .86 .08 .07 .64 .74 .14

H1a: Supported H1b: Supported H1c: Not Supported H1d: Not Supported H1e: Supported H2a: Supported H2b: Supported H2c: Supported H2d: Supported H2e: Not Supported H3a: Not Supported H3b: Supported H3c: Not Supported H3d: Not Supported H3e: Not Supported H4: Supported H5: Not Supported e e e e e e e e e

relationship with job satisfaction. H2d was supported, but H1d was not. In other words, employees who perceived higher levels of autonomy would feel less stress at work, whereas the perception of autonomy does not influence job satisfaction. This result suggested that more autonomy (e.g., service empowerment) would help reduce the stress levels of service staff but may not motivate them. Feedback had a significantly positive effect on job satisfaction, but not on job stress. H1e was supported, but H2e was not. Feedback indicated the extent to which an employee perceived that his/ her job provides information about (effective) performance, and therefore the positive relationship between feedback and job satisfaction implied that higher levels of job satisfaction were associated with jobs that provide information about performance. For instance, employees who received more feedback would be happier with their jobs, whereas job stress would not influence the amount of feedback employees received. Providing sufficient feedback to employees may help motivate them, but it may not reduce their work stress. Task significance also had a negative association with life satisfaction, whereas skill variety, autonomy, task identity, and feedback did not have significant associations with life satisfaction. H3b was supported, but H3a, H3c, H3d, and H3e were not. Employees who realize the importance of their job would be more likely to be satisfied with their lives, and to some extent, reflected the need of individuals for self-achievement. The management efforts that aim to improve the overall well-being of individuals should consider informing the employees about their specific contributions to service outcome and organizational performance. Job satisfaction had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction, whereas job stress did not. H4 was supported, but H5 was not. Intuitively, employees who liked their jobs would be happier about their lives, but surprisingly, individuals who are stressed at workplace were not necessarily more dissatisfied with their lives. When human resource management practices increase the satisfaction levels of employees toward their jobs, these efforts may offset the stress that individuals experience in life because the employees were happy and working diligently. In terms of control variables, age and the number of dependents

had significant associations with job stress and job satisfaction. These significant associations supported the demographic differences in Section 4.3. Older employees who were more accustomed to caring for dependents were more likely to feel satisfied with their jobs and less likely to be stressed. 5. Conclusions and implications The findings identified the effects of job characteristics on job satisfaction, job stress, and life satisfaction. The findings suggested management strategies for enriching hospitality jobs and intrinsically motivating frontline employees. Specifically, autonomy, task identity, and task significance reduce job stress, whereas feedback increases job satisfaction. Task significance can be used to enhance life satisfaction. Surprisingly, skill variety had a negative association with job satisfaction and a positive association with job stress. As expected, MPS was positively associated with job satisfaction, but negatively associated with job stress. Job satisfaction seemed to improve life satisfaction, but the passive influence of job stress on life satisfaction has not been established. 5.1. Theoretical discussion As indicated in the JCM framework (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), job characteristics are the critical antecedents of intrinsic workplace motivation (Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007). The current study suggested that various job characteristics in the hospitality context influenced the work and life attitudes of employees differently. First, skill variety, task significance, and task identity reflected the experiences of employees in the meaningfulness of work, but they have different roles. Task identity and task significance may reduce job stress significantly, but not job satisfaction. When hospitality employees are certain about their tasks in customer service and the importance of their jobs, they feel less job stress, but their satisfaction levels toward their jobs would not improve. In the two-factor theory on work motivation (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959), task identity and significance are more likely to be hygiene factors that release intrinsic job tensions

34

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

rather than intrinsic motivators (Kanfer, 1990; Robbins, 2000). However, the JCM originally recognized that these factors influence job satisfaction. Future research may have to examine the discrepancy between traditional theories and the results of this study. Further empirical studies may have to include job stress as an outcome of task identity and significance. Skill variety surprisingly has a negative relationship with job satisfaction but a positive relationship with job stress, which are different from the hypothesized effects. In other words, hospitality employees feel less satisfied and have higher stress levels when their jobs require greater skill. From the JCM perspective, employees should be more satisfied and have less stress because their jobs are enriched. However, the findings of this study seemed to support the job demandseresources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Bakker, Demerouti, De Boer, & Schaufeli, 2003; Bakker, ten Brummelhuis, Prins, & van der Heijden, 2011). When a job requires a greater variety of skills, (hospitality) employees may feel greater demands without an increase in job resources, which may engender withdrawal attitudes such as stress. Second, this study indicated that high autonomy reduced job stress but did not increase job satisfaction. The relationship between autonomy and job satisfaction and stress was similar to the roles of task identity and significance. These three job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, and task significance) may be hygiene factors, which could reduce the withdrawal attitudes (e.g., stress and dissatisfaction) but not improve satisfaction. Future research should examine the motivationalehygiene patterns of the role of job characteristics in work attitudes. Third, feedback reflected the knowledge of hospitality employee regarding work outcomes and the extent to which their work duties have been accomplished. The findings of this study suggested that feedback improved job satisfaction but did not decrease job stress. According to goal-setting theory (Locke, 1997; Locke & Latham, 1990), feedback provides individuals with information to adapt their work behavior to meet their goals, as well as sustain their commitment and motivation levels (Latham & Pinder, 2005). Employees should obtain high job satisfaction when the goals are accomplished. Future research may consider differentiating the role of feedback from that of other “hygiene” characteristics and explaining the effects of job characteristics more precisely in the workplace. Fourth, the composite score, MPS, is an index of the intrinsic motivation potential of a job. The results of this study suggested a positive relationship between MPS score and job satisfaction and a negative relationship between MPS and job stress. The magnitude of the relationship between MPS and work attitudes demonstrated the intrinsic motivation potential of a job. Job characteristics as intrinsic motivators are different from salary, rewards, bonus, and other extrinsic motivators; the meaningfulness, interests, responsibilities, and freedom from the job itself inspire, direct, and stimulate employee efforts to accomplish tasks (Kanfer, 1990). Work design and redesign for job enrichment and motivation would be an ideal approach for hospitality organizations to recruit and retain talented employees, as well as to use human resources more efficiently. Future research may have to focus on the potential of intrinsic motivation across hotels and among other service positions as well. Fifth, life satisfaction is influenced by task significance rather than the other four job characteristics and by job satisfaction instead of job stress. Task significance represents the feelings toward job importance. Higher levels of job significance allow individuals to feel that their contributions to service and the organization are greater, and thereby improve life satisfaction. By contrast, job and life satisfactions are positive measures of affects, whereas job stress reflects negative attitudes. Positive affects

would be more contagious and permeable among them than the spillovers between positive and negative affects (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). In addition, life satisfaction reflects quality of life and has much broader contents beyond job domain (Graves et al., 2007; Karatepe & Baddar, 2006; Lin et al., 2013b; London, Crandall, & Seals, 1977; Uysal et al., 2016). Job stress is a proximal factor of job satisfaction because they are in the job domain. But life satisfaction could be determined by a wide variety of factors outside job domain. Finally, age and the number of dependents represent the personal factors in the JCM framework, which influence job satisfaction. Elder employees with longer tenure tend to focus more on the job context, whereas younger individuals pay more attention to job content (Fried & Ferris, 1986). Individuals with longer tenures are more likely to differentiate job characteristics to achieve higher order needs by intrinsic motivation from the job. Subsequently, they are more likely to feel satisfied with the job. At the same time, the number of dependents reflects the demands of family, which may be incompatible with work roles and induce role conflict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Given the 24/7 nature and face-time culture of hospitality businesses (O'Neill & Xiao, 2010), employees with more dependents may encounter a higher level of workefamily role conflict. They may consequently attribute their problems to the work domain, and conclude that work demands prevent them from fulfilling family responsibilities. In the end, they feel less satisfied with their (hospitality) job (Zhao et al., 2011). 5.2. Practical implications The 24/7 nature and the face-time culture of hospitality businesses (O'Neill & Xiao, 2010) may create highly stressful environments for employees, thus engendering feelings of dissatisfaction with job and life. Strategies for carefully designing, evaluating, and redesigning jobs have been recommended to improve employee morale (Boella & Goss-Turner, 2013; Hinkin & Tracey, 2010; Kusluvan, Kusluvan, Ilhan, & Buyruk, 2010). Given that the five JCM dimensions play different roles in influencing the work and life attitudes of employees, efforts to enrich hospitality jobs should consider the specific patterns of their effect, and jobs should be designed in a manner that motivates frontline employees to appreciate their jobs and life activities. In the context of two-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1959), task identity, task significance, and autonomy are hygiene factors that are associated with job stress. To reduce employee stress levels at work, strategies that are carefully designed to focus on these hygiene factors should be implemented. Human resource managers and line managers should work together to provide employees with more freedom and a stronger sense of responsibility during the service provision process. For example, frontline employees could attend orientation sessions that will clearly inform them about their duties and the boundaries of their responsibilities. These sessions should also help employees establish distinct perceptions of the importance of their work. At service encounters, hotels should empower their employees to become more engaged and capable of providing individualized services. This strategy will help reduce their stress level at work. Second, feedback is a motivator that is associated with job satisfaction within the framework of two-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1959). Efforts to provide employees with clear and timely feedback may be rewarded with improved job satisfaction. Frontline employees should understand their work progress and learn how to bridge the gap between performance and goals. As a result, they would be able to adapt or adjust their work behaviors. During this adaptive process, they must feel the fulfillment of selfactualization needs after the goals have been achieved. To

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

facilitate this process, hotel managers should provide the required feedback. Skill variety is a double-edged sword. Efforts to increase skill variety in hospitality jobs may not always be appropriate or beneficial. Hence, the strategies should be carefully designed. Hospitality managers should gauge the tolerance of employees toward (increased) skill requirements. Additional support resources (e.g., mentorship) should be provided in a timely manner. Frontline employees would feel more satisfaction and less stress when they have strong social support while learning and using new skills within the hotels. Finally, hotel managers should consider the role of MPS in employee attitudes and use it efficiently. The composite MPS score is an index of intrinsic motivation and has a significant effect on job satisfaction and job stress. Managers would be able to undertake corrective actions in a timely manner when the motivations of employees start to “wear off.” In addition, managers should attempt to determine an objective method for measuring the motivation levels of a particular position such that more specific managerial decisions and practices can be implemented to gain better return on investment. 5.3. Limitations The survey was cross-sectional and correlational in nature. This design reduced the power of demonstrating causal relationships, and a future longitudinal study is necessary to establish causal

35

relationships. The job characteristic measures were the subjective agreement of employees on the given statements, and future research may consider the application of an objective scale such as a third-party evaluation (O'Reilly III & Caldwell, 1979; Rungtusanatham & Anderson, 1996). Also, if age was measured as a categorical variable, hotel employees could choose an age group they belong to. Then, the associations between age (as a categorical variable) and the study dependent variables could be examined by an ANOVA or Chi-square test. In the end, the results of the current study were from selected hotels, and the respondents did not fully represent all of the hotel employees. Generalizations of the findings and implications should be made with caution. Future research on job enrichment should consider the job demands and resources of employees and determine how job enrichment could leverage for better work outcomes under different combinations of increasingly required demands and available resources. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful for the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (71102097) and Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2014A030313177). Appendix

Descriptive Statistics of Survey Items Variable

Measurement items

M

SD

Skewness

MPS

(1) Skill Variety (2) Autonomy (3) Task Identity (4) Feedback (5) Task Significance (6) Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with my job. (7) I frequently think of quitting my job. (R) (8) Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with the kind of work I have to do on my job. (9) The feeling of self-esteem or self-respect a person gets from being in my job. (10) The opportunity for personal growth and development in my job. (11) The prestige of my job inside the company (that is, the regard received from others in the company). (12) The amount of close supervision I receive. (13) The opportunity for independent thought and action in my job. (14) The feeling of security in my job. (15) The pay for my job. (16) The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment in my job. (17) The opportunity, in my job, for participation in the determination of methods, procedures, and goals. (18) The opportunity to develop close friendships in my job. (19) The opportunity for promotion. (20) The amount of respect and fair treatment I receive from my boss. (21) In most ways my life is close to ideal. (22) The conditions of my life are excellent. (23) I am satisfied with my life. (24) So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. (25) If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. (26) My job (e.g., the type of work amount of responsibility, etc.) causes me a great deal of personal stress and anxiety. (27) Relations with the people I work with (e.g., co-workers, supervisors, subordinates) cause me a great deal of stress and anxiety. (28) General aspects of the hotel I work for (e.g., policies and procedures, general working conditions) tend to cause me a great deal of stress and anxiety

3.075 3.585 4.334 5.165 5.028 4.043 4.604 4.151

2.030 1.964 1.916 1.867 2.252 1.747 1.892 1.551

.471 .154 e.106 e.509 e.663 .027 e.244 .057

e.787 e.691 e.570 e.624 e.938 e.363 e.733 .308

.829 .548 .919 .628 .671 .704 .749 .788

4.146

1.796

e.106

e.420

.581

4.670

1.870

e.276

e.767

.496

4.104

1.436

.021

.843

.569

4.296 4.642

1.576 1.881

e.069 e.327

.266 e.649

.498 .452

4.265 3.177 3.872 4.040

1.826 1.801 1.702 1.861

e.090 .379 .058 e.009

e.548 e.531 e.157 e.617

.549 .603 .680 .754

4.728 3.475 4.169

1.852 1.785 1.735

e.347 .158 e.074

e.619 e.499 e.239

.557 .707 .679

3.690 3.350 3.631 2.576 3.484

1.792 1.580 1.961 1.678 1.822

.122 .071 .178 .778 .201

e.469 e.082 e.821 e.096 e.514

.776 .874 .787 .766 .749

3.919

2.295

.041

1.402

.828

3.165

2.195

.539

1.045

.780

3.776

2.261

.145

1.331

.821

Job Satisfaction

Life Satisfaction

Job Stress

Kurtosis

Factor loadings

36

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

References Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work-family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411e420. Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411e423. Arnold, H. J., & House, R. J. (1980). Methodological and substantive extensions to the job characteristics model of motivation. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance, 25(2), 161e183. Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74e94. Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: state of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22, 309e328. Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., De Boer, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). Job demands and job resources as predictors of absence duration and frequency. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62, 341e356. Bakker, A. B., ten Brummelhuis, L. L., Prins, J. T., & van der Heijden, F. M. M. A. (2011). Applying the job demandseresources model to the workehome interface: a study among medical residents and their partners. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(1), 170e180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.004. Bamundo, P. J., & Kopelman, R. E. (1980). The moderating effects of occupation, age, and urbanization on the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 17(1), 106e123. Barney, C. E., & Elias, S. M. (2010). Flex-time as a moderator of the job stress-work motivation relationship. Personnel Review, 39(4), 487e502. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1108/00483481011045434. Behson, S. J., Eddy, E. R., & Lorenzet, S. J. (2000). The importance of the critical psychological states in the job characteristics model: a meta-analytic and structural equations modeling examination. Current Research in Social Psychology, 5(12), 170e189. Boella, M., & Goss-Turner, S. (2013). Human resource management in the hospitality industry: A guide to best practice (9th ed.). New York: Routledge. Boonzaier, B., Ficker, B., & Rust, B. (2001). A review of research on the job characteristics model and the attendant job diagnostic survey. South African Journal of Business Management, 32(1), 11e34. Brief, A. P. (1998). Attitudes in and around organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Byrd, K. R., Hageman, A., & Isle, D. B. (2007). RESEARCH: intrinsic motivation and subjective well-being: the unique contribution of intrinsic religious motivation. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17(2), 141e156. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/10508610701244155. Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: a 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 980e1008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035661. Chang, S., Gong, Y., & Shum, C. (2011). Promoting innovation in hospitality companies through human resource management practices. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(4), 812e818. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhm.2011.01.001. Chen, C.-F., & Kao, Y.-L. (2012). Investigating the antecedents and consequences of burnout and isolation among flight attendants. Tourism Management, 33(4), 868e874. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.09.008. Cheung, C., & Law, R. (1998). Hospitality service quality and the role of performance appraisal. Managing Service Quality, 8(6), 402e406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 09604529810235088. Chiang, F. F. T., Birtch, T. A., & Cai, Z. (2014). Front-line service employees' job satisfaction in the hospitality industry: the influence of job demand variability and the moderating roles of job content and job context factors. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 55(4), 398e407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1938965513514628. Choi, H. J., & Kim, Y. T. (2012). Work-family conflict, work-family facilitation, and job outcomes in the Korean hotel industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(7), 1011e1028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 09596111211258892. Choi, Y. G., Kwon, J., & Kim, W. (2013). Effects of attitudes vs experience of workplace fun on employee behaviors: focused on generation Y in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 25(3), 410e427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111311311044. Cummings, T. G., & Bigelow, J. (1976). Satisfaction, job involvement, and intrinsic motivation: an extension of Lawler and Hall's factor analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61(4), 523e525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.61.4.523. Dalton, D. W., Davis, A. B., & Viator, R. E. (2015). The joint effect of unfavorable supervisory feedback environments and external mentoring on job attitudes and job outcomes in the public accounting profession. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 27(2), 53e76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/bria-51183. Dawson, M., Abbott, J., & Shoemaker, S. (2011). The hospitality culture scale: a measure organizational culture and personal attributes. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(2), 290e300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhm.2010.10.002. Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1995). Resources, personal strivings, and subjective wellbeing: a nomothetic and ideographic approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 926e935. Duncan, T., Scott, D. G., & Baum, T. (2013). The mobilities of hospitality work: an exploration of issues and debates. Annals of Tourism Research, 41, 1e19. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.10.004.

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39e50. Fried, Y., & Ferris, G. R. (1986). The dimensionality of job characteristics: some neglected issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 419e426. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.419. Futrell, C. M. (1977). The impact of manager's job characteristics and performance on satisfaction, involvement, and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Management, 3(1), 27e33. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct¼true&db¼buh&AN¼7195032&site¼ehost-live. Ghiselli, R. E., La Lopa, J. M., & Bai, B. (2001). Job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and turnover intent among food-service managers. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 42(2), 28e37. Glick, W. H., Jenkins, G. D., Jr., & Gupta, N. (1986). Method versus substance: how strong are underlying relationships between job characteristics and attitudinal outcomes? Academy of Management Journal, 29(3), 441e464. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2307/256218. Grandey, A. A., Dickter, D. N., & Sin, H.-P. (2004). The customer is not always right: customer aggression and emotion regulation of service employees. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 397e418. Graves, L. M., Ohlott, P. J., & Ruderman, M. N. (2007). Commitment to family roles: effects on manager's attitudes and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 44e56. Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76e88. Gross, M. J., & Huang, S. S. (2011). Exploring the internationalisation prospects of a Chinese domestic hotel firm. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(2), 261e274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111111119365. Hackman, J. R., & Lawler, E. E. (1971). Employee reactions to job characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55(3), 259e286. Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250e279. Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley. Higgins, C. A., Duxbury, L. E., & Irving, R. H. (1992). Work-family conflict in the dualcareer family. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 51(1), 51e75. Hinkin, T. R., & Tracey, J. B. (2010). What makes it so great? an analysis of human resources practices among fortune's best companies to work for. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 51(2), 158e170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1938965510362487. Hinton, M., & Biderman, M. (1995). Empirically derived job characteristics measures and the motivating potential score. Journal of Business and Psychology, 9(4), 355e364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02230975. Hon, A. H. Y., & Leung, A. S. M. Q. (2011). Employee creativity and motivation in the Chinese context: the moderating role of organizational culture. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 52(2), 125e134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1938965511403921. Humphrey, S. E., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Integrating motivational, social, and contextual work design features: a meta-analytic summary and theoretical extension of the work design literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1332e1356. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.5.1332. Ilies, R., Wilson, K. S., & Wagner, D. T. (2009). The spillover of daily job satisfaction onto employees' family lives: the facilitating role of work-family integration. Academy of Management Journal, 52(1), 87e102. szlo , J. (2013). Employee loyalty in Hungarian hotels. Ineson, E. M., Benke, E., & La International Journal of Hospitality Management, 32(1), 31e39. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.04.001. Jamal, M. (1990). Relationship of job stress and type-a behavior to employees' job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychosomatic health problems, and turnover motivation. Human Relations, 43(8), 727e738. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/001872679004300802. Jha, S. S., & Nair, S. K. (2008). Influence of locus of control, job characteristics and superior-subordinate relationship on psychological empowerment: a study in five star hotels. Journal of Management Research, 8(3), 147e161. Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory and industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (second ed., Vol. 1, pp. 75e170). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Karatepe, O. M., & Baddar, L. (2006). An empirical study of the selected consequences of frontline employees' work-family conflict and family-work conflict. Tourism Management, 27(5), 1017e1028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.tourman.2005.10.024. Karatepe, O. M., & Bekteshi, L. (2008). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family facilitation and family-work facilitation among frontline hotel employees. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(4), 517e528. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.09.004. Karatepe, O. M., & Tekinkus, M. (2006). The effects of work-family conflict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation on job outcomes of front-line employees. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 24(2/3), 173e193. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1108/02652320610659021. Kara, D., Uysal, M., Sirgy, M. J., & Lee, G. (2013). The effects of leadership style on employee well-being in hospitality. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 9e18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.02.001.

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38 Khalilzadeh, J., Chiappa, G. D., Jafari, J., & Borujeni, H. Z. (2013). Methodological approaches to job satisfaction measurement in hospitality firms. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 25(6), 865e882. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-05-2012-0067. Kim, H. J. (2008). Hotel service providers' emotional labor: the antecedents and effects on burnout. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(2), 151e161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.07.019. Kim, K., & Jogaratnam, G. (2010). Effects of individual and organizational factors on job satisfaction and intent to stay in the hotel and restaurant industry. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 9(3), 318e339. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/15332845.2010.487043. Kim, H. J., Shin, K. H., & Umbreit, W. T. (2007). Hotel job burnout: the role of personality characteristics. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26(2), 421e434. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2006.03.006. Kleijnen, M., Ruyter, K. D., & Wetzels, M. (2007). An assessment of value creation in mobile service delivery and the moderating role of time consciousness. Journal of Retailing, 83(1), 33e46. Klein, D. J., & Verbeke, W. (1999). Autonomic feedback in stressful environments: how do individual differences in autonomic feedback relate to burnout, job performance, and job attitudes in salespeople? Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(6), 911e924. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.6.911. Kong, H., Cheung, C., & Song, H. (2011). Hotel career management in China: developing a measurement scale. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 112e118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.07.003. Kuruüzüm, A., Anafarta, N., & Irmak, S. (2008). Predictors of burnout among middle managers in the Turkish hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 20(2), 186e198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 09596110810852168. Kusluvan, S., Kusluvan, Z., Ilhan, I., & Buyruk, L. (2010). The human dimension: a review of human resources management issues in the tourism and hospitality industry. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 51(2), 171e214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1938965510362871. Latham, G. P., & Pinder, C. C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 485e516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142105. Lawler, E. E., & Hall, D. T. (1970). Relationship of job characteristics to job involvement, satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 54(4), 305e312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0029692. Law, J., Pearce, P. L., & Woods, B. A. (1995). Stress and coping in tourist attraction employees. Tourism Management, 16(4), 277e284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ 0261-5177(95)00017-I. Lee-Ross, D. (1998a). A practical theory of motivation applied to hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 10(2), 68e74. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596119810207219. Lee-Ross, D. (1998b). The reliability and rationale of Hackman and Oldham's job diagnostic survey and job characteristics model among seasonal hotel workers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 17(4), 391e406. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4319(98)00034-6. Lee-Ross, D. (2005). Perceived job characteristics and internal work motivation: an exploratory cross-cultural analysis of the motivational antecedents of hotel workers in Mauritius and Australia. Journal of Management Development, 24(3), 253e266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621710510584062. Lee-Ross, D., & Pryce, J. (2005). A preliminary study of service predispositions amongst hospitality workers in Australia. Journal of Management Development, 24(5), 410e420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621710510598436. Lin, J.-H., Wong, J.-Y., & Ho, C.-h. (2013a). Promoting frontline employees' quality of life: leisure benefit system and work-to-leisure conflicts. Tourism Management, 36(1), 178e187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.12.009. Lin, J.-H., Wong, J.-Y., & Ho, C.-h. (2013b). Promoting frontline employees' quality of life: leisure benefit systems and work-to-leisure conflicts. Tourism Management, 36(0), 178e187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.12.009. Li, L., & Tse, E. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of expatriate satisfaction in the Asian Pacific. Tourism Management, 19(2), 135e143. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/S0261-5177(97)00105-2. Locke, E. A. (1997). The motivation to work: what we know. In M. L. Maehr, & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 375e412). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Loher, B. T., Noe, R. A., Moeller, N. L., & Fitzgerald, M. P. (1985). A meta-analysis of the relation of job characteristics to job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(2), 280e289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.70.2.280. London, M., Crandall, R., & Seals, G. W. (1977). The contribution of job and leisure satisfaction to quality of life. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(3), 328e334. Magnini, V. P., Lee, G., & Kim, B. P. (2011). The cascading affective consequences of exercise among hotel workers. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(5), 624e643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111111143377. Motowidlo, S. J., Packard, J. S., & Manning, M. R. (1986). Occupational stress: its causes and consequences for job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(4), 618e629. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. O'Neill, J. W., & Davis, K. (2011). Work stress and well-being in the hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(2), 385e390. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.07.007.

37

O'Neill, J. W., & Xiao, Q. (2010). Effects of organizational/occupational characteristics and personality traits on hotel manager emotional exhaustion. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(4), 652e658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhm.2009.12.004. O'Reilly, C. A., III, & Caldwell, D. F. (1979). Informational influence as a determinant of perceived task characteristics and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64(2), 157e165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.64.2.157. Øgaard, T., Marnburg, E., & Larsen, S. (2008). Perceptions of organizational structure in the hospitality industry: consequences for commitment, job satisfaction and perceived performance. Tourism Management, 29(4), 661e671. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tourman.2007.07.006. Okoroafo, S. C., Koh, A., Liu, L., & Jin, X. (2010). Hotels in China: a comparison of indigenous and subsidiaries strategies. Journal of Management Research, 2(1), 1e10. Ozturk, A. B., Hancer, M., & Im, J. Y. (2014). Job characteristics, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment for hotel workers in Turkey. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(3), 294e313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 19368623.2013.796866. Pearce, J. L. (1983). Job attitude and motivation differences between volunteers and employees from comparable organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(4), 646e652. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.68.4.646. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, N. P., & Lee, J.-Y. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879e903. Robbins, S. P. (2000). Organizational behavior (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Rungtusanatham, M., & Anderson, J. C. (1996). A clarification on conceptual and methodological issues related to the job characteristics model. Journal of Operations Management, 14(4), 357e367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S02726963(96)00094-0. Saavedra, R., & Kwun, S. K. (2000). Affective states in job characteristics theory. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(2), 131e146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-1379(200003)21:2<131::AID-JOB39>3.0.CO;2-Q. nez, M. D. M., Arte s, J., & Salinas-Jime nez, J. (2010). Income, motivation, Salinas-Jime and satisfaction with life: an empirical analysis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(6), 779e793. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9185-y. Schaubroeck, J., Cotton, J. L., & Jennings, K. R. (1989). Antecedents and consequences of role stress: a covariance structure analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10(1), 35e58. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasiexperimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Shani, A., & Pizam, A. (2009). Work-related depression among hotel employees. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 50(4), 446e459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1938965509344294. Shirazi, A., GolestaniNia, M., MehrganRad, M., & Naghdali, M. A. (2012). Examining job characteristics model in the oriental culture. International Journal of Business and Management Research, 5(1), 42e50. Sultan, S. (2012). Examining the job characteristics: a matter of employees' work motivation and job satisfaction. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 22(2), 13e25. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct¼true&db¼aph&AN¼88432335&site¼ehost-live. Susskind, A. M., Borchgrevink, C. P., Kacmar, K. M., & Brymer, R. A. (2000). Customer service employees' behavioral intentions and attitudes: an examination of construct validity and a path model. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 19(1), 53e77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4319(99)00030-4. Teas, R. K. (1983). Supervisory behavior, role stress, and the job satisfaction of industrial salespeople. Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), 20(1), 84e91. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct¼true&db¼ufh&AN¼5001321&site¼ehost-live. Tepeci, M., & Bartlett, A. L. B. (2002). The hospitality industry culture profile: a measure of individual values, organizational culture, and person-organization fit as predictors of job satisfaction and behavioral intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 21(2), 151e170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0278-4319(01)00035-4. Tromp, D. M., & Blomme, R. J. (2012). The effect of effort expenditure, job control and work-home arrangements on negative work-home interference in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(4), 1213e1221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.02.011. Uruthirapathy, A. A., & Grant, G. G. (2015). The influence of job characteristics on IT and non-IT job professional's turnover intentions. Journal of Management Development, 34(6), 715e728. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JMD-03-2014-0025. Uysal, M., Sirgy, M. J., Woo, E., & Kim, H. (2016). Quality of life (QOL) and well-being research in tourism. Tourism Management, 53, 244e261. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.tourman.2015.07.013. Vanderpool, C., & Way, S. A. (2013). Investigating work-family balance, job anxiety, and turnover intentions as predictors of health care and senior services customer-contact employee voluntary turnover. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 54(2), 149e160. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1938965513478682. Vittersø, J. (2003). Flow versus life satisfaction: a projective use of cartoons to illustrate the difference between the evaluation approach and the intrinsic motivation approach to subjective quality of life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4(2), 141e167. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct¼true&db¼aph&AN¼10838909&site¼ehost-live. Wan, Y. K. P., & Chan, S. H. J. (2013). Casino employees' perceptions of their quality of

38

X. Zhao et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 27 (2016) 27e38

work life. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 348e358. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.11.010. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063e1070. Wiesner, M., Windle, M., & Freeman, A. (2005). Work stress, substance use, and depression among young adult workers: an examination of main and moderator effect model. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2), 83e96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.2.83. Wininger, S., & Birkholz, P. (2013). Sources of instructional feedback, job satisfaction, and basic psychological needs. Innovative Higher Education, 38(2), 159e170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10755-012-9229-9. Wong, A., & Chan, A. (2010). Understanding the leadership perceptions of staff in China's hotel industry: integrating the macro- and micro-aspects of leadership contexts. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(3), 437e447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.01.003. Yang, N., Chen, C. C., Choi, J., & Zou, Y. (2000). Sources of work-family conflict: a Sino-U.S. comparison of the effects of work and family demands. Academy of Management Journal, 43(1), 113e123. Yavas, U., Babakus, E., & Karatepe, O. M. (2008). Attitudinal and behavioral consequences of work-family conflict and family-work conflict: does gender matter? International Journal of Service Industry Management, 19(1), 7e31. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1108/09564230810855699. Yeh, C. M. (2013). Tourism involvement, work engagement and job satisfaction among frontline hotel employees. Annals of Tourism Research, 42, 214e239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.02.002. Young, C. A., & Corsun, D. L. (2010). Burned! the impact of work aspects, injury, and job satisfaction on unionized cooks' intentions to leave the cooking occupation. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 34(1), 78e102. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/1096348009349816. Zaccaro, S. J., & Stone, E. F. (1988). Incremental validity of an empirically based measure of job characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(2), 245e252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.245. Zhao, X., Qu, H., & Ghiselli, R. (2011). Examining the relationship of workefamily conflict to job and life satisfaction: a case of hotel sales managers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 46e54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhm.2010.04.010.

Richard Ghiselli, PhD, is a Professor and Head of the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Purdue University. His research on turnover in the foodservice industry has included a strong focus on hospitality industry applications and use of research information to improve operations.

Xinyuan (Roy) Zhao, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in Hospitality Management at Business School, Sun Yat-Sen University (SYSBS). His research focuses on work and family relationships of employees in the tourism and hospitality contexts.

Jing (Joy) Ma is a PhD student in School of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Purdue University. Her research interests lie in restaurant management, particularly in restaurant operations with an emphasis on transferring research results to practical applications.

Rob Law, Ph.D. is a Professor at the School of Hotel and Tourism Management, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. His research interests are information management and technology applications.