Mountain expeditions: minimising the impact

Environmental Impact Assessment Review 22 (2002) 561 – 581 www.elsevier.com/locate/eiar

Mountain expeditions: minimising the impact Jagdish C. Kuniyal* G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Himachal Unit, Mohal-Kullu (H.P.), Pin. 175 126, India Received 1 June 2001; received in revised form 1 June 2002; accepted 1 June 2002

Abstract Mountains of the world are the prime sources of glaciers and scenic beauty. However, for the last two decades biotic pressure due to expeditions, trekking, tourism and transhumance practices by the shepherds is continuously increasing in these areas. Practices like indiscriminate throwing of wastes, leaving behind self generated wastes and emission of poisonous gases from unattended wastes, cutting of trees like Rhododendron spp. (for fuelwood), introduction of hybrid sheep to replace indigenous ones, extraction of invaluable and endangered medicinal plants, reduction in wildlife because of illegal hunting and poaching (for meat, skin and medicine) adversely affect the expedition areas. The study conducted in one of the expeditions to the Pindari Valley of Indian Himalayas shows that 60.68% nonbiodegradable waste problem can be resolved by reuse (39.34%) and recycling (21.34%). But all the wastes need to be brought back by the visitors from expedition/trekking areas to the road heads for easy transportation to places where it can be re-used, recycled or new products discovered with innovative recovery initiatives. Also, public involvement in minimising the adverse eco-impacts is a must. Under such high biotic pressure, problem of solid waste, high melting rate of glaciers, a rational use of scarce local resources is urgently needed. D 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Mountain expeditions; Eco-impacts; Mitigating measures

1. Introduction The snow capped mountains remain the perennial source of water in the form of glaciers and are also of a scenic beauty to the admirers of nature. Today, due to * Tel.: +91-01902-25329; fax: +91-01902-22720. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (J.C. Kuniyal). 0195-9255/02/$ – see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 9 5 - 9 2 5 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 3 1 - 8

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high biotic pressures and the indiscriminate throwing of wastes in these areas, the glaciers are receding and also their scenic beauty is fading fast. If this problem continues to intensify and is not tackled within time, it might spread in many more areas causing more adverse eco-impacts than are present. Heavy biotic pressure on fragile and glacial landscapes is caused by the expeditions, grazing activities in downslope regions, waste left behind by the visitors, and emission of toxic gases from the unattended wastes. These factors hamper growth of grass and delicate plants and disturbance is also caused to wildlife by the noisy activities of the expedition members. Exploitation of the scarce locally available resources have a high pressure again due to expedition members who have to stay in these areas. Their stay in the area is normally for a duration of 30– 45 days or sometimes more. Exploitation of trees for campfires and fuel wood, extinction of medicinal herbs because of uprooting and plucking by the visitors, villagers, and grazing by sheep, goats, horses and other animals, disappearance of wildlife due to poaching and hunting are some of the other unwanted eco-impacts on the local resources. Contamination of water and health hazards due to unattended solid wastes, shortage in water supply and health disorders in human population inhabiting downstream areas could be some other adverse eco-impact implications in these areas. The present attempt is to highlight some of the similar observations pertaining to eco-impacts made during the expedition to Pindari Valley of Central Himalaya of India in 1998. The study was aimed to provide a discussion on the growth of expeditions and treks, the eco-impacts arising due to expedition/trekking activities and measures to mitigate their adverse impacts. These mitigative measures could not be limited only to the expeditions conducted in developing countries but also to the expeditions conducted at the global level. It is the need of the hour to minimise the adverse impacts in such places the world over by conservation and preservation of the environment of these eco-hot-spot regions on which humanity is dependent whether directly or indirectly.

2. Overview of the growth in expeditions and trekking Every year, thousands of tourists, pilgrims, mountaineers and trekkers visit the expedition and trekking areas of the mountains. Such groups have left huge amounts of waste material behind them (Naithani et al., 2001). Solid wastes have heaped up due to the lack of proper disposal sites at these expedition and trekking areas. Absence of any formal garbage managing authority in these trekking localities and the inadequate infrastructure of the carrying capacity are aggravating pollution conditions in the trekking areas in the Himalayas (Kumar, 1988; Jain and Kuniyal, 1994, 1995; Kuniyal and Jain, 1994, 1999; Kuniyal et al., 1995, 1998; Jain et al., 1996; Bedi and Pattnaik, 1999). Similar is the case in one of the most climbed mountains of the world—Mount (Mt.) Everest. Since it was first climbed in 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary, till today, oxygen bottles, food

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packaging and even the tents have been left behind. Sir Edmund Hillary openly admits that he has left the refuse at will on the slopes of Mt. Everest. At that time environmental conservation from biotic pressure was an alien concept. He did not know that some day crowds would follow his footsteps and the litter of other expedition members would be strewn from the base camp to the South Col, and it would become an unsightly eyesore (Hillary and Lowe, 1954; Kauder, 1999). Similarly, the tourists in Chitral and in the northern areas of Pakistan identify pollution and trash as the major problems they encounter during their visits. In certain high concentration areas of adventure tourists, such as, Gilgit, Hunza, and the Baltoro Glacier, recycling and trash disposal facilities are considered an immediate necessity (Mock and O’Neil, 1996). As mountain climbing expeditions began to be popularised as an adventurous activity among mountaineers, trekkers, sports men and military personnel in the Himalayas (Smythe, 1930, 1932, 1942; Hunt, 1953; Hillary and Lowe, 1954; Hillary, 1955, 1999; Mason, 1955; Baume, 1979; Siegrist, 1996), China and Tibet, Asia Pacific (Rowell, 1983), Rocky (Smythe, 1950; Fraser, 1969; May, 1973; Ortenburger, 1965; McMurtry, 1993), Alps (Whymper, 1880; Rebuffat, 1954/1999; Fleming, 2000), East Africa (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Kalama hill-Nzauni, and Ruwenzori) (Wielichowski, 1986) and on the other parts of the planet (Selters, 1990; Storer, 1950) the load of garbage in these areas has continued to increase. Mt. Everest (Smythe, 1937; Murray, 1953; Kropp and Lagercrantz, 1997; Krakauer, 1998; Gammelgaard, 1999; Hemmleb et al., 1999; Unsworth, 2000; Norgay and Coburn, 2001) and Annapurna (Herzog, 1952; Messner, 2000) in the Himalayas have been the first choice of many such expedition groups. Women, too, are equally adventurous. Some of them have conquered Mt. Everest both—via North Col as well as via South Col (O’Dowd, 1999). The sad part of the expeditions is that the members started to hide the waste. They throw it into crevasses around the base camps. Over the passage of time, the glacier spat the garbage out at the foot of the peaks. In Khumbu Ice Fall in Nepal, the garbage was found in its original condition (Kauder, 1999). No clear focus was placed on adventure climbing and the nature of conservation of these sensitive areas. To climb the targeted peaks was the only aim of expedition members. The adverse impacts arising out of their routine activities, indiscriminate throwing of wastes and negligence about bringing back the wastes never struck their mind. There has been a dearth of similar kind of studies conducted which may have served to awaken and motivate the adventurous persons in different countries. This idea should have been helpful in disseminating the thought profusely among expedition groups. Members of the different environment conservation groups in the various parts of the world would have put into practice the measures for environmental conservation by the expedition members at their own level before setting out in the mountains. The expedition locations in the high mountains of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, England (Hanemann, 2000), Pakistan (Mock and O’Neil, 1996), India and Nepal (Jayal and Motwani, 1986; Ortner, 1999) have

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particularly had very few similar kind of studies which may provide a basis for the conservation measures during these expeditions and treks. In fact, all the major mountains of the world which are targeted for expeditions need to have both, intensively and extensively, the similar kinds of studies done before more damage is caused. This is important at each country’s own level where expeditions/treks have already been going on for long. The measures suggested by these studies should be accessible to all concerned and be feasible for applying at ground level by every expedition agency, guide or member. The proper time to take up these steps is when the permission for the expedition is granted by the country. A general overview of the important international guides and agencies conducting these expeditions/treks in many parts of the planet shows that the conservation aspect during the expedition or trek is rarely being linked with their main objective. These areas with fragile topography as well as being ecologically sensitive can only tolerate a minimum degree of anthropogenic interference, other biotic pressure and a bare minimum load of waste. So to conserve the sensitive environment, while conducting an expedition or trekking and to make the surroundings aesthetically pleasing and ecologically sustainable, is the topmost conservation practice priority of today’s world. This is particularly so keeping in mind the generations to come. The top priorities of current research and development should, therefore, be towards pollution mitigation research. During the expedition to the Pindari Valley in Central Himalaya of India in 1998, in which the author participated, it emerges that inorganic waste contents are largely degrading forests and pastures (which remain the sources of fuelwood, timber, grass and grazing), terraced crop fields, and human and livestock resources. Villagers living downward to the trekking region of Central Himalaya are now of the view that they were getting cold drink bottles and pieces of plastic in place of potatoes while ploughing their fields. Of course, if waste is treated scientifically it might be a source of income for the many unemployed seeking scarce jobs. Quantities of inorganic waste are high in trekking and expedition areas of the Himalayas or any other similar mountain areas of the world which are under pressure by similar activities. Wastes such as broken glass, plastic and others mostly remain lying on trekking paths, in the grass and in crop fields where they are prone to cause injuries to humans and livestock. The Indian Himalayas, for example, suffer in particular from: (1) lack of proper disposal sites due to hilly topography and scarcity of suitable land to dispose the wastes; (2) negligence of expedition members, trekkers, tourists and local people in managing the self generated wastes in their day-to-day activities due to lack of environmental education and awareness; (3) problem in transporting back the wastes from expedition/trekking areas to road heads; (4) lack of coordination between the visitors, villagers, related managing authorities, administration and research institutions; and (5) inadequate funding for its research and development under solid waste management (Kuniyal et al., 1998; Kuniyal and Jain, 1999).

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The worldwide recession of mountain glaciers is a result of global warming. Emission of hazardous gases from factories, such as in case of cities in the plains, have nothing to do much directly in increasing local temperature in the mountains without these similar kind of big factories. Rather, global warming is directly related with high human interference and heavy biotic pressure, particularly in mountain areas. Local temperature is primarily increasing in mountain areas due to trekking/expedition activities, other biotic pressures such as transhumance practices in sub-alpine and alpine regions, and leaving behind and open dumping of wastes during expedition/trekking activities. This increase in the surrounding local temperature of the glacier environment is, so to speak, adding fuel to the fire in raising the global temperature. As such, the increase in local temperature in the surrounding environment plays a vital role in accelerating the melting rate of snow. Looking at these alarming eco-impacts on sensitive natural systems of the trekking and glacier environment, some sensible expedition members have recently shown an interest to mitigate the worsening situation by bringing back their own as well as others’ wastes. Only in the early 1990s did the interest turn towards conservation. In 1990, an expedition team from New Zealand removed about 4000 kg of garbage from the popular Base Camp on the Nepal side (Kauder, 1999). The efforts of Naumann and other Himalayan climbers are being praised by the media as photographs of the litter-strewn South Col of Mt. Everest are now an inevitable part of any Everest slide show, magazine article or book (Kauder, 1999). In addition to the efforts currently being made by the expedition members, some of the countries like Nepal have realised the importance of conservation of nature and begun to enforce laws to reduce pollution in expedition and trekking areas. Currently, 18 minor trekking peaks for adventure travellers in Nepal have been opened up for alpine climbing by the Nepal Mountaineering Association (NMA). Peaks above 6654 m are declared as mountaineering peaks in Nepal, and these are controlled under the rules and regulations formulated by the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (Anonymous, 2001b). In 1993, the Nepalese government instituted an ‘‘environmental deposit’’ of US$4000 in addition to the US$50,000 permit from the climbing parties to Mt. Everest (Kauder, 1999). The deposit is returned to the climbing party after it shows that it has packed its garbage out and has arranged to return it to its country of origin. Quoting the first Everest climber—Sir Edmund Hillary, Chris Naumann says, ‘‘It was an age of exploration. If it had been climbed, they thought no one would want to do it again’’. Naumann adds that they found trash from as early as a 1956 Swiss expedition (Kauder, 1999). Members of the 1994 Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) Environmental Expedition (SEE) in Nepal including Naumann, Bishop, the late Scott Fischer and others— instituted a self-perpetuating programme in which climbers pay Sherpas (Nepali workers) extra at the rate of US$2 for every 10 kg of garbage collected at base camps. This programme removed a total of 2292 kg of paper, plastic, tin, glass, batteries and oxygen bottles (Kauder, 1999).

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The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) region in Central Himalaya of India is a famous eco-sensitive place, which has been declared as world heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). But in spite of the fragility of this region, many expeditions are conducted in these locations. Some expedition groups here have also realised the importance of conserving the environment by lifting garbage in Central Himalaya of India. During the Pindari expedition of 1998, with a similar view to awaken the expedition members, as also villagers in the surrounding areas, a horse-load, that is nearly 80 kg of waste, was brought back by the expedition group, of which the author was a member. This step was just symbolic, in the nature of a token to awaken the people to the fact that waste is not waste, rather it can be converted into a resource if sold to rag pickers (Kuniyal, 1999, 2001, pp. 18– 22). This waste was ultimately sold to a rag picker at the district headquarters—Bageshwar. On 2 September 2001, in another instance, the military officers of Garhwal Rifles, in collaboration with the Forest Department of Uttaranchal and the Wild Life Institute of India, Dehradun, launched a mission to bring back loads of waste left behind by past visitors in NDBR during expeditions to Mt. Nanda Devi (7817 m). About 800 kg of nonbiodegradable waste was cleaned under such an ecorestoration mission. This successful expedition took 40 days (Anonymous, 2001a, p. 3; TOI, 2001, p. 7).

3. Eco-impacts due to expedition/trekking 3.1. Biotic pressure Expedition members, although they are generally in small numbers, exert a disproportionately high pressure on nature due to their long stretch of stay (about 30– 45 days or sometimes more) to climb the peaks. The length of stay is largely dependent on prevailing weather and snow conditions. For example, based on our duration of stay of 40 days, our 20 expedition members created a pressure equal to 800 persons day 1 on the glacier environment. From the point of view of the visitors’ inflow, 2000 visitors, on an average, visit Pindari Valley annually. Suitability of the season and the choice of a particular expedition peak are factors which do much to influence the expedition members. This ultimately exerts a pressure on certain areas of the region where the expedition is carried out. The expedition time varies from one part of the globe to another depending again on the season. If the expedition is to be conducted in the Himalayas, its appropriate time is between March –May and August –September (Table 1). Expedition time in the Alps in Europe is July and August, whereas in the Rocky Mountains in North America, it is April –June. On the other hand, suppose an expedition is to be conducted in South America, the preferable time is January– February. Similarly, in Mt. Kilimanjaro of East Africa, the suitable months are

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Table 1 World’s famous expedition peaks and tentative season of most of the expedition members to summit Continents

Expedition peaks/countries

Tentative months/season to summit

Africa Antarctica Asia

Kilimanjaro (5896 m), Tanzania Vinson Massif (4897 m) Bhutan Trek, Bhutan Carstensz Pyramid (4884 m), Indonesia Cho Oyu (8201 m), Tibet, China Elbrus (5633 m), Russia Everest (8848 m), North Ridge, Tibet, China Everest, South Col, Nepal Everest, Base camp trek, Tibet, China and Nepal Tibet Trek: Cho Oyu and Everest Base Camps, Tibet (China) Blue Mountains near Sydney, Australia Southern Alps, Mount Cook National Park, South Island, New Zealand Alps (classics and advanced climbs) – Jungfrau (4162 m) in Bernese Alps, and Monch (4100 m) Advanced: Monte Rosa (4635 m), the highest peak in Switzerland, Mont Blanc (4811 m) the highest peak of Alps in France, Matterhorn (4479 m) Northern Italy and the Dolomites, Italy Blackburn (4878 m), Wrangell/St. Elias, Alaska, USA Huayna Potosi and Illimani Climb, Bolivia Logan (6052 m), Canada Mexico volcanoes, Mexico Ouray Ice Climbing, Colorado Rainier, USA Whitney, CA, USA Wrangel/St. Elias, the largest national park in the US includes the peaks Blackburn (4997 m) Aconcagua (6962 m), Argentina Amazon jungle and basin; an extraordinary voyage (4200 m mile long), Brazil Ecuador volcanoes, Ecuador Alpamayo and Quitaraju, Peru

January, February, June – October January, November – December October April, August April, August July – August April – May

Australia

Europe

North America

South America

April – May March April, August June – July, April – September June – July, April – September August

July – August April May May – June November January – February April March – April April

January, February January – June, November – December January, February, June January, February

January –February and June – October. The Pindari Valley, in Central Himalaya of India, is mostly chosen during the months of September – October due to the favourable climate at this time. Stunted trees of Chimula (Rhododendron campanulatum) are the major sources of fuelwood for shepherds (Anuwals) in the sub-alpine regions. As a

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result, deforestation is seen to spread in most of the valleys of the mountains. The graziers in the Pindari Valley have an impact on fuelwood and other essential local resources equivalent to the requirement of 1980 persons day 1. Besides, sheep and goats exert much pressure on grass and medicinal herbs, and cause the fragile topographic landscape and sensitive ecosystem components in and around the glaciers to deteriorate. Next to expeditions and treks, rearing of sheep and goats for three months (July to September) is a major activity in the Himalayas. The villagers inhabiting at relatively lower altitudes of the alpine and sub-alpine regions very commonly practice transhumance in summer. As observed during the Pindari expedition, the average distance covered by sheep and goats from their native places was 53 km. The average number of sheep per household are 10, which are sent under the care of a shepherd who permanently remains with the sheep in the bugyal (sub-alpine and alpine pasture). A shepherd, in return, is paid about Rs 20 per sheep (about Rs 47=$1US then) for the whole of the season. The flock owners also give some salt and foodstuff to the graziers. If a sheep falls down from the steep rocks while grazing and gets killed, its meat customarily belongs to the shepherd and its owner cannot claim it. Based on the length of the stay of 3 months, sheep rearing in the Pindari Valley exerts a biotic pressure for fodder equal to 409,500 sheep and goats day 1 in a year in the valley. Also, every year about 200 unattended horses need heavy amount of grass for 3 months. 3.2. Leaving behind waste The major difference between current and old expedition wastes was the high amount of decomposing wastes in the former and less in the latter. The average results of characterisation from old and current wastes in Pindari Valley showed  66% belonging to NBW. The next stood RBW and BW acquiring  18% and 16%, respectively. The major NBW compositions worth reuse and recycling were glass, polythene and tin consisting of 30.3%, 10.0% and 9.5%, respectively. The major share of non-biodegradable out of these was capable of being reused directly. These materials have simply been turned into useless wastes only because of negligence and the practice of discarding by the visitors. The glass (  25%), polythene (5.0%), plastic bags and containers (  2%) and tin (5.0%) could directly be re-used if those would have been assessed as valuables by the users at the time they threw them thereby turning these resources into wastes. The largest share in RBW came from vegetable wastes (7.4%), waste foods (3.6%) and waste fruits (2.6%) which are decomposable. Throughout the trekking route, solid wastes were very diverse. RBW included left over food, vegetable rinds, leaves, fine organic matter and organic mater mixed with soil. BW could be paper, cotton, cloth and wood which takes relatively more time to get decomposed in nature. The majority of the wastes in the trekking areas, even in the long run, cannot decay or decompose. Plastic

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wrappers, glass, tin and other similar ones remained in nature which, singly or collectively, degenerate or slow down the natural growth of grass, vegetation, and sometimes contaminate topsoil rendering it infertile for further regeneration of natural vegetation. Moreover, these non-biodegradable wastes lying in the grass or on the sides of trekking routes might cause injury not only to expedition members, trekkers, and tourists who create the problem in the first place, but also to the villagers and their animals in lower altitudinal regions, and shepherds and sheep in the alpine regions. Without the visitors bringing back the self-generated wastes, these high altitude mountain valleys one day are likely to become godowns of garbage. Their natural beauty will continue to fade, thus diverting the nature-lovers to some other places. 3.3. Air pollution Open dumping and unsafe disposal of solid wastes in the glacier regions may cause serious health problems. All waste products including plastics and synthetic materials when mixed with snow, water, other hazardous materials and sunshine (inevitable in open dumping) emit poisonous gases in the atmosphere, which cause rotting stink and major air pollution in these regions. The degradation of the environment owing to such dumping of solid and hazardous toxic substances is a growing concern to India. If the wastes are left untreated, they ferment slowly and produce biogas, which gets discharged in the atmosphere. This biogas has 65 –75% methane gas, which is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 34 times more than carbon dioxide (Bedi and Pattnaik, 1999). The development of suitable technologies for utilisation of wastes, therefore, becomes essential to minimise the adverse health and environmental consequences. The trekkers or expedition members who should spare a thought to maintain a clean environment may forget that rough and ready waste management option like burning can solve the waste problem for the moment, but at the same time can create yet another environmental problem. Burning of polythene, plastic, paper and others by the expedition members emits poisonous gases in ambient air increasing carbon dioxide, methane, dioxin and others. The collective impact of these greenhouse gases raises the temperature in the nearby glaciers of the Himalayas as well as in the other mountains of the world. 3.4. Extinction of flora and fauna 3.4.1. Cutting of forests for fuel energy and campfires There is only one dominant tree species found in high altitude and that is— Chimula (R. campanulatum). Every year the sheep graziers cut these dwarf trees indiscriminately in large numbers to dry and keep for the next year’s supply of fuel wood. During their 3 months stay, these plants are widely used for cooking and heating in the valley. Another rare creeper species found here is Bel (Juniperous indica). Besides its traditional use for incense, this plant is also used for

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fuel because of scarcity of other adequate species. This plant is found commonly in large number on the rocky slopes where the Chimula tree-line almost ends. Slow growth but high demand has posed a threat to this tree species and the number is shrinking continuously in these areas. Anuwals and expedition members are thought to be the major groups directly involved in deforestation. For example, our 20 expedition members burnt 290 kg fuelwood, 55 l kerosene and 28.4 kg liquefied petroleum gas (LPG; two cylinders) during the expedition. The expedition was planned initially to be as eco-friendly as possible. However, bad weather forced the expedition to extend the duration and the shortage of fuel was met from Chimula trees. The fuelwood was bought from Anuwals at the rate of Rs 2 kg 1. Campfire is also a major human activity of the adventurers that sometimes leads to vast devastation of living plants and trees lying in the south to the timberline zone in addition to the already prevailing pressure of these activities on the forest. A small spark or ember for the purpose of campfires can also burn down a forest and turn it into a desert. The temperate forest has a fragile environment. The 1999 blaze at Catedral –Bariloche, Argentina ruined hundreds of acres of forest. Now 2 years later, it is slowly recovering and its full recovery may take up to 50 years (Anonymous, 2001c). 3.4.2. A threat to medicinal plants One of the most adverse impacts of expeditions and sheep rearing is the increasing threat to medicinal plants which were in abundance once in these areas. Many of the plants are now on the verge of extinction. The medicinal herbs, which were seen in abundance in the past expeditions are rarely found today. The traditional value of herbs even today has not decreased. Expedition members, trekkers, tourists, shepherds and even the local villagers are continuously extracting and exploiting these plants for their recreational, domestic as well as commercial purposes. As a result, some of the medicinal herbs such as Brahma Kamal (Sausurea obvalata), Attis (Aconitum heterophyllum), Chippi (Angelica glauca) and Dolu (Rheum australe) are under a severe threat in the Pindari Valley. 3.4.3. Disappearance of fauna Along with the diminishing of essential flora in these ecologically sensitive areas, wild life is also disappearing day by day. Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), Indian wild boar (Sus scrofa), serow (Capricornis sumtraensis) were some of the common animals largely observed once in these expedition and trekking areas. However, today these species are gradually diminishing due to the destruction of habitat and other disturbances like hunting, frequent treks, expeditions and sheep rearing practices in the pastoral valleys of sub-alpine and alpine regions.

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3.4.4. A threat to local breed of sheep Out of 3830 sheep concentrated mainly in Pindari Valley under transhumance, about 36% sheep were hybrids. These hybrids are from Rambouillet sheep from United States of America. A perception study of shepherds shows that the local breed is more economic than the hybrid. It is easy to rear as the local animals are profitable and sustainable to the villagers’ economic status, needs, and the existing quality and amount of grass available. According to Anuwals, the native breed of sheep is profitable in every respect except fine wool. The hybrid sheep are being introduced by the local government agencies keeping in view the upgrading of wool quality. But this objective seems to have an adverse effect on the owners from the adaptability point of view existing under the local environmental situation. 3.5. Threat to glacier melting There has been an increase in the global mean surface air temperature of about 0.3 –0.6 °C during the last 100 years (IPCC, 1996). In the 20th century, the annual average temperature over India increased by about 0.57 °C (DTE, 2001). But in some parts of the Himalayas such as Kullu Valley it has on an average, increased by 0.5 °C (Vishvakarma et al., 2000, pp. 13 – 14; Sharma, 2001, p. 1). In Alps, the temperature has increased by 2 °C in this century (Haeberli and Beniston, 1998), whereas in the UK it has increased by 1 °C (Giles and Perry, 1998). The average rate of the global mean sea level rise over the last 100 years has been 1.0– 2.0 mm year 1. By 2025, sea levels are expected to rise by 25 cm (Warrick and Rahman, 1992). The melting of mountain glaciers is expected to contribute 25% along with thermal expansion of the oceans (60%) and Greenland ice sheet (15%) melting (IPCC, 1996; Warrick and Oerlemans, 1991). As the result of adverse eco-impact of the rise in temperature in different parts of the world, glaciers are fast retreating. According to Worldwatch, a US-based organisation, about 2000 glaciers in the eastern Himalaya have completely disappeared in the last century (DTE, 2001, p. 36). Pindari glacier in Central Himalayas of India is retreating at the rate of 26.23 m year 1 from 1845 to 1906 (or 61 years) (Cotter, 1906). In total, Pindari glacier has retreated 23.47 m year 1 (2840 m) within 121 years (Tewari and Janpangi, 1962; Tewari, 1972). Another study in 1979 found that Pindari glacier has recessed by 29 km since Pleistocene glacial period (Rawat, 1998). From the experience of local Anuwals, this current perception study tells that Pindari glacier is retreating at the rate of 15 m year 1. Based on these studies, most of the glaciers are receding at a mean rate of 23.46 m year 1, particularly in the Kumaun Himalaya of India. However, in another study in Garhwal Himalaya, the data for 61 years (1936 – 96) show that the total recession of Gangotri glacier is 1147 m, with an average rate of 19 m year 1 (Naithani et al., 2001). While a more recent study also shows that Gangotri glacier is receding at an annual rate of 30 m (DTE, 2001, p. 32). Since the middle of the past century (the end of the little Ice Age), the glaciers of the European

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Alps have lost about 30 –40% in glacierized surface area and around 50% in ice volume (Haeberli and Beniston, 1998). The estimated total glacier volume in the European Alps was about 130 km3 during mid-1970s; strong negative mass balances have caused an additional loss of about 10 –20% in volume since 1980 (Haeberli and Hoelzle, 1995). A peculiar thing that has been noticed regarding some important glaciers: Pindari, Kafni and Sunderdhunga, is that Pindari is preferred by large number of mountaineers, trekkers and tourists. Pindari, the oldest approachable glacier by a bridle path, possesses more scenic beauty as compared to Kafni or Sunderdhunga. If glaciers melt rapidly, most of the global coastal tourist regions will be inundated causing danger to human and animal life. There will be widespread damage through floods, erosion and salt water intrusion. Due to rise in the sea level, a significant portion of world population will be displaced and some low island countries will be uninhabitable. Global warming and recession in glaciers will also result in other forms of secondary eco-impacts. These include high amount of rainfall particularly in coastal regions, low snowfall in mountain regions, low agricultural crop production, displacement of human population, subsidence of landmass and natural vegetation, and a high occurrence of floods. Central and Northern India is projected to get less rainfall and snow because of global warming and climate change. India stands to lose 125 million tons (18%) of its cereal production. The Maldives and Indian Lakshadweep islands are the notable ones for being among the first to be hit by the adverse consequences of the rise in the sea level. One metre sea rise from glacier melting will displace about 7.1 million people in India. The coastal region of Goa stand to lose 4.32% of its total geographical area due to the rise in sea level (DTE, 2001, p. 32). Average rainfall of 112.11 cm was recorded in Kullu Valley in North Western Himalaya. It was less by 10.3 cm as compared to the rainfall of the last 50 years. In 1970 –1979, 82.32 cm snowfall was recorded in Kullu Valley which, after a decrease, reached 57.57 cm during 1990– 1999. Apple production in Kullu Valley, owing to rise in temperature, has declined by 23% in spite of increase in the area under apple trees by 42% during the last 50 years, i.e., from 1950 –51 to 2000 –01 (Sharma, 2001, p. 1). Global warming is suspected to be one of the main causes for the rapid glacial retreat. Also, we should not forget that global warming is increasing the local temperature at various places depending on the amount and volume of gases emitted. According to various experiences, in this field the reasons for the high rate of recession of the glaciers are as under: (1) Human activities comprising expeditions, tourism and sheep grazing have increased in expedition and trekking areas. Many of the pastures (bugyals) are too close to the glaciers. For example, Pindari glacier is just about 300 m above the tree line. The shepherds practise similar transhumance in other valleys of the Himalayas. They need fuelwood to cook their food, for warming, and to dry clothes after getting soaked in rains during sheep grazing. As a result, the natural

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protective components, such as forests and grass have continuously been depleted. Deforestation, for example, in lower Pindari Valley has increased alarmingly as these Anuwals indiscriminately cut Chimula (R. campanulatum) trees for fuelwood. The continuous cutting of this species has threatened the other species further. We are still not thinking of improvements in plantation techniques to facilitate a steady growth of the plants and to protect these from snowfall. Ruthless cutting will ultimately cause a serious setback to these forests in the valley. This will also increase the local temperature, which will further cause the glacier to recede within a short span of time. (2) There is a high biotic pressure because of over-grazing in the nearby areas. About 5000 sheep and goats and 200 horses subsist on the grass for 3 months in the Pindari Valley each year. The growth rate of grass is not proportionate to the rate of grazing. The available grass is less than the actual requirement. So, a large number of sheep and goats feeding on the sparse quantities of grass are leading to deforestation and desert like areas will ultimately spread in the valley. During summers, fragile topographic conditions will result in high temperature. This climatic change will cause the glacier to melt at a faster rate. (3) After the consumption of eatable commodities the containers and wrappers are thrown away without bothering about their future consequences on nature and humanity. Litter due to routine activities of the visitors has also increased the temperature of our local surroundings. For example, an open dumping of NBW mostly reflects sunshine across the snow-capped peaks, which helps in melting snow at a high rate. Tin and glass could be its best examples. At high altitudes some NBWs such as metals get heated up soon by sunshine and cause the day temperature to increase. (4) Mountaineers in particular also disturb the natural snow capped peaks and glaciers while searching for their routes to the summit. Many times they have to clear the place for pitching the tents on the snow capped mountains. The areas, which should be without interference, thereby come under grip of human activity. In case of our expedition, there were only two tent sites on the snow: Camp I and II. Camp II on the way to Mt. Baljuri and Mt. Panwali Dwar was established only for a single night. In spite of passing a single night in the middle of the mountains, the result was in the form of large deposits of solid wastes on the snows. Camp I at the same time was also not left without solid wastes. So we, unknowingly or knowingly, harm our glaciers after performing our day-to-day mountaineering activities.

4. Recommendations to mitigate eco-impacts A proper resource conservation planning for solid waste management and minimum interference in glacier environment by the mountaineering and trekking expeditions can play a key role in minimising a lot of eco-impacts on nature. This

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will be successful only when one should change one’s approach and start to think: at what point should the commodities begin, after use or consumption, to be considered fit only for throwing away. A change in attitude toward waste would prove as an important milestone in the way of sustainable waste management. Besides, public involvement in coordination with visitors, shepherds, villagers, local government and research institutions in solid waste management will be an additional value and an added approach in tackling this problem. Both, reduction in biotic pressure as well as conservation of local resources in these sensitive mountain areas, are required to slow the recession rate of glaciers. These and similar combined efforts in waste management and slowing down the recession of glaciers could minimise and mitigate the overall adverse impact at a larger extent. 4.1. Solid waste management Due to our uncontrolled interference, the peaks of the mountains, once clothed with beautiful snow, are now naked and barren. Only the higher peaks seem as if wearing caps, but no clothes, of snow. Before considering certain remedies, there could be some preliminary measures to conserve the glacial environment. These could be by way of waste management as under: (1) If managed properly, the first two categories—RBW and BW could be of use in nature itself for enriching soil fertility, humus and increasing soil nutrients by way of biocomposting. These soil nutrients, obtained from biodegradable wastes, could be helpful in accelerating the rate of growth of grass and tree on the spots where the growth of plants remains very slow. Of the total wastes studied in the Pindari Valley, 60.68% waste was found fit for reuse (39.34%) and recycling (21.34%) which denotes that a significant problem of wastes can very easily be resolved. Thus, a considerable part of NBW is reusable, recyclable and income generating. Before putting this option into practice, the whole area with wastes requires a mass-level cleaning programme. All the NBWs, either in covered or uncovered condition in ditches, need to be recovered, collected and brought back at least up to the road head for making the area clean. These wastes can be sold later to some recycling firms or Kabariwalas. (2) It is always seen that an expedition fails due to a prolonged weather disturbance and a high expenditure is incurred as a result. So the useful period mostly proves to be short. Keeping in mind these difficulties, there is a need for proper and timely planning, looking at each determining aspect of the expedition such as season, number of peaks to climb, expertise of the members, quality of mountaineering equipments and adequate funds, etc. More important is to plan for fuel and food supplies for a particular period playing, as they do, a crucial role in meeting the basic demands of the mountaineers. It is seen that sometimes even distinguished mountaineers overlook these elementary needs of expeditions. Rather these things should be looked into before setting out on an expedition.

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There should be always a week to two weeks of surplus supply of rations and LPG when expeditions are planned. All this proper planning frees the members from pressure and hassles. Otherwise, the expedition members get so much preoccupied in coping with various minor emergencies that few if any have much energy left for collecting the wastes. (3) Every expedition should incorporate a separate budget for bearing the cost of bringing back all the solid wastes generated by the expedition. An expedition should only be approved by its controlling agency, on government side, after making a formal agreement between the group leader and the concerned authority for bringing back all the wastes generated by them. In the case of India, this controlling agency which sanctions expedition is the Indian Mountaineering Foundation (IMF). In the case of countries in which expeditions are conducted without any formal agreement between the local government and the expedition leaders, to take back all their garbage to the country of origin, strict orders will have to be issued to improve the ever deteriorating situation in the mountains. By doing this, expedition members can be told to follow up the issued guidelines strictly. Sanitation aspects should also be incorporated in this formal agreement. Any of the places prone to deterioration easily by open-air defecation should strongly be avoided. Temporary ditches for latrines at a considerable distance away from the snows, glaciers and rivers should be made. The nightsoil defecated by the expedition members also needs to be brought back from snows for disposal in the ditches. (4) No group leader, as well as mountaineers, should be allowed to go for an expedition before undergoing training in or consulting some expert in solid wastes and other environmental aspects. There is a need to keep the waste in a systematic manner in order to increase its use and economic value. There should be some provision for special lectures on environment, pollution, solid waste management, possible adverse impacts on human beings and animals, and possible remedies of these environmental problems in different courses of mountaineering. The long effects of these measures will be beneficial. (5) All the incoming visitors will have to declare all their food items and other commodities being carried with them before being permitted to enter into the expedition and trekking areas. The waste prone commodities will have to be carried back after making a pledge and agreement. Similarly, some hard decisions from district administration’s side are required to make sure the wastes are brought back by the visitors on the way back. If it is found satisfactory, the group leader may be allowed the next expedition. If not up to the set norms, he should be strictly fined, debarring him from conducting further expeditions. (6) Local people may be taught regarding the advantages of the preserving the natural beauty of their surroundings. It will also be better to create awareness among the expedition members and people to use cotton fabric for handbags instead of plastic and polythene, particularly when they visit the Himalaya or similar other mountain regions of the planet.

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4.2. Controlling glacial retreat The preventive measures might sound harsh to some extent but not as hard as the baneful results of not taking certain decision while there is still time. Otherwise, we will start thinking about remedial measures when the rot has spread in almost every part of the world where there are glaciers. Again, those remedies at that time would be less effective in reducing, checking or slowing the melting rate of any of the glaciers. Anyway, these preventive measures need to be immediately put into practice, before it is too late. The possible measures are as under: (1) Expedition operators must have a set of certain norms to be followed by its members during expedition/trekking. They should make these environmental rules and regulations mandatory at their own level to the members. They should not leave anything behind that they brought with them, such as packing materials and left over supplies. Expedition members will have to be very particular about the sensitivities of the environment and the resultant problems if they leave behind the refuse (Anonymous, 2001c). They should take only photographs and leave behind only footprints. (2) Expedition members will have to avoid noise as it might disturb the animals, possibly to the extent of changing their migratory patterns. Keeping the welfare of animals in mind at all times, they should be respectful of wildlife that they may come across during trek or expedition. (3) The major sources of rivers and the glaciers are to be completely restricted for two or three decades from any biotic interference. This measure would certainly begin to reflect its positive consequences after a decade at least. If this option seems to be hard, there might be other options also. However, they may certainly not be sufficient to check the melting rate but only slow its present rate. The present situation is to implement these measures with a participatory approach by visitors, villagers and government. (4) No permanent habitation to any human beings like hermits should be allowed around the glaciers as human habitation in any form will increase the local temperature. In the case of the Pindari glacier, a saint has already begun to settle down for meditation near the ‘zero’ point. (5) Some of the high altitude plants such as Rhododendron are the species which are under serious threat of extinction. The growth rate of these plants and trees is already very slow due to low temperature and heavy snowfalls. Anuwals are making the situation worse by further reducing these diminishing plants. So, it is of utmost importance to conserve the surrounding environment. Also, the graziers must be encouraged to plant trees acclimatised to these regions. If one Anuwal cuts 50 trees during a season, he should ensure to re-plant 100 trees after taking the responsibility to grow them, at the same time appreciating the limitations of harsh climate. As regard any campfire that the expedition members may light during night halts, it should be extinguished carefully before leaving the place. By expanding the area under plantations and keeping these areas free

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from fire, the immediate surroundings of our glaciers would remain cool and it would be helpful in slowing down the rate of snow melting. (6) Trekkers and tourists should not be allowed to interfere in any form in glaciers, snows or in areas near the glaciers. Any of the metallic or non-metallic, biodegradable or nonbiodegradable solid wastes should not be allowed to be thrown openly in the surrounding areas of glaciers or snow. This is really an important point to be taken care of seriously since almost every hilly tourist spot, and the expedition locations of the mountains, is coming under the grip of solid wastes. As a result, these not only make the spots dirty but also affect the local environment, polluting the river water, degenerating our vegetation, uprooting medicinal plants and harming the wildlife. Tourists or trekkers should not be allowed to leave the wastes within the periphery of the glaciers, instead they should carry back their own garbage either to put in some designated municipal dustbin for proper disposal or to sell to some recycling establishment. (7) Mountaineers disturb the natural system of snow-capped peaks—the sources of the glaciers. A team of mountaineers has to set up many camps depending on the height of the peaks. Sometimes, hazardous and toxic substances of solid wastes, which the visitors produce are mixed with rainwater and cause water borne and other diseases among the people inhabiting downstream regions. Besides, mountaineers have to defecate in the open even on the snows, which are our sole sources of drinking water. When we consider this aspect we are forced to the conclusion that rivers are getting polluted at their very sources by the mountain expeditions. Moreover, land and snow degradation are also one of the other adverse impacts due to these mountaineering activities. Many times while fixing ropes from Camp to Camp, considerable numbers of holes are dug to fix pitons and ropes. Indirectly, this disturbs the glacier ecosystem. Such activities weaken or loosen stratigraphic formation of sedimentary layers of rocks by opening mountain cracks and causing many landslips and landslides along with frequent avalanches. Equipments should be of a high standard to cause least damage to the snows and rocks while fixing ropes, etc., to climb the peaks. Keeping interference and degradation in these places to a minimum, expedition members should keep themselves to the tracks, footpaths, and walk in a single file in case the path is narrow in trekking areas. To make expeditions/treks ecofriendly, least interferences and alterations on expedition areas need to be encouraged and popularised. (8) Regarding anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, it is to be ensured that their concentrations in the atmosphere do not increase. A reduction in carbon dioxide by > 60%, methane  8%, nitrous oxide >50%, CFC-11 70– 75%, CFC-12 75– 85% and HCFC-22 40 –51% are required to control global warming and glacial retreat (IPCC, 1996; Houghton, 1991). (9) A continuous monitoring of amount of snow in the glaciers is required throughout the over stressed expedition destinations such as the Himalayas, Alps, Rocky, Andes, Antarctica, etc., so that a reliable data can be generated with viable solutions. At present, there are about 115 snow monitoring stations in the

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Indian Himalayas. These are all located in Western Himalaya except very few stations of Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE) and Central Water Commission (CWC) in other parts (Ramasastri, 1997). The need is for a multipurpose network at high elevations with modern electronic sensors and data acquisition systems. (10) To make the means of communication easier, the expeditions should preferably have all the arrangements of portable means of modern communications, at least up to the base camps, such as solar power and laptop computers. This facility will inevitably support the satellite communications, or send and receive e-mail messages in case of any emergency at least via laptop computers.

Acknowledgements The author is thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora for providing facilities. Thanks are also due to Mr. R.C. Bhardwaj, Group leader of the expedition, Adventure Hill Tourism, Almora, Uttaranchal, and all other 20 expedition members who cooperated and helped largely during field study. Thanks are also due to Prof. Eric Johnson, Editor, EIAR, for preliminary critical suggestions on the manuscript. The author is also much grateful to Mrs. Vina Sharma, Trinity School, Mohal-Kullu (H.P.) for going through the manuscript.

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