Mountain glaciation in Japan and Taiwan at the global Last Glacial Maximum

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Quaternary International 138–139 (2005) 79–92

Mountain glaciation in Japan and Taiwan at the global Last Glacial Maximum Yugo Onoa,, Tatsuto Aokib, Hirohiko Hasegawac, Liu Dalia a

Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Hokkaido, Japan b Department of Geography, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-cho, Kanazawa 920-1192, Ishikawa, Japan c Department of Geography, Meiji University, 1-1 Kanda Surugadai, Chiyoda-ku, 101-8301, Tokyo, Japan Available online 9 June 2005

Abstract Montane glaciation in Japan and Taiwan was maximal in MIS 3/4 and glacier extent at the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was much more limited. Data from four areas in Japan and two in Taiwan, where the topographical and chronological positions of the terminal moraines are well determined and the chronology is controlled by radiocarbon, AMS and 10Be cosmogenic dates, are presented in this paper. Equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) at global LGM are around 1500 m in the Hidaka Range, Hokkaido, 2500 m in the Northern Japanese Alps, 2700 m in the Central Japanese Alps, 2800 m in the Southern Japanese Alps in Japan, and 3300 m in northern Taiwan and 3500 m in central Taiwan. The ELAs are mostly determined by maximum discharge, accumulation–ablation area ratio (AAR) and glacier toe-and-headwall ratio (THAR) methods. The pattern of contours of ELAs indicates a strong influence of precipitation control on glacier development in this region. The ELA depression at global LGM in Japan was 1100–1300 m except in the northernmost part of the Northern Japanese Alps (only 400 m), where the present hypothetical ELA is extraordinarily low because of abundant snowfall. The ELA depression at global LGM in Taiwan is estimated at about 1100–1300 m without consideration of uplift. r 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Recent studies have shown that the glaciation of high mountains in Japan and Taiwan was maximal in Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4 and 3, and that glacial extent in MIS 2 was much smaller than during previous stages (Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003; Hebenstreit and Boese, 2003; Ono et al., 2003; Sawagaki et al., 2003). A similar pattern of glacial fluctuation was recognized from the Karakorum, Himalaya and New Zealand (Ono et al., 2004). Therefore, the local Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in these regions does not coincide with the global LGM between 18 and 25 ka. Timing of glacier advances seems to be roughly synchronized between the Karakorum, Himalaya, the high mountains in Japan, Taiwan, and New Zealand, especially in MIS 2, but Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Ono).

there still remains a problem of dating control (Ono et al., 2004). The paper focuses on the equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) of glaciers in Japan and Taiwan at global LGM. ELA depression at LGM is calculated from the modern theoretical ELA, since there are no glaciers in these areas at present. The high mountains in Japan and Taiwan are located along the eastern coast of Asia, forming a series of island arc systems between the Eurasian and Pacific plates (Fig. 1). Although they are not covered by glaciers at present, glaciated mountains spread from Hidaka Range (43–421N: Fig. 1a), Northern, Central and Southern Japanese Alps (37–351N: Fig. 1b) to the Taiwan Central Range (25–231N: Fig. 1c). Mt. Yu-san in Taiwan (23.491N) is located slightly north of the Northern Tropics. Although none of these mountains are strictly tropical, they cannot be neglected in discussing LGM climate changes in the tropics. Firstly, these mountains are all located on the islands along the

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Fig. 1. Location of mountain ranges (modified from Ono et al., 2004). (a) Hidaka Range, Hokkaido; (b) NJA: Northern Japanese Alps, CJA: Central Japanese Alps and SJA: Southern Japanese Alps; (c) Mountains in Taiwan. Abbreviations for individual sites: PI: Mt. Piapiro; TO: Mt. Tottabetsu; PO: Mt. Poroshiri; ET: Mt. Esaomantottabetsu; NA: Mt. Namewakka; SI: Mt. Sibichari; SH: Mt. Shirouma; TA: Mt. Tateyama & Mt. Tsurugi; KG: Mt. Kurobegoro; KA: Mt. Kasaga-take; YH: Mt. Yari & Mt. Hotaka; KK: Mt. Kiso-Komagatake; SE: Mt. Senjo; AI: Mt. Ainodake; AK: Mt. Akaishi; XU: Mt. Xue Shan; NH: Mt. Nanhuta Shan; YU: Mt. Yu Shan.

eastern margin of the Asian continent, and they are very sensitive to climatic and sea-level changes since the precipitation is changed drastically by changes in the ocean currents (mainly Kuroshio Current from the Tropical Pacific) which is linked with global sea-level changes (Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003; Ono et al., 2003). Secondly, these mountains are tectonically active and associated with volcanism. The presence of many tephra intercalated in the glacial and fluvioglacial deposits provides an important time constraint on Pleistocene glaciation. The LGM advance is mainly determined by these tephra in this paper.

used meteorological data from the nearest lowland weather station by using a lapse rate (0.6 1C/100 m). The precipitation data are always difficult to estimate, especially as the winter precipitation in the higher elevation is different from that obtained in the plain. Therefore, the calculated modern ELA is lowered if the actual winter precipitation is more than the adopted value in the plain. In contrast, in the case of Kuranosuke cirque, in the northernmost part of the Northern Japanese Alps, the present ELA (2970 m) is lower than the summit altitude (2999 m) because of an extraordinary heavy snowfall in winter on the summit area.

2. Methods of reconstructing modern and palaeo-ELAs used in Japan and Taiwan

2.1. Calculation of palaeo-ELAs in the Hidaka Range

Since the mountains in Japan and Taiwan are not covered by glaciers at present, the modern hypothetical ELA is calculated using Ohmura’s formula (Ohmura et al., 1992) in which the relation between summer (JJA) atmospheric temperature (T) and annual precipitation (P) at ELA is expressed by P ¼ a þ bT þ cT 2 , where a ¼ 645, b ¼ 296, and c ¼ 9. We used winter precipitation for P, rather than annual precipitation, because only the winter precipitation contributes to the accumulation of perennial snow patches (Ono et al., 2003). Benn and Lehmkuhl (2000) proposed a similar method. Strictly speaking, this method requires yearround meteorological data to be available from the site of the glacier. In the absence of data from these sites, we

ELAs of the reconstructed glacier of the Hidaka Range are calculated using the Maximum Discharge method (Liu and Ono, 1997) which is based on the idea that the maximum discharge of the glacier appears at ELA (Paterson, 1994). Discharge was calculated on the reconstructed cross-section of the glacier at each 25 m in altitude, and the position of ELA determined by the altitude where the discharge becomes maximum (Liu and Ono, 1997; Liu et al., 1998a, b). In the case of the Junosawa cirque (Fig. 2), maximum discharge occurs at 1450 m. National topographical maps available for the mountain areas in Japan are at a scale of 1:25,000 with a contour interval of 10 m. For better calculation of ELAs, maps of 1:10,000 with contour interval of 5 m were made from color air-photos (scale of 1;15,000) using a Leica Photogrammetric Work Station SD 2000 (Liu and Ono, 1997).

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Fig. 2. Contour map of the Junosawa cirque and reconstructed glacier at LGM (Liu et al., 1998b).

When the ELA was determined by this method, the mass balance of the reconstructed glacier was calculated by assuming appropriate values of air temperature, degree-day factor and precipitation gradient (Liu et al., 1998b). This calculation revealed that the total accumulation of the reconstructed Junosawa Glacier is larger than the total ablation (Fig. 3 left). Then the ELA was newly calculated by using only the mass balance data, and the ELA was determined as the altitude where the total accumulation equals the total ablation (Fig. 4 right). The difference in ELAs given by these two method is only 29 m in case of the Junosawa Glacier (1450 vs. 1479 m as shown in Fig. 3), and 37 m (maximum) and 15 m (mean) for 18 glaciers (Liu et al., 1998b). This result shows that the Maximum Discharge method is useful for determining ELA, where the former glacier surface and cross-section are well reconstructed topographically. The altitude of cirque floor ranges between 1520 and 1575 m, and the height difference between the cirque floor and the highest summit is between about 300 and 450 m. The glacier terminus was determined by air photo interpretation and field observation. The glacier surface was reconstructed on a map of 1/10,000 scale, as shown in Fig. 2. The accuracy of the determination of glacier terminus is good enough for the reconstruction of the former glacier, when a distinctive end moraine is preserved, as shown in Fig. 5. However, when the end moraine was eroded, the position of the terminus was estimated by projection of moraine ridge remnants and distribution of till-like sediments. The altitudinal accuracy of terminus determination is less than 50 m in general

Fig. 3. Mass balance of the reconstructed Junosawa Glacier at LGM. Left: ELA (1450 m) is determined by the Maximum Discharge Method (Liu and Ono, 1997); Total accumulation: 196, Total ablation: 108 (  103 m3 water/a). Right: ELA (1479 m) is determined by the mass balance. Total accumulation and ablation are equally 143 (  103 m3 water/a) (Liu et al., 1998b).

and 100 m at maximum. This corresponds to an ELA accuracy of less than about 25–50 m, since the glacier surface near the terminus becomes narrow and the proportion of the glacier surface near the terminus is relatively small compared to the whole glacier area. 2.2. Calculation of palaeo-ELAs in the Japanese Alps and Taiwan The Maximum Discharge method is useful for the reconstruction of the former ELAs, but cannot be applied to all glacial situations. Therefore, the values of Accumulation Area Ratio (AAR: Meier and Post, 1962) and Toe-to-Headwall Altitude Ratio (THAR: Meierding, 1982) were also calculated in the Hidaka Range for

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Japanese Alps, where the lateral moraines are exceptionally well preserved (Ono, 1981, 1982). 2.3. Age control by tephrochronology Table 1 shows major tephra which are used for the dating of glacial advance in this study. Both the EniwaA (En-A) and Aira-Tanzawa (AT) Ash are important for the determination of the LGM glacial advances. The dating methods of each tephra are also indicated (Table 2).

3. Hidaka range

Fig. 4. Map showing reconstructed eighteen glaciers at LGM (number 1–18) in the Hidaka Range (name of glaciers are indicated in Table 1).

the ELAs determined by the Maximum Discharge method mentioned above. The mean values of AAR (0.62–0.65) and that of THAR (0.60–0.62) are ordinary ones for cirque glaciers (e.g. Meier and Post, 1962; Porter, 1975; Meierding, 1982; Hawkins, 1985; Nesje, 1992; Torsnes et al., 1993). As ELAs determined by the Maximum Discharge method can be regarded similar to those determined by AAR or THAR (cf. Table 2), most ELAs were calculated by AAR and THAR methods. In the case of Taiwan, where neither large scale maps nor air photographs are available to the authors, ELAs are tentatively calculated by referring to the description of moraines by Wang et al. (2000), Cui et al. (2002), Yang (2001) and Hebenstreit and Boese (2003), and personal observation at Mt. Yu Shan. Maximum elevation of lateral moraine (MELM: Benn and Lehmkuhl, 2000) is used only for the ELA determination at Mt. Kurogegoro, Northern

A series of cirque and U-shaped valleys are spread along the main ridge of the Hidaka Range (Ono and Hirakawa, 1975a; Fig. 4). Three major glaciations have been recognized (Iwasaki et al., 2000a, b; Sawagaki et al., 2003). The oldest one, the Esaomantottabetsu glaciation, seems to be correlated to MIS 6 (Iwasaki et al., 2000a, b). The last glacial contains two stadials, called the Poroshiri and Tottabetsu (Hashimoto et al., 1972; Ono and Hirakawa, 1975a). The date of the onset of the Poroshiri stadial is not certain. The termination occurred at 42 ka when pumice fall 1 from the Shikotsu volcano (Spfa 1) was deposited (Iwasaki et al., 2000a; Sawagaki et al., 2003). Thus, the Poroshiri stadial seems to cover both MIS 4 and 3 (Ono et al., 2003; Sawagaki et al., 2003). The glaciers of the Hidaka Range formed small valley glaciers in the Poroshiri Stadial. During the Tottabetsu Stadial (corresponding to MIS 2), however, they were largely confined to their cirques, stretching only as a relatively short distance downvalley (Fig. 3; Ono and Hirakawa, 1975a, b; Iwasaki et al., 2000a, b; Sawagaki et al., 2003). Iwasaki et al. (2000b) and Sawagaki et al. (2003) identified 5 glacial stages during the Tottabetsu Stadial. The maximum advance coincides with deposition of pumice from the Eniwa volcano in western Hokkaido (En-A) dated to around 17–18 ka (19–22 ka cal BP), because abundant pumice grains are mixed with the outwash deposits of this advance (Fig. 5). Sawagaki et al. (2003) suggested that the thick covering of pumice on the glacier surface may have enhanced the melting of the glacier. En-A is found admixed in outwash deposits of the Tottabetsu Stadial in other parts of the Hidaka Range (Ono and Hirakawa, 1975b; Iwasaki et al., 2000a). This suggests that the timing of glacial advance and melting occurred roughly simultaneously in the Hidaka Range. Based on this assumption, the glacial extent was determined by a topographic comparison with the moraines which are directly connected to the outwash containing En-A. LGM ELAs (Table 3) on the eastern (Tokachi) side of the Hidaka Range are between 1375 and 1500 m (mean

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Fig. 5. LGM moraine and distribution of glacier at Mt. Poroshiri (Liu et al., 1998b).

Table 1 Tephra used for dating of glacial deposits in Japan, summarized from Machida and Arai (2004).Regions where the tephra has not been used for dating glacial deposits but which lie within the tephra distribution area are shown in brackets Tephra name

Code

Source volcano

Age (ka)

Dating method

Where used

References

Eniwa-A Shikotsu pumice fall 1 Kuttara 3 Kuttara 6 Toya Tateyama E pumice Tateyama D pumice Ontake Yashikino pumice Ontake Mitake pumice Daisen Kurayoshi pumice

En-A Spfa-1 Kt-3 Kt-6 Toya Tt-E Tt-D On-Ys On-Mt DKP

Eniwa Shikotsu Kuttara Kuttara Toya Tateyama Tateyama Kiso Ontake Kiso Ontake Daisen

C C C ST FT, TL, OI ST U, ST ST ST C, U, ST

Hidaka Hidaka Hidaka Hidaka Hidaka NJA NJA CJA CJA NJA

Aira Tanzawa Ash Aso 4

AT Aso-4

Aira caldera Aso caldera

19–21 4045 ^43 75–85 112–115 60–75 120–130 29–55 55–85 48–49 (C) 4378 (U) 2629 85–90

NJA (CJA, SJA) NJA (CJA, SJA)

Kikai Tozurappara Ash

K-Tz

Kikai caldera 95

C, A, V, ST TL, FT, E, U, KA, ST OI, ST

Machida and Arai (2004) Yanagida (1994) Machida and Arai (2004) Machida and Arai (2004) Machida and Arai (2004) Machida and Arai (2004) Machida and Arai (2004) Takemoto et al. (1987) Takemoto et al. (1987) Machida and Arai (2004), Omura et al. (1988) Okuno (2002) Machida and Arai (2004), Toyokura et al. (1991) Machida and Arai (2004)

NJA, (CJA, SJA)

Dating method: A: AMS, C: radio carbon; ST: stratigraphical relation with other dated tephra; FT: fission track; TL: thermo luminescence; OI: stratigraphical relation with the oxygen isotope stage; U: uranium series; V: annual varves in the lake sediment; E: electron spin resonance; KA: potassium–argon.

value: 1447 m), and those at the western side (Hidaka) are at 1400 and 1725 m (mean value: 1580 m). The lower ELAs on the eastern side suggest that glacier development was promoted by leeward accumulation of snow brought by SW winds. ELAs generally increase towards the north of the Hidaka Range. This is partly an effect of the increasing elevation of mountain summits (Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003) towards the north, but could also reflect decrease of precipitation inland (Ono and Hirakawa, 1975a).

4. Northern Japanese Alps The Northern Japanese Alps (Hida Range) are the mountain region of Japan where glaciers were most extended in the last glacial cycle. However, glacial extent was much larger in MIS 3/4 than in MIS 2 (Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003; Ono et al., 2003). The key tephra layer to determine the global LGM glacier advance is the AT ash whose eruption age was estimated to be 22–24 ka BP (14C), and 29 cal ka BP

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Table 2 Glacier area, ELAs, AAR and THAR for eighteen glaciers in the Hidaka Range (number corresponds to that in Fig. 2) at the global LGM No.

Cirque name (stageII)

Aspect

Area (ha)

ELA (m)

AAR

THAR

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Satsunaigawa Nananosawa Satsunaigawa Hachinosawa Satsunaigawa Kyunosawa Satsunaigawa Junosawa Mt. Esaomantottabetsu East A Mt. Esaomantottabetsu East B Mt. Tottabetsu A B Mt. Tottabetsu C

E-facing E-facing E-facing E-facing E-facing E-facing E-facing E-facing

4.8 104.4 133.3 55.7 61.5 31.2 80.6 48.1

1425 1375 1475 1450 1450 1450 1500 1450

0.58 0.68 0.63 0.67 0.60 0.59 0.67 0.67

0.60 0.60 0.65 0.58 0.58 0.68 0.57 0.55

1447 0.04

0.64 0.04

0.60 0.04

1400 1525 1525 1575 1575 1650 1725 1625 1675 1525 1580 0.08

0.58 0.60 0.61 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.62 0.08

0.57 0.59 0.66 0.68 0.50 0.66 0.53 0.70 0.69 0.59 0.62 0.08

Mean Standard deviation 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Mt. Sibichari Mt. Namewakka A Mt. Namewakka B Mt. Esaomantottabetsu North Mt. Poroshiri East BCD Nanatsunuma Mt. Poroshiri North Mt. Kitatottabetsu A Mt. Kitatottabetsu B Mt. Pipairo West Mean Standard deviation

E-facing N-facing N-facing N-facing E-facing E-facing N-facing E-facing E-facing N-facing

19.9 17.6 13.9 36.1 135.2 45.3 58.4 11.9 11.1 32.8

Table 3 ELAs around Mt. Kasaga-take, after Hasegawa (1996b).ELAs at the global LGM are given in bold

Nichidoku-sawa Uchikomi-dani Ogura-dani

Kasaga-take I

II

III

IV

2310 m.a.s.l 2240 m.a.s.l 2260 m.a.s.l

2395 2380 2370

2525 2455 2670

2626 2615 —

using AMS-14C dating (Okuno, 2002). Mt. Kasaga-take area, located at the southwestern part of the Northern Japanese Alps, is the only area where the stratigraphic relation between this ash and glacial deposits has been clarified. 10Be cosmogenic dating was recently applied to this area together with Mt. Kurobegoro area. Unfortunately, in other areas in the Northern Japanese Alps, there remains still a problem of dating control and/or the determination of terminal position of glacier advances which can be correlated to the global LGM. We therefore focus here on LGM ELAs in the Mt. Kasaga-take and the Mt. Kurogeoro areas. 4.1. Mt. Kasaga-take area Mt. Kasaga-take (361190 N, 371330 E, 2897.5 m) has distinct cirques on the southeastern side of the main ridge, while glacial landforms are limited on the northwestern side except in the Nichidoku-sawa Valley (Fig. 6). Hasegawa (1992, 1993, 1996a) identified four

glacial advances (Kasaga-take I–IV stages) during the Last Glacial age and one (Kasaga-take V stage) in the Holocene. Kasaga-take I–IV correspond to stages SS1-4 identified by Aoki and Hasegawa (2003) and Kasagatake V to the SS5. The AT ash, which is dated to ca 29 ka cal BP (Table 1), directly covers the ground moraine till of Kasagatake II stage (Hasegawa, 1992). Thus, the Kasaga-take II stage occurred just before 29 cal ka BP and the Kasaga-take III advance occurred after that time. Aoki (2003) obtained an age of 11.071.0 ka using cosmogenic 10 Be dating from the Kasaga-take IV terminal moraine on the cirque floor above the head of the Nichidokusawa Valley. This dating indicates that the Kasaga-take III advance occurred between 11 and 29 ka, and is most likely to have occurred during the global LGM because there are no other moraines between those of Kasagatake II and IV stages. Hasegawa (1996a, b) correlated the glacial advances in each valley around Mount Kasaga-take based on the weathering criteria, and calculated the ELAs by THAR (Table 3).

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4.2. Mt. Kurobegoro area

Downstream of this cirque, three distinct lateral moraine ridges stretch on both sides of the U-shaped valley, and two small terminal moraines are found within the valley (Fig. 7). Ono (1981, 1982) recognized five glacial advances (stages I–V) during the latter half of the Last Glacial age based on the sequence of moraines, and pointed out that MIS-3/4 glacier was much more extensive and reached ca.1900 m altitude. Ono (1981, 1982) correlated stage II to the global LGM, because stage II moraines are quite large and distinct while other moraines are small and fragmented. Aoki (2003) obtained cosmogenic 10Be dating from the stage V terminal moraine (Fig. 7) and demonstrated that the stage V advance occurred about 10–11 ka. If the most extensive glaciation in MIS 2 occurred just before the fall of the AT (29 ka) in the whole southern part of the Northern Japanese Alps, both stages I and II are most likely to correspond to the advance just before the AT fall. According to this idea, stages I and II should be correlated to the Kasaga-take II, stage III to the Kasaga-take III (global LGM), and stage V to the Kasaga-take IV, respectively. The reconstructed extent of the Kurobegoro glacier at the global LGM is shown in Fig. 6. The ELA was calculated as 2540 m by using AAR ¼ 0.60. The ELA for the stage II was calculated as 2490 m (Ono, 1982), based on the highest altitude of the lateral moraine and geomorphological features such as valley shape. The ELA for Stage V is calculated as 2690 m by using AAR ¼ 0.60 (Aoki, 1999, 2002a, b). Since it is possible that stage II, represented by the well-preserved largest

Mt. Kurobegoro (2839.6 m) is a typical glaciated mountain in the Northern Japanese Alps. A large cirque is excavated in the eastern face of the mountain.

Fig. 6. Distribution of glacial landforms around Mount Kasaga-take (after Hasegawa, 1996a). 1. Cirque wall (Kasaga-take V stage); 2. Cirque and glaciated valley walls (Kasaga-take IV stage); 3. Cirque and glaciated valley walls (Kasaga-take III stage); 4. Cirque and glaciated valley walls (Kasaga-take II stage); 5. Cirque and glaciated valley walls (Kasaga-take I stage); 6. Rises and valley steps; 7. Roches moutonnees; 8. Lateral and terminal moraines; 9. Ground moraines; 10. Glaciated area

Moraines

85

Stage III glacier

Stage I Stage II Stage III

Kurobe R.

Stage IV CRN dated in Aoki (2003) Stage V

A N C Mt. Kurobegoro

0

1

(km) 2

Fig. 7. Moraine stages of the Kurobegoro glacier. Aoki (2003), using cosmogenic 10Be, dated the A moraine to 10.470.9 ka, and the C moraine to 11.371.1–1.0 ka and 10.171.11.0 ka.

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moraine, corresponds to the global LGM, the accuracy of ELA estimation is 50 m (between 2490 and 2540 m).

5. Central Japanese Alps Mt. Kiso-Komogatake (351470 N, 371480 E, 2956.3 m) is the highest peak in the Central Japanese Alps. Five glacial advances (Nakagosho-dani I, II, IIIa, IIIb, and IIIc) were recognized in the two main valleys (Nakagosho-dani and Kurokawa-dani) on the eastern side of Mt. Kiso-Komagatake (Yanagimachi, 1983; Aoki, 1994, 2000a). Ono and Shimizu (1982) found the On-Ys volcanic ash in the uppermost part of the terminal moraine of the Nakagosho-dani II stage in the Kurokawa-dani Valley. The eruption age of On-Ys is estimated to be 43–29 ka stratigraphically (Machida and Arai, 1992). The presence of ON-Ys in the Nakagosho-dani II terminal moraine indicates that Nakagosho-dani I and II stages are correlated to MIS-3/4 (Ono et al., 2003). Aoki (2000b) obtained the age of 16.7–19.2 ka by cosmogenic 10Be dating of moraines in the Senjojiki cirque (head of the Nakagosho-dani Valley) and the Nogaike cirque (head of the Kurokawa-dani Valley). These moraines correspond to the Nakagosho-dani IIIb stage (Fig. 8). On the basis of this dating, it is reasonable to consider that the Nakagosho-dani IIIb stage is correlated to the global LGM, and that the Nakagosho-dani IIIc stage is correlated to the Late Glacial (Table 4).

glacial advances were recognized on Mt. Senjogatake (Kanzawa and Hirakawa, 2000) and on Mt. Ainodake (Aoki, 1996), but their ages are unknown because of a lack of volcanic ashes or organic material for radiocarbon dating. However, the original investigators suggested that these stages are correlated to the Nakagosho- dani I/II, IIIa/b, and IIIc stages in the Central Japanese Alps based on relative weathering criteria (Table 5). Mt. Ainodake (351390 N, 1381140 E, 3189.3 m) is the second highest peak in the Southern Japanese Alps. There are two glaciated valleys, the Hosozawa and Kitazawa valleys, on the eastern side of this peak. The glaciated area during MIS-3/4 was mapped by Sawagaki et al. (2004) and the area during Table 4 ELAs around Mount Kiso-Komagatake. ELAs at the global LGM are shown in bold. ELAs in Nakagosho-dani I (MIS3/4) are calculated by Yanagimachi (1983) using AAR ¼ 0.67. The ELAs of these cirque glaciers at the global LGM were calculated by Aoki (1999) using AAR ¼ 0.6

Nogaike cirque Senjojiki cirque

IIIa

IIIb

IIIc

2330 m.a.s.l 2120 m.a.s.l

2670 2690

2700 2700

2710 2740

Table 5 ELAs around Mt. Ainodake. ELAs at the global LGM are shown in bold. Stages are correlated to the those in the Central Japanese Alps. ELAs were calculated using AAR ¼ 0.6. ELAs in stage I/II are tentative values because the glaciated areas during this stage were not well studied

6. Southern Japanese Alps In the Southern Japanese Alps, glacial landforms are well developed around peaks higher than 3000 m. Three

Nakagosho-dani I

Kitazawa Valley Hosozawa Valley

I/II

IIIa/b

IIIc

2670 m.a.s.l 2605 m.a.s.l

2785 2850

2920 2970

Fig. 8. Dating sites of moraines in the Senjojiki (SEN-C) and Nogaike cirques (NOG-T) (after Aoki, 2003). 1: moraines from which samples for CRN dating were obtained, 2: other moraines, 3: collapsed cirque wall, 4 peak b: b moraine by Yanagimachi (1983). The figure on the right illustrates the location of the two cirques; K: Mt. Kiso-Komagatake, H: Mt. Hokendake.

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the global LGM by Aoki (1996, 2002a, b, unpublished data) (Fig. 8). The ELAs of these glaciers were calculated using AAR ¼ 0.6 (Table 6) (Fig. 9).

7. Taiwan The glacial record from Taiwan has been studied at a number of sites, including Mt. Xue Shan, Mt. Nanhuta Shan and Mt. Yu Shan. The earliest summaries of the glacial record from Taiwan (e.g. Tanaka and Kano, 1934; Ono and Naruse, 1997) indicated that the most extensive phase of glaciation took place during MIS3/4 and that the extent of glaciation during MIS2 was more limited. More recent work by Hebenstreit and Boese (2003) suggests that the MIS3/4 glaciation was more extensive than previously thought, and they proposed an ELA elevation of 3050 m for MIS 3/4. They confirm that glaciation during MIS2 was considerably less extensive that during MIS3/4. The youngest moraine in the cirque of Mt. Xue Shan (Hseuh Shan, 3884 m) has been dated to 18.371.5 ka (Cui et al., 2002). The altitude of this terminal moraine is 3350 m, and according to Wang et al. (2000), it is located at nearly the lowest end of the U-shaped valley. This is the only moraine in Taiwan that has been explicitly dated to the global LGM. The ELA calculated by THAR (0.5) is around 3550 m, and Cui et al. (2002) proposed 3500 m. The youngest moraines on Mt. Nashuta Shan were dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to 11.1 and 7 ka, thus indicating that they represent late glacial and Holocene advances (Hebenstreit and Boese, 2003). Nevertheless, these dates place some constraint on the identification of the LGM moraine at Nanhuta Shan. There are no other dates on moraines from Taiwan, and the assignment of ages to these moraines is based on relative dating. Ono et al. (2003), depending largely on the maps shown in Wang et al. (2000), summarized ELAs at the global LGM from sites in Taiwan as follows. The ELA was at 3500750 m at Mt. Nanhuta Shan, 3600750 m at Mt. Xue Shan and 3700750 m at Mt. Yu Shan. On the other hand, Hebenstreit and Boese (2003) have estimated the ELA for the late glacial advance (1.1 ka) on Mt. Nanhuta Shan as 3350 m by OSL dating of the moraine at the altitude of 3150 m. Hebenstreit and Boese (2003) suggest that this estimate indicates that the ELA elevations previously attributed to MIS3/4 by Ono and Naruse (1997) are more likely to correspond to the global LGM. If this is true, then ELA elevations at the global LGM would be 32007100 m at Mt Nanhuta Shan, 3300750 m at Mt. Xue Shan and 3450750 m at Mt. Yu Shan. However, the estimated ELA at Mt. Xue Shan (3300750 m) is too low if the 18 ka dating of the moraine at the altitude 3350 m by Cui et al. (2002) is correct.

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There are many problems in interpreting the reconstructed ELAs from Taiwan. The lack of large scale maps showing the distribution of moraines in the published papers makes it difficult to evaluate the identification of glacier extent and ELA calculations. Furthermore, the estimate of the present (hypothetical) ELA differs considerably between authors. Yang (2001) estimated the modern ELA at Yu Shan as 4345 m from the meteorological data obtained at the top of northern peak of Yu Shan (3850 m), while Hebenstreit and Boese (2003) calculated it as 3900–4000 m using the method of Benn and Lehmkuhl (2000). However, Mt. Yu Shan is located south of Mts. Nanhuta Shan and Xue Shan (see Fig. 1c). Using meteorological data from Gokan Shan (3370 m), only 25 km south from Mt. Xue Shan, the estimated modern ELA calculated using Ohmura’s method is ca 4600 m. In the calculation of the present ELA, we used only the winter precipitation (around 1000 mm) while the annual precipitation is 3420 mm (Wang et al., 2000). If we assume the present ELA of Mt. Xue Shan as around 4600 m, ELA depression at LGM is about 1100 m for ELA at LGM, 3500 m (Cui et al., 2002), or 1300 m for ELA at LGM, 3300 m (Hebenstreit and Boese, 2003).

8. Discussion 8.1. Spatial patterns of ELA contours at the global LGM Ono et al. (2004) have presented a map of the global LGM ELAs from Karakorum to Japan, based on a revision of the map originally presented by Ono and Naruse (1997). If the ELA estimates given by Hebenstreit and Boese (2003) are correct, the 3600, 3400 and 3200 m contours shown in Fig. 8 should run further south around Taiwan. The map (Fig. 10) shows that there was a steep gradient of ELAs from the Pacific Ocean to the Japan Sea, and around the margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The concave pattern of contours of ELA from Taiwan towards the Hidaka range through the Japan Sea was called a ‘‘snowline trough’’ by Ono (1988, 1991). The position of this trough indicates the area where the absorption of moisture from the sea surface was highest when sea level was lowest at the global LGM. Under modern conditions, the NW winter monsoon from continental China absorbs moisture from the East China Sea and brings snow to the Mt. Nanhuta Shan and Mt. Xue Shan regions of Taiwan (Ono, 1988). The enhancement of the winter monsoon at global LGM (An, 2000) probably led to increased snowfall in Taiwan, because the Kuroshio Current (white arrow in Fig. 8) brought a sufficient moisture source. However, as a result of lowered sea level during the global LGM, the Tsushima Current, a branch of the Kuroshio, could

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Table 6 Equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) today, at global LGM and MIS 3/4, in selected Japanese mountains Area

Glacier

Lat.

Long.

Highest altitude (m)

Terminus(m)

ELA(m)

Reconstruction Method

Dating Method

Ono and Hirakawa (1975a), Liu et al. (1998a), Iwasaki et al. (2000b), Sawagaki et al. (2003) Ono and Hirakawa (1975a), Liu et al. (1998a), Sawagaki et al. (2003)

References LGM

Mis3/4

Pres.

LGM

DELA

Mis3/4

42.75

142.70

1960

1175

850

2750

1500

1250

1325

Maximum discharge, AAR

Relative, radiocarbon

Mt. Poroshiri

Poroshiri East BCD

42.72

142.70

2052

1320

1100

2680

1575

1105

1500

Maximum discharge, AAR

Relative, radiocarbon

Northern Japanese Alps Mt. Tsurugi Tsurugisawa

36.62

137.62

2998

1800

1525

2970

2570

400

2200

AAR

Relative

Mt. Tateyama

Kuranosuke

36.57

137.62

2999

2420

—

2970

2550

420

1900

AAR

Relative

Murodo

36.57

137.62

3015

2290

—

2970

2600

370

—

AAR

Mt. Kurobegoro

Kurobegoro

36.38

137.54

2840

2000

1900

3760

2520

1240

—

Mt. Kasa

Nichidoku-sawa

36.32

137.57

2860

2400

1760

3620

2525

1095

2310

AAR, Lateral moraine THAR

Radiocarbon, Fissiontrack Cosmogenic

35.78

137.82

2931

2220

1570

3900

2700

1200

2120

AAR

Relative , Cosmogenic

Aoki and Hasegawa (2003), Aoki (2000b), Aoki (2000a), Aoki (1994), Yanagimachi (1983)

35.65 35.64

138.24 138.24

3130 3190

2390 2490

1800 1610

4130 4130

2785 2850

1345 1280

2650 2600

AAR AAR

Relative Relative

Sawagaki et al. (2004) Sawagaki et al. (2004)

Central Japanese Alps Mt. Senjojiki Kisokomagatake

Southern Japanese Alps Mt. Ainodake Kitazawa Hosozawa

Cosmogenic

Fukai (1960), Aoki (2002a) Aoki (2002a), Ono et al. (2003 Aoki (2002a), Ono et al. (2003), Kawasumi (2000 Aoki (2002a), Aoki (2003), Ono (1981) Aoki (2002a), Aoki (2003), Hasegawa (1996b), Aoki and Hasegawa (2003)

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Hidaka range Mt. Tottabetsu

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not enter the Japan Sea. Thus, it is unlikely that a similar mechanism operated to produce enhanced snowfall in Japan. The lowering of surface temperature of the Japan Sea would have decreased evaporation from the sea surface and limited the growth of glaciers in the Japanese Alps (Ono and Naruse, 1997; Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003). Another factor is the change of the Westerlies at the global LGM (Ono and Irino, 2004). In the winter, one branch of the Westerlies branch, goes north of the Tibetan Plateau and the other along the southern margins of the Himalaya. In summer, the southern

Fig. 9. Glacier and moraine distribution in the Hosozawa and Kitazawa Valleys, Mt. Ainodake, Southern Japanese Alps. Dotted: main ridge, gray polygon: moraine, gray line: margin of glacier in stage 3/4 (Sawagaki et al., 2004), solid line: margin of glacier at LGM (Aoki, 1996, 2002b, and unpublished data).

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branch shifts to the north of the Tibetan Plateau. At the global LGM, however, the Westerlies seem to be located south of the Himalaya throughout the year (Ono and Irino, 2004). This shift results in enhanced precipitation over Taiwan and the Pacific side of the Japanese islands, and is consistent with the reconstructed ELAs in Taiwan (Hebenstreit and Boese, 2003) which are lower than previously thought.

8.2. ELA depression The ELA depression at global LGM was between 1100 and 1300 m in all the Japanese mountains (Table 6) except those located on the northern margin of the Northern Japanese Alps (Mts. Tsurugi and Tateyama). These mountains are very near the Japan Sea, and receive abundant snowfall at present because the warm Tsushima Current supplies humidity to the cold air mass of the dry winter monsoon (Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003). The hypothetical modern ELAs are therefore very low and close to the summit of these mountains. If there was an accumulation basin at the level of the hypothetical ELA, a glacier could grow even under present climatic conditions. However, the highest accumulation basin in these mountains is located below 2700 m, and only a perennial snow patch exists in the cirque although there is fossil glacier ice beneath the perennial snow patch (Higuchi, 1990). The humidity supply was drastically decreased at global LGM by the lowering of sea level which prevented the Tsushima Current entering the Japan Sea. As a result, the ELA lowering at global LGM was relatively small. The small ELA depression

Fig. 10. Contours of ELAs at global LGM from Karakorum to Japan (Ono et al., 2004). Contour interval: 100 m; white arrow: Kuroshio Current, dotted: sea ice extent; gray: emerged sea bottom at global LGM (100 m sea-level at present).

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on Mts. Tsurugi and Tateyama can be explained by this contrast of snowfall between present and global LGM. The magnitude of the ELA depression increases towards the south in the Japanese Alps, suggesting that precipitation increases towards the south. The southern migration of the westerlies (Ono and Irino, 2004) seems to enhance the snowfall not only in Taiwan but also in the mountains near the Pacific Ocean during the global LGM.

9. Conclusion ELAs at the global LGM are around 1500–1600 m in the northern Hidaka Range, 2500–2600 m in the Northern Japanese Alps, 2700 m in the Central Japanese Alps, 2800 m in the Southern Japanese Alps, 3300–3500 m in northern Taiwan, and 3500–3700 m in central Taiwan. The pattern of contours of ELAs (Fig. 10) indicates a strong influence of precipitation control on the glacier development in this region. The existence of a ‘‘snowline trough’’ along the East China Sea and the Japan Sea clearly indicates that the winter monsoon from Siberia is important for snow supply to the mountains in Japan and Taiwan at the global LGM, even though the amount of snow decreased drastically on the Japan Sea side at that time. Therefore, the local gradient of ELAs is especially steep from the Pacific Ocean toward the Japan Sea in Japan, and from the East China Sea toward the Asian continent. The depression at the global LGM in Japan was 1100–1300 m, except in the northernmost part of the Northern Japanese Alps where it is only 400 m. This can be explained by the fact that the present (hypothetical) ELA is extraordinarily low because of abundant snowfall under the present climatic and oceanographic conditions, while it was not much lowered by the change of the Tsushima Current at the global LGM. In Taiwan, if the hypothetical ELA at present at Mt. Xue Shan is about 4600 m, the ELA depression at global LGM is estimated of about 1100 m in central Taiwan without consideration of uplift. The value is similar to the general ELA depression in Japan. This, and a similar contrast of glacial extent between MIS 3/4 and the global LGM, together suggest that the glacial fluctuations in Taiwan and Japan are controlled by a similar regime. However, in Taiwan the enhancement of winter monsoon, the southern migration of Westerlies and the shift of the Kuroshio Current are the major controlling factors. Precipitation was drastically reduced during the global LGM especially in the area along the East Asian continent from Taiwan to the Hidaka Range through the Northern Japanese Alps where winter snowfall is abundant at present. This area lost most of its moisture supply during the global LGM because of the change in

sea-surface conditions in the Japan Sea and the East China Sea as a result of sea-level lowering, the southward shift of the Kuroshio Current, and the spread of sea ice in the northernmost part of the Japan Sea (Fig. 10). Southern migration of the Westerlies also seems to affect the glacier fluctuation (Ono and Irino, 2004). The termination of a glacial stage in Japan is often related to volcanic processes. In the Hidaka Range, for example, thick pumice falls such as Spfa-1 or En-A seem to have enhanced glacial melting (Sawagaki et al., 2003). In the Northern Japanese Alps, the termination of several glacial stages is marked by the fall of pumice and the eruption of pyroclastic flows (Ono et al., 2003). This line of evidence suggests a volcanic control of glacier termination overlapping the climatic control in Japan. Although glacial field research is difficult in Japan and Taiwan because of intensive erosion as a result of active crustal movement and a thick vegetation cover, the study of glacial history in these regions offers an important key to understanding climatic changes in monsoon Asia and the relation between glaciation and volcanism.

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