Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?

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Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training? Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming Jean-Paul Dubeuf a,∗ , Samir Sayadi b,1 a b

INRA-SAD, F-20250 Corte, France Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, IFAPA, Andalusia, Spain

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 25 July 2013 Received in revised form 24 March 2014 Accepted 9 April 2014 Available online xxx

Keywords: Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Goat development Multi-functionality Training Externalities

a b s t r a c t The livestock sector is facing important environmental, economic and social challenges, and therefore the concept of multi-functionality has been developed as a response. Two different round tables were organized to explore the main issues of multi-functionality for goat raising and their consequences in training for goat keepers. Each round table was formally a focus group in which the participants each explained their perceptions. The territory is seen here not only as a spatial support but also as a social setting, where all the activities and actors’ strategies meet and compete. The various functions of goats (primary, secondary and tertiary productive functions; environmental, socio-cultural, esthetic ones) were debated to see how their externalities could be operational to support their development. The main obstacles to mobilize these externalities and satisfy new social demands and concerns were examined. Education and professional training for goat keepers must change their objectives, programs and methodology, and favor effective collaboration between all territorial actors involved in goats to meet these new innovative strategies. Some initiatives in training were presented from Spain, India, and Brazil, all providing a large place for in situ learning, local knowledge, and participatory approaches. Developing large interactions and networking at an international level between actors involved in extension and training could help build new initiatives, new strategies, and new approaches. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction: context and objectives of the round tables

(waste of nonrenewable resources, climate change, erosion, bio-diversity loss), economic (decline of its contribution on gross domestic product [GDP]2 etc.) and social

Agriculture and livestock production are facing profound and well-known crucial problems: environmental

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 608861813. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.-P. Dubeuf), [email protected] (S. Sayadi). 1 Tel.: +34 660402344.

2 The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a year, or another period of time. GDP is commonly used as an indicator of the economic health of a country, as well as to gauge a country’s standard of living. The economic importance of economic sectors could be also based on its contribution to the GDP within countries, regions, etc.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007 0921-4488/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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(desertification of many marginal areas, urban unemployment, etc.). Globalization and market liberalization are realties worldwide and there is a permanent tension at the local level between this globalization and the territorialization of local products. For instance, European agriculture is facing competition on world markets from emerging countries that often lack social and environmental controls. In addition, consumer behavior is changing with the emergence of new public concerns regarding nature, tradition, recreation, and culture. The need for a new analytical framework for agriculture and livestock policy including small-ruminant activities and managing production processes to meet these challenges is therefore a much-debated topic. They lead not to enhance only productivity, performance, and technical progress. Each territory must improve its competitiveness by also developing sustainable production systems, local employment, and markets. For low-income countries, the global commitment to improve their economic and social conditions has been represented by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), now approved internationally and multilaterally. The experts involved in this preparation have discussed countries’ needs in building capacity for the production and the analysis of MDGs. They considered capacity building to be a key factor for promoting higher economic growth. It is an important prerequisite for making progress to reach the MDGs (MDG, 2010). In this context of fast global change, goat farming is more and more seen as a key activity in many rural areas. The multi-functionality of goat farming is steadily becoming more enhanced. In addition to the classical production functions, their environmental and esthetic ones are considered through the impact of pastoralism on landscapes and biodiversity. In addition, like other sectors, goat farming also has to face all the dramatic challenges and opportunities mentioned above. The objective of this article is to explore how the several actors involved in goat farming perceive the multi-functional issues of goat farming in their countries and how these issues could be considered for capacity building and training. For this, conceptual approaches (multi-functionality, new social demands and challenges, innovative strategies, etc.), are presented. 2. Methodology, material, and sequences of the round tables The study is based on the sequences of two round tables organized during the International Conference on Goats in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain) in September 2012. The purpose of the first round table was to identify the main development of new issues for goat and smallruminant (SR) farming. The objective of the second one was to identify the priorities of SR farming in capacity building, training, and education, the main actors involved and the main relationship between them. Capacity building here signifies appropriate technology transfer, access to services and technical support, business or entrepreneurship training. Each round table was organized as a focus group introduced by a plenary presentation followed by structured discussions. Focus groups constitute a suitable

classical methodological approach of qualitative research to identify the answer by a specific group to an identified question, establishing several perspectives on the topic, according to their views and experiences. The participants of each focus group were international professional or scientific experts on goat farming. Several issues on multi-functionality were debated during the first round table concerning several key questions: 1. How could livestock participate in the design of sustainable development of rural territories? 2. How can goat farming improve its current situation by developing multi-functionality? 3. What are the externalities or functions provided in rural territories by livestock, in general, and by goat farming, particularly, and how could breeders be remunerated? 4. How could these externalities be incorporated to policies to satisfy new social demands and to increase farmer benefits? 5. What solutions could research offer? The second round table on training explored the connection between these new issues, capacity-building priorities as well as training and educational programs. Some specific initiatives were presented to illustrate how these changes could be operational. The discussions during the second round table were also structured around some critical questions: 1. What training methodologies should be avoided and which ones should be encouraged? 2. What kind of relationships can be developed with the actors? 3. How can farmer motivation be improved? 4. What obstacles are faced to implement new training programs? 3. The concept of multi-functionality in agriculture and livestock: implications for society and policies 3.1. Definitions and references about multi-functionality The general concepts of multi-functionality for agriculture and livestock were presented to introduce the first round table. In most situations, including developing countries, the key challenge for livestock still remains how to improve productivity and competitiveness at the national level for the development of income and employment, for food security, for family nutrition, and for livelihoods while preserving bio-diversity, soil fertility, land and water resources. However, it is clear today that agriculture and livestock have a much broader significance for society than the mere provision of food and renewable resources (European Commission, 2000; OECD, 2001; Van Huylenbroeck and Duran, 2003; Renting et al., 2009; Moreno, 2010; Devendra et al., 2010; Swanepoel et al., 2010). The concept of multi-functionality has been expanded to address these issues about the simultaneous production of appropriate market and nonmarket goods (or public services), including environmental and rural development concerns (WTO, 2004; European

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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Main outputs for Small Ruminant Systems

Non Commodity outputs (posive externalies )

Commodity outputs Primary products (milk, meat and fibre) Secondary products (cheese, knits, butchering)

Inputs for Agriculture (organic maer for ferlizaon)

Terary products (direct sales, rural tourism and restaurants)

Producve and commercial funcons remunerated by the markets

Social viability of rural areas landscape

Rural landscape and rangelands

Food safety and health

Bio diversity

Cultural values

Soil conservaon

Goods and services provided without any direct monetary compensaons

Inputs emissions degradaons Negave externalies

Fig. 1. Main commodity and externalities outputs in small ruminant production systems.

Commission, 1999; Cairol et al., 2009; Hediger and Knickel, 2009; Van der Ploeg and Roep, 2003). What is changing is not only the role of agriculture and livestock in rural communities and society but also how this role is valued. The concept of multi-functional services of agricultural production in rural areas seems to be accepted both at political and scientific levels (UE, 1999; OECD, 2001; Yrjölä and Kola, 2004; Sayadi, 2009; Gómez-Limón and Arriaza, 2013). The non-market functions are usually called externalities, which are produced jointly with food and fiber commodities in an agricultural and livestock production, and they are often public goods (OECD, 2001; Moran et al., 2011). An externality (external economy) exists when the actions of an actor (the goat breeders in this case) affect the environment of other agents by any means other than the market). For instance, when farmers or breeders provide environmental goods and services and when the effects of goat farming have an impact on the utility function and productive functions of other agents (the society). To be considered an externality, this impact must be without any market compensation, as markets do not take into account these goods and services. These externalities can be positive or negative. An externality is positive (landscape improvement, soil fertility, livelihood, erosion and fire control, etc.) when the impact is favorable, although this is not reflected in the prices of goods. An externality is negative (pollution, aquifer depletion, over pasturing, landscape degradation, etc.) if there is a reduction in social or environmental welfare, but producing agents are not penalized nor the affected people compensated. These effects have no monetary value and there is no compensation for producing them, but they nevertheless have a strongly significant impact on the overall social welfare and role in the economic, social, and environmental

sustainability of rural territories. Fig. 1 includes some of these multi-functional outputs for small ruminants. Small ruminant systems are multi-functional because breeders produce multiple goods and services. They may have positive or negative tangible and intangible, intentional or unintentional, impacts. The basic idea behind the multi-functionality of small-ruminant sectors refers to the fact that production processes provide not only food and fiber for local people but also different non-market commodities or externalities. Today, there is increasing demand to facilitate positive externalities and penalize the negative ones (Yrjölä and Kola, 2004; De Groot, 2006; Sayadi, 2009; Sayadi et al., 2009; Salazar and Sayadi, 2011; Hall et al., 2004; Gómez-Limón and Arriaza, 2013). However, farmers and breeders allocate their resources according to market goods (inputs and food), thus reaching their private optimum and marginal private benefits. Consequently, there is a market failure because prices do not reflect those externalities (i.e. the producers do not internalize the negative externalities). This situation presents the potential risks of overproduction or underproduction of public goods needed by the society (social optimum), as farmers do not pay for them (negative externalities) or do not receive any incentive for producing the positive ones (Ortiz, 2001; Sayadi and Parra-López, 2009). If a higher provision of these amenities and demands of new services from breeders are required by the society, incentives will be needed for their fair remuneration. In this context, a new analytical framework establishing small-ruminant policies and managing production processes would be necessary. The roles of small ruminants and especially goats, and their missions in rural communities also need to be redefined, particularly in developing countries. To take into account the effects of externalities in the functioning of the farming systems and to foresee

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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Farming-Livestock Systems Productive Functions

Territorial Functions

Direct Use Values

Indirect Use Values

Market values

Environmental Functions

Other Functions

Non Use Values (Option, Conservation Legacy, Existence Values)

Non-Market values (Externalities)

VALUES FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT Fig. 2. Main values and externalities of small ruminant systems.

the expected costs and benefits, a valuation is necessary (Pretty et al., 2003; Ruiz et al., 2009). The valuation of the environmental externalities of farming systems has emerged as a discipline of growing importance, particularly since the mid-1980s. This discipline has proposed to include environmental objectives in a new model of sustainable agriculture and livestock. The value of an externality is multi-dimensional and can be estimated through the mechanism of “internalization”. To internalize properly these externalities, environmental economics has developed several general methods in order to value not only the negative environmental impacts but also the benefits derived from activities that enhance environmental quality. Fig. 2 summarizes some of these market and non-market values. Those values are good indicators for agri-environmental policy-making (subsidies as incentives for positive externalities, taxes to limit negative externalities, etc.) and for identifying quality in value chains to take full advantages of market opportunities for local products and innovation strategy design. 3.2. The concept of multi-functionality and the relevance of positive externalities in goat farming for society The multi-functionality of goat farming is often enhanced more than in other livestock activities. If the several productive functions are easy to define the other ones need to be specified. The negative externalities are not very different from other livestock activities for intensive systems and the positive ones are clearly related to the pastoral systems. 3.2.1. Primary productive functions The contribution of food from animal origin to the nutritional status of the world population is well documented (Bwibo et al., 2003; Randolph et al., 2007; Ndlovu, 2010). The production of animal-based products has grown dramatically during recent decades, particularly meat consumption and, although their contribution is still low, the rearing of goats has expanded more than that of other animals (FAO stat, 2013). Goat products are divided according to the main commodities, i.e. milk, meat, and fiber. More than many other species, small ruminants and particularly goats are

multi-purpose, the most directly marketed commodity being meat, milk being often auto-consumed by the families owning the goats or processed into cheese and fiber sold to industry. The milk productivity of herds in Mediterranean mountain conditions is generally low, taking into account that production is seasonal and often a complementary product of meat (Dubeuf et al., 2004; Yener, 1989; Castel et al., 2009). 3.2.2. Secondary productive functions These functions include mainly cheese making (and more specifically cheese making on the farm), knits or sweater making (for fibers), handicrafts (knives, soaps, leather working, etc.), meat processing being relatively rare. The potential for transforming the milk into cheese or other milk products has traditionally been an important element in the cultural wealth of rural areas, and is particularly relevant for sheep and goat milk production (Devendra, 1987; Calatrava and Sayadi, 2003). Increased economic activity in livestock fosters forward linkages through surges in livestock processing and marketing, and backward linkages through increased demand for inputs and livestock services (Van der Zijpp et al., 2010; McDermott et al., 2010). 3.2.3. Tertiary productive functions The commercial functions are tertiary productive functions. At the world level, a large part of goat products are still consumed by the goat raiser or sold at the community level. Nevertheless, the trade of goat products is expanding quickly for milk (milking), meat and fiber (mohair and cashmere industry). They are economically indirect productive functions because they are processed by breeders but are not direct products of the herds. At local farm levels, the tertiary productive functions include the sale of cheeses, of kids or lambs, of local crafts, and possibly agro-tourism (Dubeuf et al., 2004). In Europe, recreational potentialities have expanded, and Sayadi and Calatrava (2001) have demonstrated how, in an environment of diversified activities within the farm, the experience of contact with animals is highly appreciated by urban visitors. Likewise, the esthetic function, introduced below, can itself be an important element in recreational supply, in the same way that the sale of handicraft dairy products is usually an important part of what the region has to offer gastronomically. 3.2.4. Environmental functions Livestock production is the largest land use system on the earth. Pastoralism systems occupy at least 45% of the global land area (Reid et al., 2008). Livestock can have both positive and negative environmental impact due to rapidly evolving livestock systems, associated mainly with increased intensification. Although the literature has generally demonstrated that grazing goats have no negative effects on forests and rangelands, many actors (e.g. forestry services) still consider goats to be factors of degradation. This position is probably explained by the absence of suitable management of grazing and overgrazing observed in many rangelands.

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As an element of pastoral eco-systems, goats can also be considered a factor of biodiversity. Although viewed as natural areas, range lands are in fact the consequence of a balance between natural resources and their utilization by humans. Grazing by goats helps clear the scrubs; it limits the accumulation of dry leaves and thereby helps to prevent forest fires (Papanastasis, 1985; Ruiz-Mirazo et al., 2009; Paoli and Santucci, 2010). Goats have a stronger natural image than other livestock in developed countries, as shown in France (ANICAP, 2001). However, this image has to face a contradictory reality because most of the production systems are very intensive in Europe, with few positive environmental functions. Production of manure and their use for agriculture can be seen as an environmental function but also as a primary productive function. Maintaining livestock attached to the land contributes also to the environmental balance, and to the sustainability of development processes (Calatrava and Sayadi, 2007). Thus, it is important to increase the understanding of livestock’s effect on the environment and undertake the management needed to achieve a sustainable use of resources (Herrero et al., 2010). 3.2.5. Esthetic functions These functions are linked to those discussed above. The presence of sheep or goats is a well known element of local landscapes and in favor of their preservation. For instance, in South-Western Morocco, the presence of goats grazing and climbing in the argan trees has an important symbolic role for the tourism promotion of the region (Dubeuf et al., in press). 3.2.6. Socio-cultural functions Livestock also have important social functions (Hodges, 2006). They raise the social status of owners and contribute to gender balance by affording women and children the opportunity to own livestock, especially small stock (Waters-Bayer and Letty, 2010). In many marginal or mountains areas, small ruminants are or could be important in maintaining activity and jobs in developed countries and to improve the local income in many developing countries (Degen, 2007; Sayadi and Calatrava, 2006). Particularly, in marginal areas with harsh environments, livestock could diversify activities of poor, small-scale farmers and their communities and reduce the risks associated with crop failures and low productivity (Freeman et al., 2007; Thornton, 2010; Vandamme et al., 2010). Both the rearing of livestock and the handicraft production of SR products constitute an integral part of the socio-cultural system in many areas. They are also an element of local culture and heritage. Promoting traditional livestock rearing activities therefore usually has a positive impact on the conservation and exploitation of the sociocultural wealth of the rural community. 3.2.7. Health and nutritional values and food security Small ruminants are able to adapt to different farming systems and environments (Castel et al., 2010; Calatrava and Sayadi, 2007), reducing production risk and contributing to the nutrition and health of local people. Although this

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function may not be viewed as very important among the rural communities of highly developed countries, in many marginal and impoverished rural areas of the world this function can be a decisive, due to the nutritional value of milk and other dairy products, which are part of the local community’s diets. 3.3. Exchanges during the round tables on the importance of considering multi-functionality and territorial issues for goats and difficulties to finance positive externalities The presentation of the multi-functional approach and the valuation of positive externalities produced by grazing small ruminants induced an active discussion among participants. The 47 people from 15 developed and developing countries who attended the round table explained their position. All comments confirmed the multi-functional capacities of small ruminants in rural areas around the world. However, some details have been discussed and concerned the trade-off between these functions, the priorities, and the optimal balance between these multifunctional elements according to the country and regional situations. The presentation of the multi-functional issues for small ruminants enhanced the importance of considering not only the productive functions of small-ruminant systems but also its territorial and environmental externalities. Most of these commodities are distributed in local, regional, national and international markets. During recent decades, the animal-production sector has faced tremendous changes with intensification, industrialization, and globalization. Goat breeders until recently have hardly been concerned by this revolution except in specific dairy goat milk sectors or the fiber sector. Despite the important technical innovations, most of the goats are still out of this global world. Until recently, the main training issues for goat breeders were to achieve the level of the other livestock sectors in artificial insemination, selection, nutrition, and product innovations. Every technical innovation was considered per se as a potential source of progress. A reflexive overview of what happened globally in agriculture during these last 5 decades could easily demonstrate that progress in productivity has been extraordinary but the social and environmental consequences have been dramatically negative. Wheat or milk productivity has risen 3- to 5-fold but 2 of 3 breeders and farmers have disappeared to work in other sectors and the prices of the products have fallen 3-fold. Goat farmers, and mainly the traditional pastoral ones have been the ones most affected by this situation, either by abandoning their activity, or by marginalization, as quoted by Calatrava and Sayadi (2004). Many comments were related to the role of grazing by goats to control weeds (in Japan or Israel) to preserve landscapes (in Canary Islands, Spain) or for fire prevention (Andalusia, Spain). After these testimonies, the discussions were focused on one main question: “How can positive externalities be remunerated in situations and countries where food security and fight against hunger is the priority?” Where the main concern is food security, it is impossible to pay

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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for other functions. People from all types of situations explained their position. In developed countries, the situation would be rather clear because primary needs are satisfied and the situation has been more one of over-production until now. For goat farming, food security is not the problem. However, in these areas, the most multi-functional systems, the pastoral ones, have declined and are still declining, triggering serious problems for rural areas: villages have been abandoned while range lands and mountainous areas have been degraded and invaded by weeds and thickets. In fact, these so-called natural areas had been shaped by human activity that had generated biodiversity and created landscapes, whereas today both are threatened by the disappearance of pastoralism. A clear evidence of the financial impact of the negative externalities in the disappearance of pastoral systems and know-how is the high price to be paid for public services to fight fires. To re-invest in breeders and make them actors of the land and landscape conservation would be efficient socially, economically, and environmentally. Although it has long been shown that grazing goats are not by themselves the cause of degradation of rangelands, they are still very often referred to negatively by official services and particularly the Forest Services in many different places such as the Canary Islands, India, or Morocco. The problem is more related to the management of rangelands because over-grazing is the main factor of degradation of the range lands. Many regulations have forbidden grazing by goats, and pastoralism is not seen positively by many development agencies (Sid Ahmed, 2011). Animals can have negative impact on ecosystems but it is a consequence of bad management by humans and it is not an intrinsic or natural consequence of animal presence and behavior. Thus, acknowledging multi-functionality could enhance the potential role of goat grazing both as a forage resource and as a factor of preserving the ecosystem, thanks to the valorization of local knowledge. The compensation of CO2 reduction could be paid through specific subsidies. However, for many countries facing problems of governance, it would not be realistic over the short term to consider the payment of positive externalities. A way to face these difficulties would be to valorize local products positively, for instance by local labels (organic products, fair-trade products, or denominations and collective organizations such as the Neuquen Chivito in Patagonia, Pérez Centeno et al., 2007). It would give another approach of competitiveness regarding generic and global products. However, the real costs for society to remedy soil destruction, water pollution, unsafe food, forest fires, and rural desertification have not been yet well calculated or adequately incorporated into market prices. The increased demand for livestock products should be translated into incentives and fairly remunerated for breeders to increase their benefits. The intensification of production systems to maximize the use of available resources in some developing countries is inevitable and is sometimes an overriding determinant for enhanced livestock productivity. In the process, different levels of intensification within and between production systems are inevitable and at times need to be vigorously promoted in order to boost productivity. Pastoral systems have often been underestimated and merit

more development attention (Devendra et al., 2010). Coexistence between pastoral systems and more intensified approaches is possible but in many cases the problem of hunger is not linked to the quantity of food produced but its availability to poor people. Women have a decisive role overall in many countries, especially for secondary and tertiary functions of production and goats. For instance, in the Caribbean, they can also have an important cultural role at the family level. This is particularly important for women for whom the value-adding activities in processing and marketing make vital contributions to their household budgets (Calatrava and Sayadi, 2007). Thus, all participants insisted that research and development projects on goats should incorporate gender analysis (Sayadi and Calatrava, 2008; Tipilda and Kristjanson, 2009). These new multi-functional approaches have consequences on the main orientations of science. The complexity of these multi-factorial problems requires new types of approaches, and multidisciplinary approaches appear to be fundamental by linking biotechnical sciences and social sciences. This also has consequences on the innovation systems by fomenting collaboration and cooperation between all stakeholders rather than the old top-down vision still displayed by many decision makers. The development of agro-ecological systems could also strengthen multi-functional approaches. 4. Main issues and new challenges on training and capacities for goat farming: innovative initiatives for developing training in goat husbandry 4.1. Training methodologies and programs The first round table debated the new objectives of livestock activities for society regarding their productive functions as well as the territorial, environmental, sociocultural ones in addition to their positive and negative externalities. Consequently, the development of human capacities, agricultural education, and professional training need to change their objectives, programs and methodologies to answer this new social demand (FAO, 1996, 1998). Until recently, the training and education programs had mainly taught techniques and knowledge in management to improve the capacities of farmers, future farmers, and extension agents to improve the productivity of their system by practical and theoretical courses. They had to include all relevant technological innovations for instance in genetics, selection, and nutrition to achieve this objective. Once the dominant paradigm, underlining that any technological progress would mean progress for all society, has failed, and therefore training programs as well as their organization needs to change. The lack of training for goat farmers was enhanced in several studies (Castel et al., 2009; Nefzaoui et al., 2014, Aljumaah, et al., 2014). Seen as marginal activities, without organization and with few industries, they were considered of little interest in the formulation of public policies. It is significant to note that the first important training centers for goat farmers were established where dynamic and productive goat industry was developed as in France (ITPLC, and the Carmejane cheese center now Actilait or

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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several agricultural high schools specialized in goat farming). Training in livestock production was seen through generic techniques to improve and maximize productivity. The tacit assumption is that if such training centers were created everywhere that goats are raised, the goat keepers would have more capacities to accept innovations which have proved successful in more developed areas. However, it has now clearly been shown that such a hypothesis is not accurate. All the theories on innovation have demonstrated that it could emerge only from strong interactions between research and local actors with the consideration of local situations (Asheim and Gertler, 2004; Bhattacharya and Bloch, 2004; Gellynck and Vermeire, 2009). All participants of the round table insisted that training programs need to consider the local diversified situations, particularly for arid and pastoral “less favored areas”. About 90% of the goats in the world are raised in these areas for local consumption and local markets. Therefore, the classical training courses and technologies in intensive goat farming (productive and specialized breeds, rationalized nutrition and reproduction, hygiene control) have not been successfully extended in these regions. The issues regarding training methodologies and programs are presented in Fig. 3. The main point to highlight concerns the type of knowledge to teach. It has clearly been illustrated by the example of the Asturian Shepherd School in Spain, presented by the director, Fernando Garcia-Dory. With the dramatic decrease in the number of shepherds in the Urrielles Mountains, northern Spain, the Shepherd School was created to face these challenges. Rather than only didactic courses with upgraded teachers, interviews and contacts with shepherds and experts were implemented to prepare the first courses. Some specific needs have emerged such as the need of interactions between veteran shepherds (who do not want to stay alone and isolated in the mountains), and young people interested in becoming shepherds. The first session of the Shepherd School, an introduction to mountain pastoralism, started in 2007 with three students and three “shepherd teachers”. Of course, theoretical training courses were planned on cheese making, veterinary sciences, animal husbandry and physiology but also on mountain ecology, European farming policies, and shepherd culture. This program was completed by a 4-month practical period, during which the young shepherds went up to the mountains to stay with their shepherd teachers, living everyday life and learning local practices. The teaching program offered a large place for interactions with the actors and has also developed training on new technology innovations. For example, the “Bionic Sheep” (Garcia-Dory, 2013), a portable device to be worn by the sheep instead of a bell, fueled by a small solar plate which emits ultrasound waves at a frequency that repels wolves, and a GPS locator that sends an SMS signal to keep the shepherd informed of the movements of the flock. This program aimed not only to improve the technical capacities of the young farmers but also to give them elements to improve their standards of living and production units, by improving their shelters and cheese making by combining modern technology with traditional shelter and methods.

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On other continents and in developing countries, many development projects that include natural training programs and the organization of focus groups with local field guides have been implemented successfully as reminded by the representatives of several NGOs during the round table (ImGoat’s project, 2013). Specific efforts are made to include women in these courses, as they are often in charge of goats, processing, and marketing but are generally excluded from basic and professional education. This point has been considered not only as an element of gender equity but also of training efficiency. 4.2. Training and relations with the actors Suppliers have been generally deeply involved in agricultural training. Hence, classically, the rationalized use of inputs was considered the main way to improve productivity. From a territorial perspective, all the local actors need to be associated with the educational process. For instance, in Rajasthan (India), innovation platforms associating breeders, veterinarian technicians (paravets), pharmacists, traders, local officials, and local food suppliers have been included in the capacity building of the ImGoat’s project (2013). Similar approaches were developed in many situations such as in the north-eastern Brazil. The involvement of social services could also be key and for instance, in the case of the Shepherd School, each student was awarded a grant and earned 600D . Encouraging the recognition and value of the shepherd’s activity thanks to a cultural strategy, with the publication of a book featuring photographs and testimonies of shepherds, photographic exhibitions, regional cultural events in the region have also been organized as a full part of the Shepherd School project. 4.3. Obstacles faced to implement training programs on goats and how to improve the motivation of the goat keepers In many cases worldwide the most generalized representation of goat farming and pastoralism is still seen negatively or through the objective of productivism (Seyni Saley, 2011). Motivation of young people to invest and be trained to become goat keepers is often very low. In the case of the Shepherd School in Spain as often in Europe, more and more students and future shepherds are from an urban background. Another key factor is to involve the public services and policy makers to change their visions. Networking lobbying and farmer’s organization are important elements to overcome these visions. This means that the training projects should be integrative. The Shepherd School project has also promoted the establishment of a livestock farmers’ and shepherds’ association to define common objectives and formalize collective proposals. This has also promoted integration into the Spanish Shepherds Federation (FEP) and the World Alliance of Mobile Indigenous Pastoralists (WAMIP). The goat keepers, generally being small holders, do not have the capacity to finance training and are heavily dependent on public subsidies or development projects. The duration of financial supports being very short,

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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Fig. 3. New orientations on training and education for goat farming.

networking and involving local actors could be crucial for the continuity and sustainability of the training programs. The comments and reactions of the 34 people from 16 countries that have attended the round table have specified these several points. More than for other livestock activities, training in goat raising must be oriented toward multi-functional and territorial perspectives. The adaptation of goats to harsh environments, the diverse commodities they could produce in association with other agricultural productions in several rural or peri-urban conditions give them very good perspectives for the development of agro-ecological perspectives (Baret et al., 2013) with very complex implications in the organization of training. 5. Conclusion and perspectives The two round tables, have confirmed that multifunctionality is still an emerging issue. The role of livestock to enhance multi-functionality is a timely and valuable contribution. The new social demands and concerns are extremely diverse from one region or country to another. Often, changes in policy making will be required. Multifunctionality will require more innovations in stock and farm management, local and territorial governance and

in the articulation of societal expectations placed on the sector. Thus, it should have implications both at the scientific, professional, and operational levels to strengthen the capacities of the SR sector to reach these evolving challenges. They have shown that it has already influenced the conception of training in pastoral regions. Training will have to include more social and environmental objectives with more local knowledge and a larger place for observation and local initiative than only the application of predefined models. Agro-ecology and local knowledge needs to be incorporated more in the future programs, and teaching methods should give a larger place to direct observations, to focus groups, to in situ learning and participatory approaches with the shepherds themselves to share their skills. Training will have to be organized with all the actors and be also a full part of a renewed innovation system. To a larger extent, the organization of the innovation system requires all the local rural actors within a territory to be associated and participate in discussions and negotiations to take in account the multiple externalities in the design of sustainable rural development policies and agro-environmental schemes. The two round tables also clearly suggested developing networking on these issues to compare situations, share

Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007

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Please cite this article in press as: Dubeuf, J.-P., Sayadi, S., Multi-functionality issues for small ruminants: What changes are needed in territorial public policies and training?. Report of two round tables on territorial issues and training for the development of goat farming. Small Ruminant Res. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2014.04.007