Multimodal framing devices in European online news

Language & Communication 71 (2020) 55–71

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Multimodal framing devices in European online news Isabel Alonso Belmonte a, M. Dolores Porto b, * a b

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Universidad de Alcalá, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:

This paper presents a multimodal, cross-cultural analysis of the most salient framing devices in on-line news about the US Embassy relocation to Jerusalem and subsequent revolts in Gaza Strip in May 2018. Drawing from a socio-cognitive and critical approach to discourse analysis, a sample of newsbites published in different online mainstream European newspapers were analysed. Findings unveil a distinctive set of multimodal devices grouped around four categories -subject choice, composition, distance and point of view, that appear indistinctively in both visual and textual modes. These are used by newsmakers to create and manage communities of shared values about the issues reported. Also, interesting differences among newspapers were found in the context of European media discourse when dealing with these events. Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Israeli-Palestinian conflict Multimodal frames On-line news Critical cognitive discourse analysis Cross-cultural analysis

1. Introduction This study explores the interplay of verbal and visual modes in forming media frames in newsbites, a special genre of digital news. First identified by Knox (2007) and studied in detail by Porto and Alonso-Belmonte (2016), among other scholars, newsbites are a specific kind of news stories that can be found mainly on online newspaper homepages. They are presented synthetically in the form of headlines, a lead, one or more hyperlinks and visual supports (videos, images, etc.) in order to respond to their readers' needs for “quick hits of information, interactivity and the ability to seek out other information” (Kolodzy, 2006: 10). Intrigued by the way newsbites make the most of their limited structure to have an impact on their audience, this paper explores how different text-image interaction patterns are used in European online newspapers to align these newsbites' readers with their newsmakers’ vision of the world. In the most relevant literature on Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth, CDA), press images, as well as texts, are wellknown instruments for newsmakers to filter their vision of the world to their readers (Caple, 2017; Richardson, 2007). In communication disciplines, the notions of news values (Caple and Bednarek, 2013; Galtung and Ruge, 1965), agenda setting (Dearing and Rogers, 1996; McCombs and Shaw, 1972; McCombs et al., 2014) and framing (D'Angelo, 2017; de Vreese, 2003, 2005; Entman, 1993; Gofman, 1974) have gained momentum in the last decades, giving guidance to researchers on the relationship between the media and public opinion. News value theory explains that the selection of news is based on professional criteria –the so-called news factors (Staab, 1990: 41)– and thus does not necessarily imply a “distortion” of reality (Grittmann, 2007: 80). Research on agenda setting and framing issues and events, however, is focused on unveiling the ways

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (I. Alonso Belmonte), [email protected] (M.D. Porto). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2019.12.001 0271-5309/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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media shapes public opinion in favour of or against specific political, economic, and societal trends (de Vreese, 2003). In this paper we are particularly focused on the notion of framing and on its multimodal realization in European online newspapers. In the last few years, with the digitalization of the production and dissemination of news, the conceptualization of framing has been reconsidered expanding to non-verbal, visual cues (Scheufele and Iyengar, 2017). Indeed, most recent approaches tend to recognize the increasing value of photos and their role, sometimes even their primacy, in the interpretation of news (Coleman, 2010; Fulton, 2005; Griffin, 2004; Parry, 2010; among others). Since it is fairly common in professional practice that news pictures are chosen by editors or special photograph editors (Garcia and Stark, 1991), the combination of image and text in the press is never innocent and photographers themselves acknowledge that they have no power over how an image is framed in the larger context of a newspaper (Meiselas, 1987: 33, cited in Parry, 2010). Unfortunately, the majority of framing research in communication studies have traditionally ignored the arrangement of different semiotic resources (Coleman, 2010). As discourse analysts, we set off here from the premise that specific image-text combinations can give salience to particular framing(s) of news events offered in online newspapers and these multimodal arrangements may differ crossculturally, since “already-existing dominant or ‘sedimented’ discourses in particular national contexts clearly condition the plausibility of potential news frames” (Moore et al., 2018: 69). In order to make advances in this direction, still underexplored in the recent literature on media framing (D'Angelo, 2017), this paper aims to offer an evidence-informed contribution to the study of framing devices used in a sample of newsbites published in fourteen on-line mainstream European newspapers. All the newsbites analyzed inform about the relocation of the US Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem on May 14th, 2018 and the subsequent protests in the Gaza border. These events were chosen as the subject of our study because at the time they received considerable media attention across European newspapers and thus became relevant for the European public opinion. As for the conceptual framework, we draw on the above-mentioned CDA, which has recently moved in the direction of a more cognitive perspective on language and discourse (Charteris-Black, 2004, 2011; Chilton, 2004, 2005, 2014; Dirven et al., 2007; Hart, 2011, 2014, 2015; Hart and Lukes, 2007; Koller, 2014; Romano and Porto, 2016). We strongly believe there is an intrinsic relationship between cognitive linguistics and critical discourse studies, a relationship which is mainly based on a common approach to the study of language as a dynamic, complex and interactive process in which discourse emerges online in real communicative contexts (Romano and Porto, 2016). 2. About news framing: a multimodal cognitive approach Framing is a way of classifying and categorizing information that allows audiences to make sense of and give meaning to the world around them (Goffman, 1974). According to Entman (1993: 52), to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation and/or treatment recommendation for the item described. Frames can impact cognition (Rhee, 1997) and public opinion formation (Entman, 1993; Pan and Kosicki, 1993). News frames realize through specific textual and visual elements, called ‘framing devices’ or ‘reasoning devices’ which reinforce clusters of facts or judgements (van Gorp, 2007). These framing devices can be keywords, quotations, catch phrases, specific choices of language, metaphors, etc. They can also be stereotyped images, or specific “photographic choices” such as camera angle, focus and distance, i.e. a visual framing (Parry, 2010) in which photographs act as “a window through which the implied spectator sees the world as shaped by the photographer's point of view” (Parry, 2010: 69–70). Such textual and visual choices in the making of news actually constitute specific construals of the events depicted, understood, in a Cognitive Linguistics framework, as the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways. The notion of construal derives from the tenet that our visual experience influences the way in which we represent the world and so, the concepts of imagery, windowing of attention, perspectivization, foregrounding, etc. are paramount in linguistic and multimodal analysis (see Langacker, 2008, 2013; Talmy, 2000). A construal, then, is a particular way of “viewing” and a number of different aspects can be discerned in it, such as perspective, prominence, level of specificity, scope, etc. Previous research distinguishes issue-specific frames from more generic frames that can be applied across topics, issues and cultural contexts (de Vreese, 2005; Elsamni, 2016). Regarding the latter, several classifications have been proposed for the analysis of media. For example, Neuman et al. (1992: 74) speak about five common news frames: the human impact frame, which focuses on “descriptions of individuals and groups affected by an issue”; the powerlessness frame, which refers to “the dominance of forces over weak individuals or groups”; the economics frame, which reflects “the preoccupation with profit and loss”; the moral values frame, which refers to “morality and social prescriptions”; and finally, the conflict frame, which deals with the news media's “game interpretation of the political world as an on-going series of contests, each with a new set of winners and losers”. Semetko and Valkenburg's frame typology (2000) acknowledges Neuman et al.‘s classification into five types, but they do not include powerlessness. Instead their fifth frame is attribution of responsibility, which is defined as “presenting an issue or problem in such a way as to attribute responsibility for causing or solving to either the government or to an individual or group” (2000, in de Vreese, 2005: 56). Because of the nature of the news event analyzed here, the conflict, the human interest and the attribution of responsibility frames are particularly interesting for our purposes. There are different lines of research regarding the analysis of news frames (D'Angelo, 2002). Some cognitively oriented framing research has already been carried out with the focus on how news frames interact with the audience's prior knowledge (Cappella and Jamieson, 1997; McLeod and Detenber, 1999; Rhee, 1997). Some other scholars exploited the synergy between framing and corpus linguistics (Crenshaw, 2014; Molloy, 2015; Touri and Koteyko, 2015). Very recently,

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several studies have started to explore the framing of multimodal news content (Cvetkovic and Pantic, 2018; Dan, 2018; Geise and Baden, 2015; Pentzold et al., 2016; Powell et al., 2015). Even so, only a small number of them fully address the issue of how both modes actually interact, rather than considering a mere relationship between the meanings provided by texts and images independently (Boomgaarden et al., 2016; Cvetkovic and Pantic, 2018; Pentzold et al., 2016; Powell et al., 2015), and the bulk of research on this issue does not usually rely on linguistic models. Lastly, research on comparative framing analysis has focused on unveiling differences in news frames across ideologies (Dimitrova and Connolly-Ahern, 2007; Fahmy, 2010; Fahmy and Kim, 2008; Fahmy and Al Emad, 2011; Ravi, 2005) and national media contexts (Berry et al., 2016; de Vreese et al., 2001; Ramasubramanian and Miles, 2018; among others). The latter strand raises interesting questions for the present study since news frames guide the public understanding of sensitive issues like the on-going Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Unfortunately, studies comparing the framing devices used in newspapers across different EU states on this particular topic remain few and to our knowledge, there are none that have been the focus of much linguistic research either. 3. The study This article addresses the gap in the scholarship by exploring the most salient multimodal framing devices used in newsbites to frame the conflict generated by US President Donald Trump's decision to relocate the US embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. More specifically, the research questions that guide the present analysis are: RQ1: What are the main standard media frames identified in the sample texts analyzed? RQ2: What are the most salient multimodal framing devices in the sample texts? How are they realized multimodally? RQ3: Are there any cross-cultural differences among European newspapers?

3.1. The context: the case of the news on the US embassy relocation In 2018, on the occasion of the 70th anniversary of the creation of the modern State of Israel, the US president Donald Trump decided to relocate the US Embassy in Israel from its consulate in Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. The relocation generated protests of hundreds of Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Palestinians claim East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state, and saw the US move as backing Israeli control over the whole of the city. Indeed, Palestinians had been protesting at the Gaza border since March 2018, asserting that they also have a claim on Jerusalem, which has deep significance to the Jewish, Muslim and Christian faiths. On May 14th the opening ceremony took place led by the Israeli PM, Benjamin Netanyahu and with Donald Trump's daughter, Ivanka, and her husband, Jared Kushner, as very important guests. Also that day and the day after, just 60 miles away in Gaza, Israel's armed forces used gunfire and tear gas to keep protesters from entering Israeli territory. As a result, at least 60 Palestinian protesters were killed. The US Embassy opening ceremony, the protests in the Gaza Strip and its violent repression by the Israeli army were extensively covered by the European news media during the days of 14th and 15th May, 2018. 3.2. Dataset For the present study, a sample of 37 newsbites published in fourteen different on-line mainstream European newspapers were collected during May, 14th and 15th 2018. This sample may look small, but it represents all pieces of news published about the conflict generated by the relocation of the US Embassy in the following European newspapers: three Spanish (ABC; EL País, El Mundo), three Italian (La Reppublica, Corriere de la Sera, Stampa); three French (Le Monde, Le Figaro, Liberation), three German (Welt, Frankfurter Allgemeine, Spiegel Online); and two British (The Guardian, the Times).1 Table 1 shows the sample text distribution by countries:

Table 1 Sample text distribution by countries. Country of origin

No.

Italian newspapers Spanish newspapers German newspapers British newspapers French newspapers TOTAL

7 5 10 6 9 37

1 Initially, also The Telegraph was included as data source. However, some technical difficulties during the data collection period impeded the authors from collecting all the updates of this paper front page and consequently, it had to be excluded from the group of newspapers under analysis.

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One of the problems we faced during the sample collection was the dynamicity of the digital news websites or as Pentzold et al. put it, “the unreliable durability and availability of ephemeral texts” (2016:2). The front pages of a digital newspaper are short-lived as a consequence of their need of permanent updating. Some newspapers even changed their headlines and/or photos up to three times per day. As last hour news is published, others are displaced from the top of the page and their size accordingly reduced, so home pages are changed not only on a daily basis, but also several times a day. Even if most websites make it possible to search for previously published news or articles, there is not a record of previous digital front pages, which means that it is impossible to retrieve what was the disposition of the newsbites on the homepage of a digital newspaper on a specific date, or at a specific time. To overcome this limitation, screenshots of the newspapers front page were taken several times a day as news were constantly updating (see the whole sample in Appendix A). This is one of the reasons that explain the uneven number of newsbites in each newspaper, depending on their frequency of updating. Once all the sample newsbites were compiled, they were numbered and codified by newspaper, date and time and given a code. Ex: 03.REP/15M-12:01 is newsbite number 3 in La Repubblica captured on 15th May at 12:01. Then the headlines and the accompanying images were linguistically annotated and analyzed using the UAM Image Tool 2.1. 3.3. Method and procedure of analysis Sample texts were analyzed in two phases. In the first one, a preliminary study was carried out with the aim of confirming that three specific standard news frames of our interest –namely conflict, human interest and attribution of responsibility–were present in the sample texts and to which degree. Research shows that for a frame to be recognized as such, it must have identifiable conceptual and linguistic characteristics, it should be commonly observed in journalistic practice and it should be clearly recognized by others and distinguished from other frames (Capella and Jamieson, 1997:89, in de Vreese, 2005: 54). To fulfil this task, a deductive perspective was adopted by applying Semetko and Valkenburg's coding scheme (2000) to the sample texts. This instrument (see Appendix B) consists of a series of questions meant to unveil the news frames under analysis, to which the analyst had to answer yes (meaning the frame is present) or no (the frame is not present). More specifically, Semetko and Valkenburg's coding scheme presents 5 questions to identify the human interest frame, another 5 for the attribution of responsibility, and 4 for the conflict frame. A positive answer is coded as 1 and a negative one is 0. In a second stage of the analysis, the framing choices made by newsmakers to position the reader in the above identified news frames and their most frequent multimodal realizations were analyzed and described. By framing choices we mean the specific visual and textual elements that help to construct the frame and so guide the readers as for the interpretation of the events reported (Entman, 1993; Gamson and Modigliani, 1989; Parry, 2010; Tankard, 2001; van Gorp, 2007). Thus, we looked at distinctive patterns of interaction in the sample texts between pictorial clues (choices of composition, close, medium and distant shots, frontal/rear high/low/eye-level views, etc.) and textual clues (reported speech and lexical choices, evaluative terms, nominalizations, the use of numbers, mass nouns, whole-part metonymies, etc.) and at how they could be linked to any of the previously identified news frames (conflict, human interest, attribution of responsibility). When more than one frame was identified in a given newsbite, only primary, dominant frames were considered, as defined by the number of multimodal elements that referred to it. Finally, regarding the coding procedure, each author analyzed all the newsbites independently, in terms of news frames and their multimodal realization in framing devices. To verify the stability of the coding, sample texts were re-coded independently by two graduate students. After comparison of the results, 32% of the codes for these sample texts were revised. Then the coding of the texts was checked for any discrepancy between the original and the revised coding. Thus, the resulting coding of the sample texts is considered stable enough for reliable results. 3.4. Analysis In the first stage of analysis, data provided by the answers to the 20 questions proposed by Semteko and Valkenburg (2000) confirmed that the coverage of the US Embassy opening and the subsequent Gaza revolts in the selected European newspapers are indeed framed in terms of conflict, human interest and responsibility, in this order. Fig. 1 shows the results of this preliminary study: As Fig. 1 shows, the conflict and the human interest framing dominates in the sample texts. Most newsbites analyzed focus on the disagreements (91.89%) and reproaches (89.19%) existing between the parties involved. Interestingly, 26 out of the 37 newsbites (70.27%) do not refer to the two sides of the problem. That is, only 11 sample texts present the conflict from the two perspectives. Besides, most sample texts provide a human face of the conflict by focusing the Palestinians suffering during the revolts (91.89%%), which affects the emotional charge of the news event representation. Lastly, in the 86.4% of the newsbites analyzed, the news events are presented as requiring urgent actions from governments who are considered responsible of the conflict (56.76%). These three news frames are conveyed multimodally, that is, in a strategic combination of images, text and sometimes sound. Thus, consistent with the concept of construal in cognitive linguistics as a particular way of “viewing” a specific event and inspired by Langacker's words when he claims that “in viewing a scene, what we actually see depends on how closely we examine it, what we choose to look at, which elements we pay most attention to, and where we view it from” (2013:55), the second stage of our analysis led us to distinguish four major reasoning elements in the sample texts –subject choice,

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40

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CONFLICT shows disagreement between pares CONFLICT shows one party reproaches another

35 34

34

33

34 CONFLICT refers to the two sides of the problem

32

30

CONFLICT refers to winners and losers

25

HUMAN INTEREST might generate outrage, empathy caring, sympathy, or compassion

20

21

21

17

15

10

HUMAN INTEREST emphasizes how they are affected HUMAN INTEREST provides a human face of the issue RESPONSIBILITY suggests soluons

11

RESPONSIBILITY suggests the problem requires urgent acon

5 0

RESPONSIBILITY suggests government is responsible

0 CONFLICT

HUMAN INTEREST

RESPONSIBILITY

Fig. 1. General news frames in the sample texts.

composition, distance and point of view. These four framing devices roughly correspond with Langacker's four main dimensions of construal, i.e. prominence, focusing, specificity and perspective (2013:55). All these manifest indistinctively in the textual and the visual mode and work together to produce multimodal framed message. Let us now briefly describe what we mean by each one of these labels. Subject choice, the equivalent to Langacker's prominence or “what we choose to look at”, refers to the specific news event which is selected and profiled over several others in the newsbites. In the news coverage of the events under analysis in this paper, newsmakers could choose for example between placing their focus only on the US Embassy opening ceremony in Jerusalem and the US and Israeli politicians attending the event, or on the protesters in the Gaza Strip. Composition refers to the specific components (i.e. people, objects, institutions and organizations, etc.) chosen to appear in the framed newsbite. In Langacker's words “which elements we pay most attention to” or the focusing dimension of construal. The decision to include or omit one or another is crucial for the framing, since the specific lexis or syntax selected for the headline or the presence of specific visual elements in the photo can favour different interpretations. Distance is another core framing device which can manifest visually and textually (or both). It refers to the level of detail in the information provided to the audience, i.e. the specificity or granularity of the construal, “how closely we examine it”. In discourse studies, distance is understood as different degrees of detachment from what is being told, either physical, temporal, emotional, social or moral (Chilton, 2014; Dancygier and Vandelanotte, 2009; Hart, 2014, 2015; Vandelanotte, 2009). Therefore, distance in journalistic genres can be equated with a search for objectivity, i.e. the more distant the news event, the less involvement of the audience with the issue. As we will show, long or close shots in the photos interact with headlines in which emotional terms, metonymies, nominalizations or mass nouns place the newsbites analyzed at different points in a distance continuum ranging from the most proximal to the most distant ones. The last framing device we have considered is point of view or perspective, that is, “where we view it from” in the quote by Langacker. Point of view is closely related to the concept of distance. Indeed, most previous research on the topic (Lim, 2004; Chilton, 2014; Hart, 2014, 2015) includes distance as one of the subsystems of point of view, together with angle and anchor. However, we will deal with it separatedly, because of the particular effects that the different variations produce on the reader's interpretation. Hart (2014, 2015) states that adopting a point of view in presenting a situation can be equated with “taking sides”, as a consequence of the metaphor STANCE IS POSITION IN SPACE by which visual and ideological points of view are associated, and he distinguishes two main positions, namely an external observer's perspective and an involved participant's. Thus, a frontal view in the photos will make the scene “immediately relevant and personally consequential” as a product of our embodied experience (Hart, 2014:88) and textual cues such as passive or active voice, information structure, nominalization or metonymies have also been studied by Hart (2014, 2015) as positioning strategies. We now turn to the results.

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4. Results 4.1. Regarding subject choice Data shows that newsmakers selected three news events as the main subjects of the newsbites in the sample: i) the opening of the US embassy, ii) the revolts in the Gaza strip, or iii) the international response. These news events are presented and developed alone or in combination with others, as Table 2 shows: Table 2 Subject choice: descriptive analysis. News event

No

Revolts at Gaza Opening of embassy International response Opening of embassy þ Revolts International response þ Revolts TOTAL

16 2 1 16 2 37

As already anticipated by the frame analysis, most newsbites frame the conflict, that is, the revolts in Gaza as their main topic either alone (43.24%) or in combination with others (48.65%). Headlines such as (1) are very frequent in the sample and can be read together with images of anonymous Palestinian people running away from smoke and fire, injured and being taken away from the protests by their mates. This strategy highlights both the conflict frame and the human interest of the news event. (1) Au moins 41 Palestiniaens tués à Gaza. Israël accusé de commettre « un horrible massacre” (25.LIB/14M-18:01) [At least 41 Palestinians killed in Gaza. Israel accused of committing a “horrible massacre”]

Newsbites presenting two events together do so by mere juxtaposition –two sentences, or two images, or a sentence on one topic and the image on the other– as in (2), or else, by establishing a relationship of cause and effect between them, as in (3): (2) Les Etats-Unis inaugurent leur ambassade à Jérusalem, bain de sang à Gaza. (19.MON/14M-18:00) [The United States open their embassy in Jerusalem. Bloodbath in Gaza] (3) Al menos 37 muertos en las protestas en Gaza por el traslado de la Embajada de EEUU. (27.PAI/14M-15:21) [At least 37 dead in the protests in Gaza because of the transfer of the U.S. embassy]

Data also shows some significant differences in terms of subject choice between the newspapers analyzed. Fig. 2 summarizes the results:

Fig. 2. Subject choice by countries.

Generally speaking, the study reveals that all newspapers except for the German ones are prone to present both news events together, with different frequencies as for their choice on the main subject. German and French online newspapers tend to highlight the Gaza revolts as the main news event. The graphic also allows us to unveil two clear tendencies: that of the British newspapers to present both events, the embassy opening and the revolts, together in the same newsbite, and that of German ones, where information on these two main issues is always provided separatedly, in two different newsbites, even if both displayed together on the front page, as if avoiding to establish a relationship between them (see Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Screenshots of the front pages of 14th May in Welt and Spiegel Online.

It is also a German newspaper, Spiegel Online, the only one where the international response is chosen as the main topic on its own. In one of its newsbites, the text in (4) is accompanied by a portrait of the President of France with the European flag as background. (4) Macron verurteilt israelische Gewalt gegen Demonstanten (11. SPI/15M-11:53) [Macron condemns Israeli violence against demonstrators]

4.2. Composition Among the various possible elements included in the composition of the newsbites analyzed, results show that two big groups can be distinguished, namely human and non-human components, represented either visually or textually (or both), see Table 3. Table 3 Most relevant compositional elements, both textual and visual, of the newsbites. Compositional elements

No

Anonymous people Personalities (mainly, politicians) Institutions and organizations Smoke and fire Flags Weapons Vehicles

32 9 25 22 6 5 4

The human components mainly comprise anonymous people, mostly Palestinian protesters, and well known politicians, like the Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, the US President Donald Trump and his daughter Ivanka and the President of the French Republic, Emmanuelle Macron. There are also references to human organizations and institutions (i.e. the UN, the Embassy, the United States, Hamas, the Israeli air force, Hamas .. ) in 67.57% of the newsbites in the sample. As for the non-human components of the newsbites, the most frequent ones identified in the sample are smoke and fire, flags, weapons, and vehicles. As we will see, the choices on which of all these elements are integrated in the newsbites result in different degrees of humanization of the events presented, so reinforcing or not the human interest frame. In 30 out of the 37 newsbites of the sample (81.08%), anonymous Palestinians are an outstanding element of the composition, either visually represented in the photos (running away from bombs, or carrying away injured people), or textually in the number of tolls. It is highly relevant the almost total absence of the other side of the conflict, i.e. anonymous Israeli soldiers, except in two of the newsbites. However, it is interesting to observe that the most frequent non-human element in the composition of the newsbites is the fire and black smoke produced by the bombs (59.46%), which could be interpreted as a metonymical representation of the anonymous Israeli soldiers by the effect of their actions, as in the photo accompanying the headline (5) published by Le Figaro. Thus, the conflict frame is suggested with a particular bias, since only one of the sides is portrayed as human. (5) Au moins 38 Palestiniens tués par des tirs israéliens (22.FIG/14M-15:23) [At least 38 Palestinians killed by Israeli shots]

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The strategic combination of all these textual and visual elements in the newsbites highlights two different framing tendencies across Europe online newspapers: one intended to humanize the news event and another one of depersonalization which realizes multimodally by eliminating any reference to people from the news event. These contrasting strategies are easily identified in extreme cases of dehumanization, as in Spiegel Online, where the text in (6) is illustrated with the photo of a lone war plane flying in a dark sky, and the opposite end, like the one in The Guardian, where the headline (7) accompanies a photo of a small group of Palestinians lying on the floor trying to cover themselves from Israeli fire. (6) Israelische Luftwaffe fliegt Angriff auf Hamas (09.SPI/14M-18:07) [Israeli Airforce launches an attack on Hamas] (7)

More than 50 killed as Trump's embassy opens in Jerusalem (33.GUA/14M-20:53)

In sum, most newsbites are placed at different points of this multimodal continuum which ranges from the humanization of the story told to its depersonalization, depending on the media context in which they are situated. This makes it difficult to provide a quantitative account or to establish clearly defined cross-cultural differences, as all newspapers seems to favour the human side of the cline (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Main compositional elements in newsbites by countries.

Particularly meaningful are a few special cases of composition in the images, which convey additional meanings affecting the frames in a significant way. One of them is the juxtaposition of two photos in a newsbite in La Repubblica (see Fig. 5), where a smiling Ivanka Trump seems to be looking down on a group of Palestinians protesters, who in turn appear as if looking at her while shouting and suffering in a tilted angle shot that increases the dramatic effect. It is difficult to question

Fig. 5. Screenshot of a newsbite in La Repubblica (14th May).

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the intentionality of this composition of the images that aims to highlight the contrast between the two simultaneous events taking place in Jerusalem and Gaza. Cross-culturally, the most significant role of the compositional elements is the way in which these can activate previous knowledge on the subject as well as cultural schemas, familiar to the reading audience, such as stereotypes, archetypes or myths. According to van Gorp (2010), these “culturally embedded frames” seem transparent and obvious and so lend “meaning, coherence and ready explanations for complex issues” (2010: 88) and may include roles for the actors, i.e. victims, villains, heroes . and cultural themes like destiny, good and evil, etc. A very special case of culturally embedded frame is the one activated by the metonymical visual representation of the Palestinian protesters by a young boy alone using a sling against the bombs, in a way that activates the myth of David against Goliath, in 3 of the newsbites in the sample (30.MUN/14M-15:26; 31.ABC/14M-18:06 and 35.TIM/14M-15:19). David and Goliath metaphor has been widely studied as a very specific sub-frame in the conflict frame, common to many struggles in which unequal power relationships are involved, not only war, but also in politics, sports or economy (Lennon, 2004; Dahinden, 2006; Boesman et al., 2017) and particularly frequent in the interpretation of the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Intifada. Besides, it can also be considered an indicator of the morality frame, as it relates to a situation of injustice in which a victim raises against a powerful oppressor (Wolfsfeld, 1997; Schmidt, 2014) and where the reader is expected to sympathize with the weakest side (van Os et al., 2008). A similar case is that of a newsbite in El País that reproduces the photo by Mahmud Hams in which a Palestinian mother holds her dead baby crying over her. The composition of the image resembles that of the archetype of La Pietá, the traditional representation of Virgin Mary holding the dead body of Christ in her arms. This photo is paired with headline (8) in which the word matanza (“slaughter”) describes the event. This framing activates cultural models of suffering, injustice, etc. that reinforces not only the human interest frame, but also the morality frame, particularly in a traditionally Christian context. (8) Los palestinos emprenden una nueva jornada de protestas tras la matanza en Gaza (29.PAI/15M-11:57) [Palestinians start a new day of protests after the slaughter in Gaza]

4.3. Distance Visually, it is quite straightforward that a close up shot provides much more detail of the event captured, even if at the expense of a wider view of the whole scene and its context, and with it, also a higher feeling of involvement. Textually, this higher detail is conveyed through a number of proximization strategies that provide a higher degree of granularity on the events reported. One of these strategies identified in the sample texts is the use of numerals when informing about the tolls in the revolts, which conveys a sense of individualization, as evidenced in the contrast of headlines (9) and (10), for example, both taken from The Times. (9)

Dozens die as US opens embassy in Jerusalem (37.TIM/15M-11:55)

(10)

At least 37 dead in Jerusalem embassy protests (35.TIM/14M-15:19)

Another linguistic device of textual proximization is the use of metonymies, as in (11) and (12), where the death of a newborn and the act of burial are taken to represent the whole number of Palestinians dead in protests, so reporting a small, very specific detail in order to inform on the whole event. (11) Gaza, muore neonata intossicata dai gas] (03.REP/15M-12:01) [Gaza: newborn dies, intoxicated by gas. Turkey requires their ambassador in Israel] (12)

Palestinians to bury 58 people killed in US embassy protests (34.GUA/15M-11:55)

Also the use of evaluative, emotional terms can be seen as a mechanism for reducing distance, as it implies a detailed imagery, equivalent to a photographic close-up, and consequently a higher involvement in the scene as in (13). (13) Journée sanglante à Gaza lors de manifestations contre l'ambassade américaine à Jerusalem (20.MON/14M-20:51) [Bloody day in Gaza after demonstrations against the American embassy in Jerusalem]

The interaction of different degrees of visual and textual distance in the newsbites of our sample produces a number of interesting framing effects. Naturally, as distance is a gradual notion, a quantitative analysis of this framing would be highly problematic. Again, our findings show that most newsbites are placed at different points of a multimodal continuum which ranges from maximal distance to maximal proximity to the story. Whereas it is easy to distinguish extreme cases of maximal distance or proximity in the newsbites, a high number of them can be considered as if placed at a medium distance, or, most interestingly, combining distancing and proximization strategies in photos and headlines. Even so, it is possible to identify a high number of newsbites (48.65%) where a close-up shot in the photo and some textual strategy of proximization are merged, which unarguably provides an immediate sense of involvement. On the contrary, only 2 cases of maximal distance have been found (5.4%), both in German newspapers (see Table 4).

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No

Close up newsbites Distant newbites Combined strategies or medium distance TOTAL

18 2 17 37

Among those clear examples of maximal distance, a newsbite in Welt shows a photo of a distant smoke column, coming from behind a small hill, without a distinct view of buildings or people affected by it, and two persons watching. The headline in (14) reinforces this physical detachment from the conflict by avoiding any further details or evaluative terms and by framing the event as the armed action of the Israeli Army against Hamas, the Palestinian militant Islamist organization: (14) Israels Luftwaffe fliegt Angriff auf Hamas im Gazastreifen (16.WEL/14M-18:10) [Israeli Airforce launches an attack on Hamas in Gaza Strip]

At the other end of the continuum, almost half of the newsbites in the dataset are cases of multimodal proximity, where it is not only possible to see the face of victims in the photos, but also to “hear” Palestinians blaming Israel using highly evaluative terms as in headline (15) for example, or see a close-up shot of some attendants to the embassy opening ceremony accompanied by the headline in (16) that reproduces Trump's words using direct speech. (15) Le gouvernement palestinien accuse Israël d'un “horrible massacre” à Gaza (18.MON/14M-15:17) [Palestianian government accuses Israel of a « horrible massacre » (16) Trump: Israel hat das Recht, seine Hauptstadt selbst zu bestimmen (13.FRA/14M-18:08) [Trump: Israel has the right to decide its own capital]

As for the contrastive analysis, no significant differences have been found. All newspapers develop strategies of maximal proximity in a similar percentage, enhancing the human interest of the news. The majority of cases of medium and maximal distance to the events depicted tend to appear in the German and the French newspapers (see Fig. 6), as if they wanted to preserve a neutral position towards the conflict:

Fig. 6. Distance in newsbites by countries.

4.4. Point of view Findings show how newsmakers frame the newsbites under analysis in such a way that force the audience to adopt either a somewhat neutral point of view, as an external observer, or that of an involved participant, as if supporting one of the sides of the conflict. These perspectives are the result of complex strategies which manifest indistinctively in the textual and the visual mode. In images, a frontal view, particularly when the subjects look straight into the camera, undeniably places the audience in the middle of the event. On the contrary, a rear or side view tends to place the audience in the position of an external observer. Also a high or low angle shot produces different framing effects, particularly related with the concepts of

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power and authority. As for headlines, the external's point of view is evidenced in our sample, for example, in the use of reported speech (see back 15 and 16), or nominalizations (17 and 18): (17) Lage an Grenzzaun eskaliert – Palästinenser melden Dutzende Todesopfer (14.WEL/14M-15:23) [Escalation at the border fence - Palestinians report dozens of deaths] (18) Rivolta per l'ambasciata Usa a Gerusalemme: a Gaza uccisi 37 palestinese (01.REP/14M-15:16) [Revolts for the US embassy in Jerusalem. At Gaza, 37 Paletinians killed]

Different lexical choices may also define if the event is conceived from a more neutral position, as if seeing both sides from the outside, or as an involved participant “taking sides”, with contrasting terms like clashes/massacre, inform/accuse, Palestinians/Hamas in the headlines. Particularly significant is the contrast between the use of “kill(ed)” (in 9 newsbites, 24.32%) and “die/dead”(13 newsbites, 35.13%), as shown in (19) and (20) from two British newspapers: (19)

More than 50 killed as Trump's embassy opens in Jerusalem (33.GUA/14M-20:53)

(20)

At least 37 dead in Jerusalem embassy protests (35.TIM/14M-15:19)

All these textual strategies interact in different ways with the points of view depicted in the photos and so produce a number of framing effects, as for the degree of neutrality or involvement with which the events are conveyed. As Table 5 shows, only 10 newsbites (27.02%) can be said to intentionally provide an external observer's point of view. As for the rest, they all suggest different degrees of involvement by adopting the perspective of one of the sides of the conflict. Even if many of the newsbites seem to show some degree of partiality on the Palestinian side, only 7 (18.92%) unambiguously adopt the Palestinian's point of view both in photos and headlines and only 3 cases (8.11%) distinctly place the audience on the Israeli side. Table 5 Point of view. Viewpoint in newsbites

No

External observer's point of view Israeli's perspective Palestinian's perspective Different degrees of involvement TOTAL

10 3 7 17 37

There is a small number of clear-cut, extreme cases in the sample texts. For example, the only photograph in which both sides of the conflict are represented was published in Spiegel Online (see Fig. 7), where an enigmatic headline (21) apparently intends to avoid any partiality.

(21) Ein schwerer Tag (10.SPI/14M-22:55) [A hard day]

Fig. 7. Screenshot of a newsbite in Spiegel online (14th May).

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A case of extreme involvement, where both image and text position the audience on the Israeli side is a newsbite in Welt, where the headline in (22) goes with an image that shows two people with their faces covered in a terrorist fashion, preparing a burning kite with the colours of the Palestinian flag to be flown over Israel's land (Fig. 8). That way, both image and text present Palestinians as terrorists and, whereas the visual point of view in the image is that of an observer, the headline places the reader in a confronting position against those depicted in it and describes Israel's army as a helpless patient of the action. (22) Gegen palästinensische Terror-Drachen ist Israels Armee machtlos (17.WEL/14M-18:10) [Against Palestinian terror-dragons, the Israeli army is powerless]

Fig. 8. Screenshot of a newsbite in Welt (14th May).

Finally, another unambiguous case of positioning, this time on the Palestinian side, can be seen in the newsbite published by Le Figaro, where the headline (23) uses the passive voice to place the focus of attention on the Palestinians as patients of the action and so guide the audience to adopt their perspective, whereas in the photo, with a slightly high angle shot, Palestinians carrying an injured victim run towards the photographer and look straight into the camera, and a column of black smoke can be seen at the background, where they seem to come from (Fig. 9): (23) Gaza: au moins 38 Palestiniens tués par des tirs israéliens (22.FIG/14M-15:23) [Gaza: at least 38 Palestinians killed by Israeli shots]

Fig. 9. Screenshot of a newsbite in Le Figaro (14th May).

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Fig. 10. Point of view across European newspapers.

As for the cultural differences in the newspapers under study (see Fig. 10), the most significant results are again in German newspapers, the only country in which it is possible to find the Israeli perspective on the conflict. Highly relevant is also the apparent search for neutrality in the Italian newsbites analyzed, where all newsbites tend to present an undefined point of view, avoiding a clear positioning on one of the sides of the conflict. 5. Discussion Findings presented so far describe the framing of the sample texts about the US Embassy opening in Jerusalem as another vivid manifestation of the international conflict existing between Israel and Palestine. This explains why the protests of hundreds of Palestinians showing their anger to the world from the Gaza Strip are selected by all the newspapers analyzed as the main news event. This discourse of confrontation is partly based on the multimodal representation of emotions and violence across newspapers. Data also show that secondarily, newsmakers tend to frame the newsbites about the US Embassy opening as the result of the clash between Donald Trump's foreign policy initiatives and the existing international status quo. That is why some newspapers choose the international response to the US Embassy opening over other issues as the main news event. Results evidence that the frames of conflict, human interest and attribution of responsibility are realized in the sample texts through conscious and consistent devices combining pictorial clues (choices of composition, close, medium and distant shots, frontal/rear, high/low/eye-level views, etc.) and textual ones (reported speech and lexical choices, evaluative terms, nominalizations, numerals, mass nouns, part-whole metonymies, etc.). These multimodal framing strategies place newsbites at different points along three possible interacting clines. The first continuum goes from depersonalization to humanization, depending on the specific elements of composition; another one ranges from distance to proximization; and there is also a third continuum, from neutrality to involvement, depending on the viewpoint adopted. It is interesting to note that there are few cases that can be placed at extreme positions in these three clines and consequently most of the newsbites are positioned at some medium points in each continuum. In our view, this tendency responds to the newsmakers' efforts to build a reputation for truthful reporting (Gentzkow and Shapiro, 2006). This is particularly noteworthy in the context of news reporting of on-going Israeli-Arab conflicts, more specifically those involving Israel and Palestine, which have come under scholarly scrutiny because of the perceived bias towards one side or the other (Almeida, 2011; McCabe and Alonso Belmonte, 2019). In our view, then, the existing few cases which are placed at extreme positions could be taken as examples of the journalists' unresolved tension between their role as providers of objective information and the need to promote specific interpretations of the information presented to fit in with the audience's prior beliefs on a given issue in different sociocultural contexts. This interpretation might also explain some of the interesting cross-cultural differences unveiled across newspapers. For example, one interesting piece of data is that the morality frame, which initially was out of the scope of this paper, outstands in the Spanish newspapers, while it is virtually absent in the rest of European broadsheets. Indeed, it is in the Spanish newsbites where we can most frequently find the pictorial embedded frames that evoke the cultural myths and archetypes of David and Goliath or La Pietá. But the most significant differences are those between German newspapers and the rest. The analysis reveals a tendency to present the US Embassy opening and the subsequent Gaza revolts in independent newsbites, as if unrelated. Even if the connection is easily done, it is not made explicit, at least in the German online newspapers analyzed. This trend contrasts with the one identified in British and Italian newspapers, where an intentional frame of attribution of

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responsibility is emphasized by presenting both events together, not only in headlines, but also in images. A plausible explanation for these different approaches must be searched in both historical reasons and current geopolitical circumstances that define the international relations between the five countries and each of the sides of the conflict. This would explain why German newspapers exhibit the highest number of newsbites framed from an external observer's point of view, for example, in a clear contrast with the Spanish ones. As for British and Italian newspapers, they tend to show some balance between proximity and medium distance and try to keep an apparent neutrality and a somewhat undefined point of view, particularly in the case of Italian newsbites. Finally, French newspapers also strive not to make their stance too explicit. 6. Conclusion Results presented in the previous section yield interesting insights into the way in which the generic frames of conflict, human interest and attribution of responsibility are realized multimodally in the sample texts through the framing devices described in this paper. However, the limitations of this study are several and must be acknowledged in this final section. They are mainly methodological. Firstly, the multimodal framing devices identified are overlapping categories, that is, the same element in the sample texts can work as indicators of two different framing devices, which complicates the analysists’ task. Secondly, the fact that, except for some very clear examples, the majority of newsbites analyzed are positioned somewhere in the middle of the continuum, as stated above, makes a full quantitative analysis almost impossible. To overcome this difficulty, particular attention has been paid to those few extreme cases and made conclusions on general trends, rather than providing absolute quantitative results. Thirdly, although the present study focuses on the effects of specific interactions of textual and visual devices, rather than on the original motivations in their creation, it is important to highlight the leading role of news agencies (Reuters, Associated Press, Agence France-Press, Deutsche Presse-Agentur, Europa Press, etc.) in the production and distribution of news and photos to newspapers, which explains why the same photographs or very similar wordings in their headlines were found in some sample texts analyzed. The particular circumstances in which journalism is practiced in Palestinian territories (see Cleidejane Esperidiao, 2011) also reduces the range of free choices in the framing of both text and photos when considered separatedly. Finally, further work needs to be done in the cognitively oriented multimodal analysis of generic frames and framing devices, in our view, one of the most interesting contributions of this paper. The results shown in the present article evidence how fruitful the integration of different theoretical and analytical models can be in order to achieve a more comprehensive view of the current social, political and economic issues and their discursive representation in the media. The sample examined here is not a large one and it has focused on a very specific, short-term event, even if part of a larger conflict, as explained. A detailed analysis of other frames (i.e. morality) should be carried out in order to confirm if the four framing devices are also present in them. Declaration of conflicting interest The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and publication of this article. Funding This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Research Project FFI2016-77540-P). Appendix A. Sample of European newsbites collected on May 14th and 15th, 2018.

# Newspaper

date/time

01 La Repubblica 14/05/18 (15:16) 02 La Repubblica 14/05/18 (18:09) 03 La Repubblica 15/05/18 (12:01) 04 Corriere della 14/05/18 Sera (15:26) 05 Corriere della 14/05/18 Sera (18:00) 06 Corriere della 15/05/18 Sera (12:00) 07 La Stampa 08 Spiegel

14/05/18 (15:25) 14/05/18 (15:22)

code

Headline

01.REP/14M-15:16

Rivolta per l'ambasciata Usa a Gerusalemme: a Gaza uccisi 37 palestinese

02.REP/14M-18:09

Rivolta per l'ambasciata Usa a Gerusalemme: a Gaza uccisi oltre 40 palestinese

03.REP/15M-12:01

Gaza, muore neonata intossicata dai gas. Turchia richiama anbasciatore in Israele

04.COR/14M-15:26

Gerusalemme, apre l'ambasciata Usa. Rivolta a Gaza: 37 morti, 1.000 feriti

05.COR/14M-18:00

07.STA/14M-15:25

Gerusalemme, apre l'ambasciata Usa. Foto Rivolata a Gaza: 43 morti, 2.000 feriti. Live Ivanka e Netanyahu all'inaugurazione Gaza seppellisce i morti, allerta in Israele. La giornata di rabia e sangue: imagini Gli errori che hanno riacceso il conflitto Apre l’Ambasciata Usa a Gerusalemme. Scontri a Gaza: 37 morti, più di 1600 feriti

08.SPI/14M-15:22

Palestinenser melden 37 tote mehr als 1000 verletzte

06.COR/15M-12:00

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(continued ) # Newspaper 09 Spiegel

date/time

14/05/18 (18:07) 10 Spiegel 14/05/18 (20:55) 11 Spiegel 15/05/18 (11:53) 12 Frankfurter 14/05/18 Allgemeine (15:22) 13 Frankfurter 14/05/18 Allgemeine (18:08) 14 Welt 14/05/18 (15:23) 15 Welt 14/05/18 (15:23) 16 Welt 14/05/18 (18:10) 17 Welt 14/05/18 (18:10) 18 Le Monde 14/05/18 (15:17) 19 Le Monde 14/05/18 (18:00) 20 Le Monde 14/05/18 (20:51) 21 Le Monde 15/05/18 (11:49) 22 Le Figaro 14/05/18 (15:23) 23 Le Figaro 14/05/18 (18:11) 24 Le Figaro 15/05/18 (11:58) 25 Liberation 14/05/18 (18: 01) 26 Liberation 15/05/18 (11:59) 27 El País 14/05/18 (15:21) 28 El País 14/05/18 (18:06) 29 El País 15/05/18 (11:57) 30 El Mundo 14/05/18 (15:26) 31 ABC 14/05/18 (18:06) 32 The Guardian 14/05/18 (18:01) 33 The Guardian 14/05/18 (20:53) 34 The Guardian 15/05/18 (11:55) 35 The Times 14/05/18 (15:19) 36 The Times 14/05/18 (18:04) 37 The Times 15/05/18 (11:55)

code

Headline

09.SPI/14M-18:07

Israelische Luftwaffe fliegt Angriff auf Hamas

10.SPI/14M-22:55

Ein schwerer Tag

11. SPI/15M-11:53

Macron verurteilt israelische Gewalt gegen Demonstanten

12.FRA/14M-15:22

Mindestens 37 Palästinenser sterben bei Protesten

13.FRA/14M-18:08

Trump: Israel hat das Recht, seine Hauptstadt selbst zu bestimmen

14.WEL/14M-15:23

Lage an Grenzzaun eskaliert – Palästinenser melden Dutzende Todesopfer

15.WEL/14M-15:23

JETZT

16.WEL/14M-18:10

Israels Luftwaffe fliegt Angriff auf Hamas im Gazastreifen

17.WEL/14M-18:10

Gegen palästinensische Terror-Drachen ist Israels Armee machtlos

18.MON/14M-15:17

En direct: le gouvernement palestinien accuse Israël d'un “horrible massacre” à Gaza

19.MON/14M-18:00

En direct: les Etats-Unis inaugurent leur ambassade à Jérusalem, bain de sang à Gaza

20.MON/14M-20:51

Journée sanglante à Gaza lors de manifestations contre l'ambassade américaine à Jerusalem

21.MON/15M-11:49

Journée sanglante à Gaza: posez vos questions sur l'escalade meurtrière

22.FIG/14M-15:23

Gaza: au moins 38 Palestiniens tués par des tirs israéliens

23.FIG/14M-18:11

Plus de 50 Palestiniens tués à Gaza par des tirs israéliens

24.FIG/15M-11:58

Après un lundi sanglant, nouvelle journée à hauts risques à Gaza

25.LIB/14M-18:01

Au moins 41 Palestiniaens tués à Gaza. Israël accusé de commettre «un horrible massacre”

26.LIB/15M-11:59

Gaza: les Etats-Unis bloquent à la ONU une demande d'enquête indépendante

27.PAI/14M-15:21

Al menos 37 muertos en las protestas en Gaza por el traslado de la Embajada de EEUU

28.PAI/14M-18:06 29.PAI/15M-11:57

El ejército israelí mata al menos a 52 palestinos en las protestas por el traslado de la Embajada de EEUU Los palestinos emprenden una nueva jornada de protestas tras la matanza en Gaza

30.MUN/14M-15:26

37 muertos y 1.700 heridos en la protesta contra la embajada de EEUU en Jerusalén

31.ABC/14M-18:06

Al menos 41 palestinos muertos y 2000 heridos durante las protestas en Gaza

32.GUA/14M-18:01

Gaza: Israeli troops kill dozens of Palestinian protesters as US embassy opens in Jerusalem

33.GUA/14M-20:53

More than 50 killed as Trump's embassy opens in Jerusalem

34.GUA/15M-11:55

Palestinians to bury 58 people killed in US embassy protests

35.TIM/14M-15:19

At least 37 dead in Jerusalem embassy protests

36.TIM/14M-18:04

52 dead in clashes on Gaza border as American embassy opens in Jerusalem

37.TIM/15M-11:55

Dozens die as US opens embassy in Jerusalem

LIVE

Eroffnung der US botschaft in Jerusalem.

Appendix B. Semetko and Valkenburg's 20 framing items (2000: 100) Attribution of responsibility     

Does Does Does Does Does

the the the the the

story suggest story suggest story suggest story suggest story suggest

that some level of gov't has the ability to alleviate the problem? that some level of the government is responsible for the issue/problem? solution(s) to the problem/issue? that an ind. (or group of people in society) is resp. for the issue-problem? the problem requires urgent action?

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Human interest frame  Does the story provide a human example or “human face” on the issue?  Does the story employ adjectives or personal vignettes that generate feelings of outrage, empathy-caring, sympathy, or compassion?  Does the story emphasize how individuals and groups are affected by the issue/problem?  Does the story go into the private or personal lives of the actors?  Does the story contain visual information that might generate feelings of outrage, empathy caring, sympathy, or compassion? Conflict frame    

Does Does Does Does

the story reflect disagreement between parties-individuals-groups-countries? one party-individual-group-country reproach another? the story refer to two sides or to more than two sides of the problem or issue? the story refer to winners and losers?

Morality frame  Does the story contain any moral message? -.  Does the story make reference to morality, God, and other religious tenets?  Does the story offer specific social prescriptions about how to behave? Economic frame  Is there a mention of financial losses or gains now or in the future?  Is there a mention of the costs/degree of expense involved?  Is there a reference to economic consequences of pursuing or not pursuing a course of action? References Almeida, E.P., 2011. Palestinian and Israeli voices in five years of U.S. newspaper discourse. Int. J. Commun. 5, 1586–1605. Berry, M., Garcia-Blanco, I., Moore, K., 2016. Press coverage of the refugee and migrant crisis in the EU: a content analysis of five European countries. UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/56bb369c9.html. Boesman, J., Berbers, A., d'Haenens, L., van Gorp, B., 2017. The news is in the frame: a journalist-centered approach to the frame-building process of the Belgian Syria fighters. Journalism 18 (3), 298–316. Boomgaarden, H., Boukes, M., Iorgoveanu, A., 2016. Image versus Text: how newspaper reports affect evaluations of political candidates. Int. J. Commun.10, 2529–2555. Caple, H., 2017. Visual media. In: Cotter, C., Perrin, D. (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Language and Media. Routledge, London/New York, pp. 230–243. Caple, H., Bednarek, M., 2013. Delving into the Discourse: Approaches to News Values in Journalism Studies and beyond. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, The University of Oxford, Oxford. Cappella, J.N., Jamieson, K.H., 1997. Spiral of Cynicism: the Press and the Public Good. Oxford University Press, New York. Charteris-Black, J., 2004. Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis. Palgrave-MacMillan, New York. Charteris-Black, J., 2011. Politicians and Rhetoric: the Persuasive Power of Metaphor. Palgrave-MacMillan, New York. Chilton, P., 2004. Analysing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice. Routledge, London. Chilton, P., 2005. Discourse space theory. Annu. Rev. Cognit. Ling. 3, 78–116. Chilton, P., 2014. Language, Space and Mind: the Conceptual Geometry of Linguistic Meaning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cleidejane Esperidiao, M., 2011. Invisible giants in broadcast journalism. Soc. Bras. de Pesqui. em J. 7 (1), 104–127. Coleman, R., 2010. Framing the pictures in our heads: exploring the framing and agenda setting effects of visual images. In: D'Angelo, P., Kuypers, J.A. (Eds.), Doing News Framing Analysis: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives. Routledge, New York City, NY, pp. 233–261. Crenshaw, E., 2014. American and foreign terrorist: an analysis of divergent portrayals in US newspaper coverage. Crit. Stud. Terror. 7 (3), 363–378. Cvetkovic, I., Pantic, M., 2018. Multimodal discursivity: framing European Union borders in live-blogs. J. Commun. Inq. 42 (4), 318–339. D'Angelo, P., 2017. Framing: media frames. In: Roessler, P., Hoffner, C.A., van Zoonen, L. (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects. WileyBlackwell, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 634–644. Dahinden, U., 2006. Framing: Eine integrative Theorie der Massenkommunikation. UVK, Konstanz. Dan, V., 2018. A methodological approach for integrative framing analysis of television news. In: D'Angelo, P. (Ed.), Doing News Framing Analysis. Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 191–220. Dancygier, B., Vandelanotte, L., 2009. Judging distances: mental spaces, distance and viewpoint in literary discourse. In: Brône, G., Vandaele, J. (Eds.), Cognitive Poetics: Goals, Gains and Gaps. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York, pp. 319–369. de Vreese, C.H., 2003. Framing Europe: Television News and European Integration (Amsterdam, Aksant). de Vreese, C.H., 2005. News framing theory and typology. Inf. Des. J. Doc. Des. 13 (1), 48–59. de Vreese, C., Peter, J., Semetko, H., 2001. Framing politics at the launch of the Euro: a cross-national comparative study of frames in the news. Political Commun. 18 (2), 107–122. Dearing, J.W., Rogers, V.M., 1996. Agenda Setting. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif. Dimitrova, D.V., Connolly-Ahern, C., 2007. A tale of two wars: framing analysis of online news sites in coalition countries and the Arab World during the Iraq War. Howard J. Commun. 18 (2), 153–168. Dirven, R., Polzenhage, F., Wol, H.-G., 2007. Cognitive linguistics, ideology and critical discourse analysis. In: Geeraerts, D., Cuyckens, H. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 1222–1240. D'Angelo, P., 2002. News framing as a multiparadigmatic research program: a response to entman. J. Commun. 52 (4), 870–888. Elsamni, A., 2016. Threat of the downtrodden: the framing of Arab refugees on CNN. Arab Media and Society 22, 1–15. Spring. Entman, R.B., 1993. Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. J. Commun. 43, 51–58.

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