- Email: [email protected]
Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides
Medical Hypotheses xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Medical Hypotheses journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mehy
Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides Hajime Fukui ⇑, Kumiko Toyoshima Department of Education, Nara University of Education, Nara, Japan
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 28 June 2014 Accepted 29 September 2014 Available online xxxx
a b s t r a c t Music is well known for its effect on human behavior especially of their bonding and empathy towards others. Music provokes one’s emotion and activates mirror neurons and reward system. It also regulates social hormones such as steroid hormones or peptides, and increases empathy, pro-sociality and altruism. As a result, it improves one’s reproductive success. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The hypothesis
Charles Darwin [1] noted the mysterious quality that lies in man’s capacity to create music [2]. Indeed, what is the true value of music, which fascinates many scientists, if it does not have an adaptive function or survival value? The ability of music to absorb and captivate people remains an enigma. The main function of music has been thought to unite society which is vital for basic human life [3]. In fact, music is used in various forms including dancing to harmonize groups and emotions and prepare for cooperative activity [4]. Music may possess survival benefits through ‘‘the socialization of emotions’’ [5]. Music seems to have a function to reinforce social bonding by sharing emotional experiences [6]. Primates used physical grooming to strengthen social bonding, which trigger endorphin activation in the central nervous system [7]. There are reports that group singing release endorphin, thus singing is to mimic the neural effects of physical grooming in primates [8–11]. Pro-social behavior and empathy are closely linked on a conceptual level. The evidence shows that sharing emotions of others (empathy) is associated with neural structures’ activation (mirror neuron) [12]. Music is renowned for its increase in empathy thus resulting in pro-social behavior. Factually, music does strengthen one’s coping skill and sympathy [13,14]. Empathy has grown in order to enhance human survival and propagating adaptation, which was quintessential for human society to evolve into the one we have now.
We propose that musical behavior (listening and performing) increase altruism by adjusting the secretion of steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen and cortisol) and peptides (oxytocin and arginine vasopressin) ultimately facilitating reproductive success.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Education, Nara University of Education, Takabatake, Nara 630-8528, Japan. Tel./fax: +81 742 27 9257. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Fukui).
Evaluation of the hypothesis Music and emotion, limbic system Emotions induced by music have attracted the attention of many researchers [15]. Notoriously, music has the ability to strongly affect one’s emotion and sometimes even control them [16], though science has yet to provide a satisfying explanation for this phenomenon. Recent studies have revealed that the emotions evoked by music can modulate activity in all the limbic and paralimbic brain structures which deeply contribute to emotions [17], and that those emotions tend to be stronger than everyday feelings or moods; therefore, they are registered as a strong experience [18] and are associated with particular brain activity [19]. Music and mirror neurons Emotions induced by music are thought to be associated with the action of mirror neurons and the limbic system [20]. Auditory mirror neurons system is vital for understanding auditory action and evolution of language. Some evidences support the indication of the human mirror neuron system mediating musical experiences [21,22]. Studies on musicians and dancers have reported that the internal experience of music modulates the activity of the human mirror neuron system [23]. Recent researches using func-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023 0306-9877/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Fukui H, Toyoshima K. Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides. Med Hypotheses (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023
2
H. Fukui, K. Toyoshima / Medical Hypotheses xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
tional neuroimaging have discovered that chill-inducing music listening activates mirror neuron system, which is closely related to empathy [22]. Chill-inducing music listening particularly elicits limbic system especially reward system, Nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, hypothalamus, insular cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex, to be operated [20]. Mirror neurons and empathy Mirror neurons are believed to have a relationship with empathy, one of brain functions that are more sophisticated. It has been suggested that the emotional response caused by listening to a musical performance by other human beings are also considered as an empathic process [22,24,25]. Music and empathy, altruism Empathy is a central mechanism provoked by music-induced emotions [26]. Furthermore, it is believed that human altruism is engendered by empathy [27]. Having taken the mentioned researches’ discovery, music, which causes dramatic emotional changes, suggests having a significant effect on altruistic behavior too. Several studies have been conducted on music and altruism, or pro-social behavior [28,29]. Rhythmic activity with drums with a partner in primary school elicits a specific human motivation to synchronize [30]. In addition, music making, including joint singing, encourages participants to maintain a collective intention and shared goal of vocalizing and moving together in time, thereby effectively satisfying the intrinsic human desire to share emotions, experiences, and activities with others [28]. Studies have indicated that music can mediate several behaviors related tangentially to altruism, aggression [31], and spending money at the school cafeteria [32]. Listening to music can be a highly rewarding experience for humans. Studies have shown that a positive mood encourages pro-social behaviors. There have also been reports that both positive and negative moods promote altruism and pro-social behaviors [33,34]. It has been found, for example, that audiotapes can induce positive moods; thereby increasing altruism thus rising in pro-social behavior (economic games) [35]. Pro-social songs were associated with a significant increase in tipping behavior [36]. Music, hormones and genes There is strong evidence that empathy has biochemical and neurological grounds such as limbic system [25]. Steroid hormones (STs) affect social behavior [37,38] such as reciprocity [39] and parental care [40]. It has been found that music listening regulates STs: cortisol (C), testosterone (T), estrogen (E) [41,42] and has a notable effect on dopamine, one of the neurotransmitters, to be produced [43]. It is believed that music confers neuronal plasticity and is involved in the learning process and readjustment. An example is the response of brain cells to musical stimuli. This effect is considered to be persistent, although the precise mechanism remains unknown [44–46]. STs may hold the key to unlock the mechanism that underlies the effect of music on neurons because they confer neuronal plasticity. In particular, T and E are deeply involved in brain cell regeneration, restoration, and protection. They also have strong connections with recognition, memory, and emotion thus may be associated with mental disorders [41]. STs have each been implicated in complex social behavior [47–49]. On the other hand, oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are deeply connected to social-emotional, social cognitive
and empathetic behaviors [48,50,51]. There are many reports that OT and oxytocin receptor (OTR) influence social behaviors [e.g. [52]]. It is particularly noteworthy that OT increase pair-bonding and partner preference in Prairie vole [53] whereas for human, it has no such effect [54] but increases phenotypic-cooperation [55]. OTR can be found in human brain areas such as amygdala, hypothalamus, subgenual cingulate cortex and olfactory bulb, which are linked with emotion and social behavior [56]. There are not enough researches to be conducted to establish a firm conclusion about the relationship between OT or AVP and music. However, OT level had increased when patients had listened to music after they had had open-heart surgery [57]. Additionally, Williams Syndrome patients show an intense interest in music and are often pro-social, and their OT level is higher than controlled group [58]. OT, though not vasopressin, increases altruism [59]. It is still inconclusive but highly probable that AVP modulates musical working memory indirectly by influencing mood, attention and arousal [60]. T is implicated in tradeoffs relevant to pair-bonding, and OT and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are positively tied to social bonding in various species [48]. For male, music listening decreases T level while lowering T accelerates OT effect [48]. Several studies investigated the development of sexually dimorphic AVP systems in mammals and other vertebrates, and the role gonadal hormones played in their regulation [61]. It is hypothesized that androgens, via actions of their receptors, have roles in the organization and modulation of the AVP parvocellular sexually dimorphic system [62]. The relationship between arginine vasopressin receptor (AVPR) and sociality has been illustrated in several reports. Recent studies demonstrated associations between microsatellites (RS1 and RS3) in the promoter region of arginine vasopressin receptor 1A and social behavior [63,64] and music [65]. A coalition has been found between AVP/AVPR and human musical ability [42,50,58,66–69]. Music is cogently related to steroid receptor polymorphism and arginine-vasopressin (AVP) receptor polymorphism [42,70]. Moreover, steroid receptors: glucocorticoid receptor, androgen receptor, estrogen receptor, are distributed widely over brain: hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala. Above dates and figures suggest that music regulates social hormones: C, T, E, OT and AVP, which activates brain areas such as prefrontal cortex and limbic system, closely associated with empathy and sociality. This activation then lowers egocentric and aggressive action resulting in pro-social behaviors. Consequently, music is thought to have enhanced human reproductive success.
Conflict of interest Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in this study.
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Please cite this article in press as: Fukui H, Toyoshima K. Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides. Med Hypotheses (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023
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Exploring the role of intra-nasal oxytocin on the partner preference effect in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013;38(4):587–91. [55] Rilling JK, DeMarco AC, Hackett PD, Thompson R, Ditzen B, Patel R, et al. Effects of intranasal oxytocin and vasopressin on cooperative behavior and associated brain activity in men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012;37(4):447–61. [56] Skuse DH, Lori A, Cubells JF, Lee I, Conneely KN, Puura K, et al. Common polymorphism in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) is associated with human social recognition skills. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014;111(5):1987–92. [57] Nilsson U. Soothing music can increase oxytocin levels during bed rest after open-heart surgery: a randomised control trial. J Clin Nurs 2009;18(15):2153–61. [58] Dai L, Carter CS, Ying J, Bellugi U, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Korenberg JR. Oxytocin and vasopressin are dysregulated in Williams Syndrome, a genetic disorder affecting social behavior. PLoS One 2012;7(6):e38513. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038513. [59] Israel S, Weisel O, Ebstein RP, Bornstein G. Oxytocin, but not vasopressin, increases both parochial and universal altruism. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012;37(8):1341–4. [60] Granot RY, Uzefovsky F, Bogopolsky H, Ebstein RP. Effects of arginine vasopressin on musical working memory. Front Psychol 2013;4:712. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00712. [61] De Vries GJ, Panzica GC. Sexual differentiation of central vasopressin and vasotocin systems in vertebrates: different mechanisms, similar endpoints. Neuroscience 2006;138(3):947–55. [62] Allieri F, Spigolon G, Melcangi RC, Collado P, Guillamón A, Gotti S, et al. Androgen receptor deficiency alters the arginine-vasopressin sexually dimorphic system in Tfm rats. Neuroscience 2013;253:67–77. [63] Bachner-Melman R, Dina C, Zohar AH, Constantini N, Lerer E, Hoch S, et al. AVPR1a and SLC6A4 gene polymorphisms are associated with creative dance performance. PLoS Genet 2005;1(3):e42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pgen.0010042. [64] Yirmiya N, Rosenberg C, Levi S, Salomon S, Shulman C, Nemanov L, et al. Association between the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor (AVPR1a) gene and autism in a family-based study: mediation by socialization skills. Mol Psychiatry 2006;11(5):488–94. [65] Ebstein RP, Israel S, Chew SH, Zhong S, Knafo A. Genetics of human social behavior. Neuron 2010;65(6):831–44. [66] Bachner-Melman R, Zohar AH, Bacon-Shnoor N, Elizur Y, Nemanov L, Gritsenko I, et al. Link between vasopressin receptor AVPR1A promoter region microsatellites and measures of social behavior in humans. J Indiv Differ 2005;26(1):2–10. [67] Ukkola LT, Onkamo P, Raijas P, Karma K, Järvelä I. Musical aptitude is associated with AVPR1A-haplotypes. PLoS One 2009;4(5):e5534. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005534. [68] Ukkola-Vuoti L, Oikkonen J, Onkamo P, Karma K, Raijas P, Järvelä I. Association of the arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1A) haplotypes with listening to music. J Hum Genet 2011;56(4):324–9. [69] Morley AP, Narayanan M, Mines R, Molokhia A, Baxter S, Craig G, et al. AVPR1A and SLC6A4 polymorphisms in choral singers and non-musicians: a gene association study. PLoS One 2012;7(2):e31763. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0031763. [70] Sankar JS, Hampson E. Testosterone levels and androgen receptor gene polymorphism predict specific symptoms of depression in young men. Gend Med 2012;9(4):232–43.
Please cite this article in press as: Fukui H, Toyoshima K. Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides. Med Hypotheses (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Medical Hypotheses journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mehy
Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides Hajime Fukui ⇑, Kumiko Toyoshima Department of Education, Nara University of Education, Nara, Japan
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 28 June 2014 Accepted 29 September 2014 Available online xxxx
a b s t r a c t Music is well known for its effect on human behavior especially of their bonding and empathy towards others. Music provokes one’s emotion and activates mirror neurons and reward system. It also regulates social hormones such as steroid hormones or peptides, and increases empathy, pro-sociality and altruism. As a result, it improves one’s reproductive success. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The hypothesis
Charles Darwin [1] noted the mysterious quality that lies in man’s capacity to create music [2]. Indeed, what is the true value of music, which fascinates many scientists, if it does not have an adaptive function or survival value? The ability of music to absorb and captivate people remains an enigma. The main function of music has been thought to unite society which is vital for basic human life [3]. In fact, music is used in various forms including dancing to harmonize groups and emotions and prepare for cooperative activity [4]. Music may possess survival benefits through ‘‘the socialization of emotions’’ [5]. Music seems to have a function to reinforce social bonding by sharing emotional experiences [6]. Primates used physical grooming to strengthen social bonding, which trigger endorphin activation in the central nervous system [7]. There are reports that group singing release endorphin, thus singing is to mimic the neural effects of physical grooming in primates [8–11]. Pro-social behavior and empathy are closely linked on a conceptual level. The evidence shows that sharing emotions of others (empathy) is associated with neural structures’ activation (mirror neuron) [12]. Music is renowned for its increase in empathy thus resulting in pro-social behavior. Factually, music does strengthen one’s coping skill and sympathy [13,14]. Empathy has grown in order to enhance human survival and propagating adaptation, which was quintessential for human society to evolve into the one we have now.
We propose that musical behavior (listening and performing) increase altruism by adjusting the secretion of steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen and cortisol) and peptides (oxytocin and arginine vasopressin) ultimately facilitating reproductive success.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Education, Nara University of Education, Takabatake, Nara 630-8528, Japan. Tel./fax: +81 742 27 9257. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Fukui).
Evaluation of the hypothesis Music and emotion, limbic system Emotions induced by music have attracted the attention of many researchers [15]. Notoriously, music has the ability to strongly affect one’s emotion and sometimes even control them [16], though science has yet to provide a satisfying explanation for this phenomenon. Recent studies have revealed that the emotions evoked by music can modulate activity in all the limbic and paralimbic brain structures which deeply contribute to emotions [17], and that those emotions tend to be stronger than everyday feelings or moods; therefore, they are registered as a strong experience [18] and are associated with particular brain activity [19]. Music and mirror neurons Emotions induced by music are thought to be associated with the action of mirror neurons and the limbic system [20]. Auditory mirror neurons system is vital for understanding auditory action and evolution of language. Some evidences support the indication of the human mirror neuron system mediating musical experiences [21,22]. Studies on musicians and dancers have reported that the internal experience of music modulates the activity of the human mirror neuron system [23]. Recent researches using func-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023 0306-9877/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Fukui H, Toyoshima K. Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides. Med Hypotheses (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023
2
H. Fukui, K. Toyoshima / Medical Hypotheses xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
tional neuroimaging have discovered that chill-inducing music listening activates mirror neuron system, which is closely related to empathy [22]. Chill-inducing music listening particularly elicits limbic system especially reward system, Nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, hypothalamus, insular cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex, to be operated [20]. Mirror neurons and empathy Mirror neurons are believed to have a relationship with empathy, one of brain functions that are more sophisticated. It has been suggested that the emotional response caused by listening to a musical performance by other human beings are also considered as an empathic process [22,24,25]. Music and empathy, altruism Empathy is a central mechanism provoked by music-induced emotions [26]. Furthermore, it is believed that human altruism is engendered by empathy [27]. Having taken the mentioned researches’ discovery, music, which causes dramatic emotional changes, suggests having a significant effect on altruistic behavior too. Several studies have been conducted on music and altruism, or pro-social behavior [28,29]. Rhythmic activity with drums with a partner in primary school elicits a specific human motivation to synchronize [30]. In addition, music making, including joint singing, encourages participants to maintain a collective intention and shared goal of vocalizing and moving together in time, thereby effectively satisfying the intrinsic human desire to share emotions, experiences, and activities with others [28]. Studies have indicated that music can mediate several behaviors related tangentially to altruism, aggression [31], and spending money at the school cafeteria [32]. Listening to music can be a highly rewarding experience for humans. Studies have shown that a positive mood encourages pro-social behaviors. There have also been reports that both positive and negative moods promote altruism and pro-social behaviors [33,34]. It has been found, for example, that audiotapes can induce positive moods; thereby increasing altruism thus rising in pro-social behavior (economic games) [35]. Pro-social songs were associated with a significant increase in tipping behavior [36]. Music, hormones and genes There is strong evidence that empathy has biochemical and neurological grounds such as limbic system [25]. Steroid hormones (STs) affect social behavior [37,38] such as reciprocity [39] and parental care [40]. It has been found that music listening regulates STs: cortisol (C), testosterone (T), estrogen (E) [41,42] and has a notable effect on dopamine, one of the neurotransmitters, to be produced [43]. It is believed that music confers neuronal plasticity and is involved in the learning process and readjustment. An example is the response of brain cells to musical stimuli. This effect is considered to be persistent, although the precise mechanism remains unknown [44–46]. STs may hold the key to unlock the mechanism that underlies the effect of music on neurons because they confer neuronal plasticity. In particular, T and E are deeply involved in brain cell regeneration, restoration, and protection. They also have strong connections with recognition, memory, and emotion thus may be associated with mental disorders [41]. STs have each been implicated in complex social behavior [47–49]. On the other hand, oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are deeply connected to social-emotional, social cognitive
and empathetic behaviors [48,50,51]. There are many reports that OT and oxytocin receptor (OTR) influence social behaviors [e.g. [52]]. It is particularly noteworthy that OT increase pair-bonding and partner preference in Prairie vole [53] whereas for human, it has no such effect [54] but increases phenotypic-cooperation [55]. OTR can be found in human brain areas such as amygdala, hypothalamus, subgenual cingulate cortex and olfactory bulb, which are linked with emotion and social behavior [56]. There are not enough researches to be conducted to establish a firm conclusion about the relationship between OT or AVP and music. However, OT level had increased when patients had listened to music after they had had open-heart surgery [57]. Additionally, Williams Syndrome patients show an intense interest in music and are often pro-social, and their OT level is higher than controlled group [58]. OT, though not vasopressin, increases altruism [59]. It is still inconclusive but highly probable that AVP modulates musical working memory indirectly by influencing mood, attention and arousal [60]. T is implicated in tradeoffs relevant to pair-bonding, and OT and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are positively tied to social bonding in various species [48]. For male, music listening decreases T level while lowering T accelerates OT effect [48]. Several studies investigated the development of sexually dimorphic AVP systems in mammals and other vertebrates, and the role gonadal hormones played in their regulation [61]. It is hypothesized that androgens, via actions of their receptors, have roles in the organization and modulation of the AVP parvocellular sexually dimorphic system [62]. The relationship between arginine vasopressin receptor (AVPR) and sociality has been illustrated in several reports. Recent studies demonstrated associations between microsatellites (RS1 and RS3) in the promoter region of arginine vasopressin receptor 1A and social behavior [63,64] and music [65]. A coalition has been found between AVP/AVPR and human musical ability [42,50,58,66–69]. Music is cogently related to steroid receptor polymorphism and arginine-vasopressin (AVP) receptor polymorphism [42,70]. Moreover, steroid receptors: glucocorticoid receptor, androgen receptor, estrogen receptor, are distributed widely over brain: hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala. Above dates and figures suggest that music regulates social hormones: C, T, E, OT and AVP, which activates brain areas such as prefrontal cortex and limbic system, closely associated with empathy and sociality. This activation then lowers egocentric and aggressive action resulting in pro-social behaviors. Consequently, music is thought to have enhanced human reproductive success.
Conflict of interest Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in this study.
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