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Nanoparticle-based methods for food safety evaluation
Nanoparticle-based methods for food safety evaluation
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Hongcai Zhang*,†, Shunsheng Chen*,† *Laboratory of Aquatic Products Quality & Safety Risk Assessment (Shanghai) at China Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China, †College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
32.1
Introduction
Food quality and safety is an issue of great importance, and is ensured by processing techniques such as drying [1, 2], cooling [3], and freezing [4]. Nanotechnology is one of the most promising technologies to revolutionize the conventional food science and food industry [5]. It can be defined as the fabrication, characterization, and manipulation of nanoparticles with sizes <100 nm [6], and exists in many food sectors such as agricultural production, food processing, food packaging and preservation, and pathogen detection. As the global standard of living improves, concerns over food quality and safety, especially regarding potential contaminants, will always be an important health issue. Food is susceptible to contamination at different stages, right from production until it reaches the consumer, resulting in reduced shelf-life [7]. Functionality of food nanotechnology can affect the bioavailability and nutritional value of food [8]. It is found that biological properties such as encapsulation, releasing, and toxicological effects of nanoparticles are largely dependent on their physicochemical parameters, including particle size, length, width, Zeta-potential, and degree of crystallinity [9–11]. In fact, major interactions between nanotechnology and the food industry are enhancing food safety, extending shelf-life, improving flavor and nutritional value, allowing pathogen, toxin and pesticide detection, and serving functional foods, as depicted in Fig. 32.1. Achievements have been made in various areas of food systems, including foods and food packaging [12]. Nanoparticles may have completely different consequence depending on their applications in processing and packaging, and as actual food ingredients. Thus, a clear view of the food safety evaluation with their functionality and applicability is urgently required for providing further guidance on the food safety regulation of nanomaterials. In particular, some nanoparticles are toxic to animals and humans, acting as oxidant scavengers or antimicrobial agents [13, 14]. Therefore, this chapter mainly focuses on the aspects of functionality and applicability of food nanotechnology, and current progress in food safety assessment.
Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814217-2.00032-9 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 32.1 Diagram showing the development of nanotechnology in food science/industry and its functionality, applicability, and safety assessments.
32.2
Basic principles and procedures
Up to now, various techniques have been developed for synthesizing different nanoparticles, including chemical precipitation, nucleation, sol-gel, hydrothermal, micro-emulsion, and combustion methods. Among these, microencapsulation, a frequently used method, is a process of packaging solids, liquids, or gaseous materials as active material with a continuous film as a coating to form capsules in micrometer to millimeter in size [15–17]. For instance, essential oils were efficiently encapsulated by poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as an antimicrobial release carrier. The strong antimicrobial activity of these nanoparticles was shown against Salmonella spp. (Gram-negative bacterium) and Listeria spp. (Gram-positive bacterium), indicating that PLGA nanoparticles could be useful antimicrobial delivery systems [18]. Moreover, chitosan nanoparticles could be used for controlling release of NPK fertilizers, which could save on fertilizer consumption and avoid environmental contamination [19]. For the processing procedures of microencapsulation, microencapsulation techniques are classified into three parts [15]: (1) physical methods such as spray drying, lyophilization, supercritical fluid precipitation, and solvent evaporation; (2) physicochemical methods including coacervation, liposomes, and ionic gelation; and (3) chemical methods such as interfacial polymerization and molecular inclusion complexation.
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Advantages and limitations
The development of nanotechnology has been one of the most important achievements for the scientific community in the last 20 years due to its excellent advantages and multiple application fields. Nanomaterials are excellent materials applied in the different stages of analytical processes because of their ultra-small size and their unique characteristics, including optical, electronic, magnetic, and catalytic properties [20, 21]. These advantages are detailed in Section 32.5. Although nanotechnology application provides numerous advantages related to food quality and safety, at the same time it may present a potential risk, not only to human health, but to animals’ health and environment safety. One of the most important issues is the uncertainty of the behavior of nanoparticles in the body and the toxic effects they could have. For this, it is necessary to establish a set of protocols and regulations on the food security. Recent studies have shown that indeed there are reasonable grounds for suspecting that nanoparticles may have toxicological effects on biological systems. As the distribution and fate of nanoparticles when released to the environment is not yet fully understood, it is difficult to predict whether these nanoparticles will bioaccumulate (bioconcentrate) in the food chain [22] or represent a source of environmental contamination. Therefore, ecotoxicity tests are mandatory to investigate the risks that nanoparticles pose to the environment [23, 24] and to future generations. In vitro drug release and cytotoxic studies were performed for Sunitinib (STB) chitosan nanoparticles, which implies the novel drug delivery system for the effective sustained delivery [25]. Moreover, many researchers have raised safety concerns regarding the possibility of nanoparticles migrating from food packaging material into the food, with subsequent impact on consumers’ health [26]. Although a material is a GRAS (generally regarded as safe) substance, additional studies may be required to investigate its risk because the physiochemical properties in nanostates may be completely different from that are in macrostates. Moreover, nano-sized materials may increase the risk for bioaccumulation within body organs and tissues because of low particle size [27]. For instance, silica nanoparticles used as anticaking agents can be cytotoxic in human lung cells [28]. Many factors affect distribution, migration, and circulation of nanoparticles including its surface morphology, concentration, surface energy, aggregation, and adsorption. Nanoparticles from food packaging nanomaterials can mainly enter the body by inhalation and ingestion. Among these, the oral uptake from food, accidently added with nanoparticles from the packaging, is the most significant exposure source [29]. Toxicological assessment of potential nanoparticle release from food packaging should be evaluated by both in vitro and in vivo methods [30]. In vitro toxicological assays investigate the basal cytotoxicity and its toxicity mechanisms. Human and rodent cell lines are the most frequently used experimental models, especially from intestine and liver, followed by lung and skin cell lines. Some of the cytotoxic assays currently employed including lactate dehydrogenase release assay, live-dead assay, cell counting, alarm blue assay, neutral red uptake, protein content and tryan blue dye exclusion.
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The toxicity mechanisms are studied through the observation of the changes in different basal biomarkers (such as reactive oxygen species—ROS—and glutathione content-GSH), inflammation response, DNA damage, and cell necrosis due the toxic stress. The most commonly used genotoxicity assays are Comet assay, Ames test, and micronucleus assay. Rodent in vivo methods are employed to assess macro-toxic or histopathological effects and subchronic or chronic exposure [30]. The possible health risk of the consumption of food containing nanoscale compounds transferred from the packaging is not yet fully understood, since it will depend on the particles’ toxicity, size, morphology, and the rates of migration and ingestion [23]. Commonly, smaller particles are generally absorbed more readily and faster than larger ones, and then easily distributed into the organs where they can damage the cells, by different routes, e.g., generating ROS within the cells, or direct or indirect toxicity [31, 32]. For example, studies on mice have demonstrated that carbon nanotubes caused asbestos-like, length-dependent, toxic behavior when injected into the animal peritoneal cavity [33]. Cushen et al. [32] used a model to study the migration of particles from food packaging. They found the migration of silver and copper from nanocomposites and observed that their concentration in the nanocomposites was one of the most crucial parameters driving migration, more so than particle size, temperature, and contact time [32]. Since every nanomaterial has its individual property, therefore, toxicity will likely be established on a case-by-case basis [34]. Further, government regulation must develop some standards for commercial products to ensure product quality, health and safety, and environmental regulations as soon as possible.
32.4
Recent technology development for food safety evaluation
For better control of food quality and safety, traditionally systematic methods are used to analyze food materials and ingredients at each step during processing [35]. Traditional methods are used for composition determination and component qualification, including high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and other analytical methods [36, 37]. Moreover, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) [38] and enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) [39] are used in microbiological examination. However, these procedures have many disadvantages including high cost, long reaction time, and direct contact with samples. More importantly, these methods require complex sample preparation, special technical skills, and pose difficulties for real-time and on-line monitoring in food manufacturing [40]. The World Trade Organization reported that Europe accounts for up to 46% of world exports of agricultural products, and that food represents 80% among them [41]. Trading of contaminated food products between countries increases the risks of outbreaks and, consequently, health risks posed by microbial pathogens in food products are of major concern in the world [42]. The food industry, as the main party, should pay attention to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, where failure to detect a pathogen may lead to a dreadful effect. Although food safety has dramatically
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improved overall, foodborne outbreaks due to microbial contamination, chemicals, and toxins are common in many countries [43]. Food safety is one of the main objectives of food law and regulation. Quality control in food manufacturing is closely related to nanotechnology, physical, and sensory attributes of food products, microbiological safety, chemical composition, and nutritional value [44]. Many methodical programs, including good agricultural practices [45, 46], hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) [47, 48], good manufacturing practices [46, 49], and food code indicating approaches [50] can significantly reduce pathogenic microbials in food. In this regard, pathogen detection technology is vital, because it is key to the prevention and identification of foodborne pathogens related to health and safety. Microbial contamination has led to pathogenic infections and poor nutrition in food products. Therefore, preventing bacterial deterioration is one of the most critical subjects in the production, processing, transport, and storage of food, thereby extending the shelf-life of food. Over recent decades, nanoparticles applied in the food safety field have attracted increasing attention. Although nanotechnology-based sensor systems vary in their mechanisms and designs, they are timely and accurate, with minimal user input for the detection of foodborne pathogens or other contaminants in food products [51]. Nanoparticles as novel properties applied in biosensor systems that have found utility in capturing and concentrating the analytical targets, in addition to transduction of bioanalytical interaction. Common nanoparticles applied in biosensor design are shown in Fig. 32.2 [52].
32.5
Recent application progress for nanoparticles-based food safety evaluation
32.5.1 Nanoparticles-based biosensor foodborne pathogen detection Nanoparticles are tunable, given that the chemical and physicochemical properties are highly related to particle size at the nanoscale [53]. Moreover, nanoparticles have a big surface area to volume ratio, thereby leading to an overall large contact area to undertake chemistry, electrochemistry, or immobilization of bioaffinity agents. The optical properties of nanoparticles are significantly different compared to bulk materials because they work on the nanoscale. For instance, gold nanoparticles occur in red or black, which is distinctly different from bulk materials because of the influence of quantum effects (quantum confinement); this also affects electrical properties. Specifically, the electrons of nanoparticles are densely packed, with the energy difference between the highest valence and low conduction band. As a result, the energy to excite the nanoparticles increases with higher energy being released when the electrons return to the ground state. This effect is visualized via a color shift in terms of optical and semiconductor properties in terms of electrochemical phenomena such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR).
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Fig. 32.2 Transmission electron microscopy monographs of nanoparticles commonly applied in biosensor fabrication [52]. Reprinted from K. Warriner, S.M. Reddy, A. Namvar, S. Neethirajan, Developments in nanoparticles for use in biosensors to assess food safety and quality, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 40 (2) (2014) 183–199 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
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In recent years, there have been major advances applied in nanoparticles-based biosensor systems. Biosensor devices developed are able to screen multiple analytes of relevance to food safety and quality at the nanoscale. The rapid screening of samples in an integrated sensor offers the route to on-line or real-time detection.
32.5.2 Chitosan-based nanoparticles for food quality evaluation There is increasing interest in developing and applying chitosan-based nanomaterials, due to their unique properties including stabilizing lipophilic bioactive compounds through encapsulation [54] and improving functionality of packaging materials [55]. Different methods might be employed to prepare chitosan nanoparticles, such as ionic gelation [56], spray drying [57], coacervation [58], liposome entrapment [59], inclusion complexation [60], cocrystallization [61], nanoencapsulation [62], freeze drying [63], yeast encapsulation [64], and emulsion [65]. Previous study has reported that chitosan nanoparticles loaded with cinnamon essential oil (CE nanoparticles) exhibited excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant properties for pork at 4°C. The fresh pork was wrapped with low density polyethylene (LDPE) films and the active films coated with different CE nanoparticles and displayed at 4°C for 15 d. The active films with 527 nm CE nanoparticles resulted in a significant reduction in microbial counts, pH, peroxide value (POV), 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and sensory scores of the pork (P < .05) than the other treatments at the end of storage [66]. In my previous study, β-chitosan nanoparticles of different particle sizes were employed to encapsulate catechins (CAT) or CAT-Zn complex by ionic gelation technology. The antibacterial activity of CAT or CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles against Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua were investigated based on bacterial growth curve, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC). The growth curve of E. coli O157:H7 (A) and L. innocua (B) in strains of culture medium containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex at the different time intervals are shown in Fig. 32.3 [67]. The MIC and MBC of CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of the smallest particle size against L. innocua and E. coli were 0.031 and 0.063 mg/mL, and 0.063 and 0.125 mg/mL, respectively [68]. The flow chart of antibacterial activity against L. innocua containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex is shown in Fig. 32.4. Several mechanisms might explain the high antibacterial activity of CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of small particle size (Fig. 32.5) [67]. One was that the CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of small particle size can lead to an increase in the specific surface of a bactericidal specimen, inducing an increase in their ability to enter into the inside of the stains and interrupt the synthesis of strains protein, thus improving antibacterial activity [69]. Second, CAT-Zn complex has higher distributions of electron cloud and bioactivity than CAT [68], and can interrupt/destroy the lipid bilayer membrane of bacteria, resulting in the leakage of intracellular content. Another possible mechanism is that CAT-Zn complex loaded
Fig. 32.3 The growth curve of E. coli O157:H7 (A) and L. innocua (B) in strains culture medium containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex at the different time intervals [67]. Control group: E. coli O157:H7 and L. innocua growth curve. T0: β-chitosan nanoparticles solution without catechins or catechinsZn complex; T1: β-chitosan: catechins (1:1); T2: β-chitosan: catechins (1:3); T3: β-chitosan: catechins (1:5); T4: β-chitosan: catechins-Zn complex (1:1); T5: β-chitosan: catechins-Zn complex (1:3); T6: β-chitosan: catechins-Zn complex (1:5). Reprinted from H.C. Zhang, J. Jung, Y.Y. Zhao, Preparation, characterization and evaluation of antibacterial activity of catechins and catechins-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of different particle sizes, Carbohydr. Polym. 137 (2016) 82–91 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
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Fig. 32.4 The flow chart of antibacterial activity against L.innocua containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex [67]. TPP: tripolyphosphate. Reprinted from H.C. Zhang, J. Jung, Y.Y. Zhao, Preparation, characterization and evaluation of antibacterial activity of catechins and catechins-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of different particle sizes, Carbohydr. Polym. 137 (2016) 82–91 with the permission of Elsevier publications. 825
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Cell membrance decomposition
Enzyme inactivation
Cell metabolism inhibition + – DNA destraction
Respiratory inhibition – +
Cell membrance
Cell wall Normal outer membrance
Fig. 32.5 Suggested antibacterial mechanism of nanoparticles [68]. Reprinted from M. Moritz, M. Geszke-Moritz, The newest achievements in synthesis, immobilization and practical applications of antibacterial nanoparticles, Chem. Eng. J. 228 (2013) 596–613 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
β-chitosan nanoparticles of small particle size can inhibit cell metabolism, thus leading to respiratory inhibition of bacteria. Furthermore, the small particle size of nanoparticles could play a key role in the uptake and secretion of substrates for inhibiting enzyme activity and killing the strains. However, other possible mechanisms related to the bactericidal action of CAT or CAT-Zn complex still need to be further studied. Moreover, Zhang and Zhao also investigated the preparation of β-chitosan nanoparticles based on the principle of ionic gelation between β-chitosan and sodium TPP. Tea polyphenol-Zn complex loaded β-CS NPs were further prepared with a tea polyphenol -Zn complex encapsulation efficacy of 97.33%, average particle size of 84.55 nm, and Zeta-potential of 29.23 mV. Tea polyphenol -Zn complex loaded β-CS NPs exhibited higher antioxidant activity than that of tea polyphenol loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles. The synthetic strategy of preparing tea polyphenol and tea polyphenol-Zn complex loaded CS NPs is illustrated in Fig. 32.6 [70]. Chitosan nanoparticles were also prepared using the ionic gelation method to evaluate their effect on protection of rice plants from blast fungus. Chitosan nanoparticles were evaluated for suppression of rice blast fungus (Pyricularia grisea) under detached leaf conditions. The results showed that chitosan nanoparticles have great potential in suppressing blast disease in rice [71].
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Fig. 32.6 The synthetic procedure the tea polyphenols complex and tea polyphenols-Zn loaded chitosan nanoparticles [70]. Reprinted from H.C. Zhang, Y.Y. Zhao, β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated tea polyphenolZn complex as a potential antioxidant substances delivery carrier, Food Hydrocoll. 48 (2015) 260–273 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
32.5.3 Magnetic nanoparticles-based methods for food safety detection and quality evaluation Magnetic nanoparticles, smaller than <100 nm particles, can be manipulated by an external magnetic field. In recent years, biosensors using magnetic nanoparticles have attracted considerable interest in food applications by virtue of unique advantages over conventional detection methods. Use of magnetic nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent is the subject of current studies, with metal nanoparticles including silver, gold, copper, iron, and metal oxide nanoparticles. The high antibacterial activity of magnetic nanoparticles is due to their large surface area to volume ratio, which allows binding of a large number of ligands on magnetic the nanoparticle’s surface and hence, its complexation with receptors present on the bacterial surface. Most biological samples exhibit negligible magnetic properties, and thus highly sensitive measurements can be performed in visually obscured and minimally processed samples with the help of magnetic nanoparticles. Magnetic nanoparticles are biocompatible, nontoxic, inexpensive to produce, environmentally safe, and physically and chemically stable. It is well known that microbial contamination acquired in the field, cold storage, or the consumer’s home is one of the main causes for food quality, safety, and shelf life reduction. Singh and Sahareen [72] demonstrated the usefulness of low cost and ecofriendly cellulosic packets impregnated with silver nanoparticles for storage of vegetables. The MIC value of silver nanoparticles against Aeromonas sp. was 15.3 mg/mL [72]. Packets impregnated with silver nanoparticles exhibited significant antimicrobial properties. Periodic evaluation of stored vegetables (tomatoes and cabbages) in these packets demonstrated enhanced shelf-life with no significant changes in nutritional values, whereas vegetables stored in packets without silver nanoparticles impregnation demonstrated decreased nutritional values [72].
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Previous study has also reported on effects of ZnO nanoparticles combined with radio frequency (RF) heating on the sterilization and product quality attributes including hardness, color, carotenoids, and microstructure, compared to ZnO nanoparticles or RF heating treatment alone. The results showed that the combined sterilization effect of ZnO nanoparticles with RF treatments was superior to ZnO nanoparticles or RF heating treatment alone and could extend the shelf-life of prepared carrots by up to 60 d. ZnO nanoparticles combining RF heating 20 mm/20 min (plate spacing/RF heating time) reduced the loss of hardness, color difference value (ΔE), and carotenoids of prepared carrots [73]. Silver nanoparticles demonstrate antimicrobial action against multiple bacterial species while not affecting fungal species. The results show that sliver nanoparticles implemented in food production inhibited the growth of bacteria within the concentration of 0.03–0.05 g/dm3 in solid media and 0.001–0.005 g/dm3 in liquid media [74]. Patil and Taranath [75] also assayed for antibacterial activity of silver and ZnO nanoparticles against test bacterial species. The results showed that silver nanoparticles showed the maximum zone of inhibition 15.16, 15.50, and 13.33 mm at 400 μg/mL to Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively. This study showed that silver nanoparticles could be used as an antimicrobial due to their intrinsic properties in biomedical application and food packing industries [75].
32.5.4 Nanoparticles-based methods food packaging for food safety and quality evaluation Protecting food from contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources is the main goal of food packaging [76]. Indirect contamination of food can be expected when nanoparticles or nanotechnology-based devices are incorporated in packaging materials or storage containers to extend the shelf-life while keeping the products fresh. This type of application is seen as the most important of nanotechnologies in the food area in the near future [22]. For instance, nanoparticles are incorporated to increase the barrier properties of packaging materials (e.g., silicate nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and nano-silver, magnesium, and ZnO). When nanoparticles are applied into the food packaging materials, direct contact with food is only possible following migration of the nanoparticles. Moreover, Zhang, Jung, and Zhao reported that essential oils (EOs), including clover (CL), cinnamon bark (CB), and lemongrass (LG) oils, were loaded into β-chitosan beads using a simple two-step method: oil/water emulsion and ionic gelation with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). EOs loaded β-CS beads were then incorporated into cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) for producing antibacterial films. The results showed that β-chitosan beads can be used as a stable loading system for Eos, while CNCs as a film forming material and stabilizer for distributing EOs loaded β-chitosan beads in film matrix for creating antibacterial packaging materials [77]. The schematic diagram of preparing antibacterial CNCs films incorporated with EOs loaded β-chitosan beads is illustrated in Fig. 32.7 [77].
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Fig. 32.7 A schematic diagram of making antibacterial CNC films incorporated with EOs loaded β-CS beads [77]. Reprinted from Ref. H.C. Zhang, J. Jung, Y.Y. Zhao, Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals films incorporated with essential oil loaded β-chitosan beads. Food Hydrocoll. (69) (2017), 164–172 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
The bioactive components in functional foods often get degraded, and this eventually leads to inactivation due to the hostile environment. Moreover, the edible nano-coatings on various food materials could provide a barrier to moisture and gas exchange and deliver colors, flavors, antioxidants, enzymes, and antibrowning agents, and could also increase the shelf-life of food products, even after packaging is opened [78, 79]. Encapsulating functional components within the droplets often enables a slowdown of chemical degradation processes by engineering the properties of the interfacial layer surrounding them. For example, curcumin—the most active and least stable bioactive component of turmeric (Curcuma longa)—showed reduced antioxidant activity and was found to be stable to pasteurization and at different ionic strength upon encapsulation [80]. Nanoencapsulation of these bioactive components for food packaging extends the shelf-life of food products by slowing down the degradation processes or prevents degradation until the product is delivered at the target site. The application of nanotechnology in different areas of food packaging is an emerging trend that will grow rapidly in the coming years. Advances in food safety have yielded promising results leading to the development of intelligent packaging (IP). For example, edible chitosan nanoparticles coatings were responsible for delaying the ripening process of grapes, resulting in decreased weight loss, soluble solids, and reduced sugar content, as well as increased moisture retention and preservation of titratable acidity values and sensory characteristics. Chitosan nanoparticles are used as reinforcements to improve barrier and mechanical properties of food packaging polymers, resulting in packages with
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less demand for raw materials (more sustainable), contributing to reducing dependence on petroleum-based materials. Nanotechnology in food packaging includes addition of nanoparticles and nanoclays in to food packaging to increase barrier properties and also improve the antibacterial property of packaging materials for food safety and preservation [81]. The big advantage of biodegradable materials is the fact that they undergo biodegradation within a short time with no, or less, ecotoxicity or negative environmental impacts [82]. However, the development of nanotechnology raises the issue of incidental environmental contamination due to the release of nano-sized compounds during the degradation process. These so-called nanosensors are designed to respond to environmental changes (e.g., moisture or temperature in storage rooms), degradation products of food includes toxic and helpful compounds detected by nanosensors, or contamination by microbials. However, it is conceivable to assume that the use of food active packaging materials releasing nanoparticles with antimicrobial functions into food (e.g., nano-silver or ZnO nanoparticles), will result in direct consumer exposure to (free) nanoparticles. Hence, this urges the need for information on the effects of these nanoparticles to human health following chronic exposure. Moreover, attention should be given to life-cycle analysis (LCA) and effects of releasing nanoparticles on the environment. Antimicrobial food packaging plays a key role in reducing the risk of postprocessing microbial contamination, as well as extending the shelf-life of food. It is attracting global interest across the food industry, due to its potential to provide safe food with high quality. Currently, the development and commercialization of antimicrobial food packaging is limited because of availability of safe antimicrobials, cost involved in use of natural antimicrobials, and regulatory concerns. There is an urgent need to exploit nanotechnology to develop cheap, practically feasible antimicrobial coating and packaging materials that can withstand the environment present in the food system without changing the quality and sensory attributes of food.
32.6
Summary and outlook
In the past decade, the popularity of the uses of nano-sized materials in the food sector has increased; therefore, interest and activities in research have greatly focused on this area. Numerous research efforts have been made in recent years for foodborne pathogen detection, and these advances have led to improved food quality, safety, shelf-life, and usability of food. However, many challenges and opportunities persist to improve the current technology for food safety and quality, and issues about the consequences of nanotechnology that must be addressed in order to alleviate consumer concerns. The transparency of safety issues and environmental impact should be the priority while dealing with the development of nanotechnology in food systems and, therefore, safety testing of food products containing nanomaterials is required before they are released to the market. More studies are required in safety assessment of engineered nanoparticles being targeted to use directly in food or in food-contact surfaces such as food processing and handling equipment or food packaging materials, so that enough
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data is available for the regulatory agencies to draft universal safety policy on use of nanomaterials intended to be in food contact. Evaluation with large numbers and different varieties of food samples and comparison with well-established methods may help to deal with this challenge.
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32
Hongcai Zhang*,†, Shunsheng Chen*,† *Laboratory of Aquatic Products Quality & Safety Risk Assessment (Shanghai) at China Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China, †College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
32.1
Introduction
Food quality and safety is an issue of great importance, and is ensured by processing techniques such as drying [1, 2], cooling [3], and freezing [4]. Nanotechnology is one of the most promising technologies to revolutionize the conventional food science and food industry [5]. It can be defined as the fabrication, characterization, and manipulation of nanoparticles with sizes <100 nm [6], and exists in many food sectors such as agricultural production, food processing, food packaging and preservation, and pathogen detection. As the global standard of living improves, concerns over food quality and safety, especially regarding potential contaminants, will always be an important health issue. Food is susceptible to contamination at different stages, right from production until it reaches the consumer, resulting in reduced shelf-life [7]. Functionality of food nanotechnology can affect the bioavailability and nutritional value of food [8]. It is found that biological properties such as encapsulation, releasing, and toxicological effects of nanoparticles are largely dependent on their physicochemical parameters, including particle size, length, width, Zeta-potential, and degree of crystallinity [9–11]. In fact, major interactions between nanotechnology and the food industry are enhancing food safety, extending shelf-life, improving flavor and nutritional value, allowing pathogen, toxin and pesticide detection, and serving functional foods, as depicted in Fig. 32.1. Achievements have been made in various areas of food systems, including foods and food packaging [12]. Nanoparticles may have completely different consequence depending on their applications in processing and packaging, and as actual food ingredients. Thus, a clear view of the food safety evaluation with their functionality and applicability is urgently required for providing further guidance on the food safety regulation of nanomaterials. In particular, some nanoparticles are toxic to animals and humans, acting as oxidant scavengers or antimicrobial agents [13, 14]. Therefore, this chapter mainly focuses on the aspects of functionality and applicability of food nanotechnology, and current progress in food safety assessment.
Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814217-2.00032-9 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 32.1 Diagram showing the development of nanotechnology in food science/industry and its functionality, applicability, and safety assessments.
32.2
Basic principles and procedures
Up to now, various techniques have been developed for synthesizing different nanoparticles, including chemical precipitation, nucleation, sol-gel, hydrothermal, micro-emulsion, and combustion methods. Among these, microencapsulation, a frequently used method, is a process of packaging solids, liquids, or gaseous materials as active material with a continuous film as a coating to form capsules in micrometer to millimeter in size [15–17]. For instance, essential oils were efficiently encapsulated by poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as an antimicrobial release carrier. The strong antimicrobial activity of these nanoparticles was shown against Salmonella spp. (Gram-negative bacterium) and Listeria spp. (Gram-positive bacterium), indicating that PLGA nanoparticles could be useful antimicrobial delivery systems [18]. Moreover, chitosan nanoparticles could be used for controlling release of NPK fertilizers, which could save on fertilizer consumption and avoid environmental contamination [19]. For the processing procedures of microencapsulation, microencapsulation techniques are classified into three parts [15]: (1) physical methods such as spray drying, lyophilization, supercritical fluid precipitation, and solvent evaporation; (2) physicochemical methods including coacervation, liposomes, and ionic gelation; and (3) chemical methods such as interfacial polymerization and molecular inclusion complexation.
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32.3
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Advantages and limitations
The development of nanotechnology has been one of the most important achievements for the scientific community in the last 20 years due to its excellent advantages and multiple application fields. Nanomaterials are excellent materials applied in the different stages of analytical processes because of their ultra-small size and their unique characteristics, including optical, electronic, magnetic, and catalytic properties [20, 21]. These advantages are detailed in Section 32.5. Although nanotechnology application provides numerous advantages related to food quality and safety, at the same time it may present a potential risk, not only to human health, but to animals’ health and environment safety. One of the most important issues is the uncertainty of the behavior of nanoparticles in the body and the toxic effects they could have. For this, it is necessary to establish a set of protocols and regulations on the food security. Recent studies have shown that indeed there are reasonable grounds for suspecting that nanoparticles may have toxicological effects on biological systems. As the distribution and fate of nanoparticles when released to the environment is not yet fully understood, it is difficult to predict whether these nanoparticles will bioaccumulate (bioconcentrate) in the food chain [22] or represent a source of environmental contamination. Therefore, ecotoxicity tests are mandatory to investigate the risks that nanoparticles pose to the environment [23, 24] and to future generations. In vitro drug release and cytotoxic studies were performed for Sunitinib (STB) chitosan nanoparticles, which implies the novel drug delivery system for the effective sustained delivery [25]. Moreover, many researchers have raised safety concerns regarding the possibility of nanoparticles migrating from food packaging material into the food, with subsequent impact on consumers’ health [26]. Although a material is a GRAS (generally regarded as safe) substance, additional studies may be required to investigate its risk because the physiochemical properties in nanostates may be completely different from that are in macrostates. Moreover, nano-sized materials may increase the risk for bioaccumulation within body organs and tissues because of low particle size [27]. For instance, silica nanoparticles used as anticaking agents can be cytotoxic in human lung cells [28]. Many factors affect distribution, migration, and circulation of nanoparticles including its surface morphology, concentration, surface energy, aggregation, and adsorption. Nanoparticles from food packaging nanomaterials can mainly enter the body by inhalation and ingestion. Among these, the oral uptake from food, accidently added with nanoparticles from the packaging, is the most significant exposure source [29]. Toxicological assessment of potential nanoparticle release from food packaging should be evaluated by both in vitro and in vivo methods [30]. In vitro toxicological assays investigate the basal cytotoxicity and its toxicity mechanisms. Human and rodent cell lines are the most frequently used experimental models, especially from intestine and liver, followed by lung and skin cell lines. Some of the cytotoxic assays currently employed including lactate dehydrogenase release assay, live-dead assay, cell counting, alarm blue assay, neutral red uptake, protein content and tryan blue dye exclusion.
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The toxicity mechanisms are studied through the observation of the changes in different basal biomarkers (such as reactive oxygen species—ROS—and glutathione content-GSH), inflammation response, DNA damage, and cell necrosis due the toxic stress. The most commonly used genotoxicity assays are Comet assay, Ames test, and micronucleus assay. Rodent in vivo methods are employed to assess macro-toxic or histopathological effects and subchronic or chronic exposure [30]. The possible health risk of the consumption of food containing nanoscale compounds transferred from the packaging is not yet fully understood, since it will depend on the particles’ toxicity, size, morphology, and the rates of migration and ingestion [23]. Commonly, smaller particles are generally absorbed more readily and faster than larger ones, and then easily distributed into the organs where they can damage the cells, by different routes, e.g., generating ROS within the cells, or direct or indirect toxicity [31, 32]. For example, studies on mice have demonstrated that carbon nanotubes caused asbestos-like, length-dependent, toxic behavior when injected into the animal peritoneal cavity [33]. Cushen et al. [32] used a model to study the migration of particles from food packaging. They found the migration of silver and copper from nanocomposites and observed that their concentration in the nanocomposites was one of the most crucial parameters driving migration, more so than particle size, temperature, and contact time [32]. Since every nanomaterial has its individual property, therefore, toxicity will likely be established on a case-by-case basis [34]. Further, government regulation must develop some standards for commercial products to ensure product quality, health and safety, and environmental regulations as soon as possible.
32.4
Recent technology development for food safety evaluation
For better control of food quality and safety, traditionally systematic methods are used to analyze food materials and ingredients at each step during processing [35]. Traditional methods are used for composition determination and component qualification, including high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and other analytical methods [36, 37]. Moreover, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) [38] and enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) [39] are used in microbiological examination. However, these procedures have many disadvantages including high cost, long reaction time, and direct contact with samples. More importantly, these methods require complex sample preparation, special technical skills, and pose difficulties for real-time and on-line monitoring in food manufacturing [40]. The World Trade Organization reported that Europe accounts for up to 46% of world exports of agricultural products, and that food represents 80% among them [41]. Trading of contaminated food products between countries increases the risks of outbreaks and, consequently, health risks posed by microbial pathogens in food products are of major concern in the world [42]. The food industry, as the main party, should pay attention to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, where failure to detect a pathogen may lead to a dreadful effect. Although food safety has dramatically
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improved overall, foodborne outbreaks due to microbial contamination, chemicals, and toxins are common in many countries [43]. Food safety is one of the main objectives of food law and regulation. Quality control in food manufacturing is closely related to nanotechnology, physical, and sensory attributes of food products, microbiological safety, chemical composition, and nutritional value [44]. Many methodical programs, including good agricultural practices [45, 46], hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) [47, 48], good manufacturing practices [46, 49], and food code indicating approaches [50] can significantly reduce pathogenic microbials in food. In this regard, pathogen detection technology is vital, because it is key to the prevention and identification of foodborne pathogens related to health and safety. Microbial contamination has led to pathogenic infections and poor nutrition in food products. Therefore, preventing bacterial deterioration is one of the most critical subjects in the production, processing, transport, and storage of food, thereby extending the shelf-life of food. Over recent decades, nanoparticles applied in the food safety field have attracted increasing attention. Although nanotechnology-based sensor systems vary in their mechanisms and designs, they are timely and accurate, with minimal user input for the detection of foodborne pathogens or other contaminants in food products [51]. Nanoparticles as novel properties applied in biosensor systems that have found utility in capturing and concentrating the analytical targets, in addition to transduction of bioanalytical interaction. Common nanoparticles applied in biosensor design are shown in Fig. 32.2 [52].
32.5
Recent application progress for nanoparticles-based food safety evaluation
32.5.1 Nanoparticles-based biosensor foodborne pathogen detection Nanoparticles are tunable, given that the chemical and physicochemical properties are highly related to particle size at the nanoscale [53]. Moreover, nanoparticles have a big surface area to volume ratio, thereby leading to an overall large contact area to undertake chemistry, electrochemistry, or immobilization of bioaffinity agents. The optical properties of nanoparticles are significantly different compared to bulk materials because they work on the nanoscale. For instance, gold nanoparticles occur in red or black, which is distinctly different from bulk materials because of the influence of quantum effects (quantum confinement); this also affects electrical properties. Specifically, the electrons of nanoparticles are densely packed, with the energy difference between the highest valence and low conduction band. As a result, the energy to excite the nanoparticles increases with higher energy being released when the electrons return to the ground state. This effect is visualized via a color shift in terms of optical and semiconductor properties in terms of electrochemical phenomena such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR).
822 Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality
Fig. 32.2 Transmission electron microscopy monographs of nanoparticles commonly applied in biosensor fabrication [52]. Reprinted from K. Warriner, S.M. Reddy, A. Namvar, S. Neethirajan, Developments in nanoparticles for use in biosensors to assess food safety and quality, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 40 (2) (2014) 183–199 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
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In recent years, there have been major advances applied in nanoparticles-based biosensor systems. Biosensor devices developed are able to screen multiple analytes of relevance to food safety and quality at the nanoscale. The rapid screening of samples in an integrated sensor offers the route to on-line or real-time detection.
32.5.2 Chitosan-based nanoparticles for food quality evaluation There is increasing interest in developing and applying chitosan-based nanomaterials, due to their unique properties including stabilizing lipophilic bioactive compounds through encapsulation [54] and improving functionality of packaging materials [55]. Different methods might be employed to prepare chitosan nanoparticles, such as ionic gelation [56], spray drying [57], coacervation [58], liposome entrapment [59], inclusion complexation [60], cocrystallization [61], nanoencapsulation [62], freeze drying [63], yeast encapsulation [64], and emulsion [65]. Previous study has reported that chitosan nanoparticles loaded with cinnamon essential oil (CE nanoparticles) exhibited excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant properties for pork at 4°C. The fresh pork was wrapped with low density polyethylene (LDPE) films and the active films coated with different CE nanoparticles and displayed at 4°C for 15 d. The active films with 527 nm CE nanoparticles resulted in a significant reduction in microbial counts, pH, peroxide value (POV), 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and sensory scores of the pork (P < .05) than the other treatments at the end of storage [66]. In my previous study, β-chitosan nanoparticles of different particle sizes were employed to encapsulate catechins (CAT) or CAT-Zn complex by ionic gelation technology. The antibacterial activity of CAT or CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles against Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua were investigated based on bacterial growth curve, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC). The growth curve of E. coli O157:H7 (A) and L. innocua (B) in strains of culture medium containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex at the different time intervals are shown in Fig. 32.3 [67]. The MIC and MBC of CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of the smallest particle size against L. innocua and E. coli were 0.031 and 0.063 mg/mL, and 0.063 and 0.125 mg/mL, respectively [68]. The flow chart of antibacterial activity against L. innocua containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex is shown in Fig. 32.4. Several mechanisms might explain the high antibacterial activity of CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of small particle size (Fig. 32.5) [67]. One was that the CAT-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of small particle size can lead to an increase in the specific surface of a bactericidal specimen, inducing an increase in their ability to enter into the inside of the stains and interrupt the synthesis of strains protein, thus improving antibacterial activity [69]. Second, CAT-Zn complex has higher distributions of electron cloud and bioactivity than CAT [68], and can interrupt/destroy the lipid bilayer membrane of bacteria, resulting in the leakage of intracellular content. Another possible mechanism is that CAT-Zn complex loaded
Fig. 32.3 The growth curve of E. coli O157:H7 (A) and L. innocua (B) in strains culture medium containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex at the different time intervals [67]. Control group: E. coli O157:H7 and L. innocua growth curve. T0: β-chitosan nanoparticles solution without catechins or catechinsZn complex; T1: β-chitosan: catechins (1:1); T2: β-chitosan: catechins (1:3); T3: β-chitosan: catechins (1:5); T4: β-chitosan: catechins-Zn complex (1:1); T5: β-chitosan: catechins-Zn complex (1:3); T6: β-chitosan: catechins-Zn complex (1:5). Reprinted from H.C. Zhang, J. Jung, Y.Y. Zhao, Preparation, characterization and evaluation of antibacterial activity of catechins and catechins-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of different particle sizes, Carbohydr. Polym. 137 (2016) 82–91 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
Nanoparticle-based methods for food safety evaluation
Fig. 32.4 The flow chart of antibacterial activity against L.innocua containing different particle sizes of β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated catechins or catechins-Zn complex [67]. TPP: tripolyphosphate. Reprinted from H.C. Zhang, J. Jung, Y.Y. Zhao, Preparation, characterization and evaluation of antibacterial activity of catechins and catechins-Zn complex loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles of different particle sizes, Carbohydr. Polym. 137 (2016) 82–91 with the permission of Elsevier publications. 825
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Cell membrance decomposition
Enzyme inactivation
Cell metabolism inhibition + – DNA destraction
Respiratory inhibition – +
Cell membrance
Cell wall Normal outer membrance
Fig. 32.5 Suggested antibacterial mechanism of nanoparticles [68]. Reprinted from M. Moritz, M. Geszke-Moritz, The newest achievements in synthesis, immobilization and practical applications of antibacterial nanoparticles, Chem. Eng. J. 228 (2013) 596–613 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
β-chitosan nanoparticles of small particle size can inhibit cell metabolism, thus leading to respiratory inhibition of bacteria. Furthermore, the small particle size of nanoparticles could play a key role in the uptake and secretion of substrates for inhibiting enzyme activity and killing the strains. However, other possible mechanisms related to the bactericidal action of CAT or CAT-Zn complex still need to be further studied. Moreover, Zhang and Zhao also investigated the preparation of β-chitosan nanoparticles based on the principle of ionic gelation between β-chitosan and sodium TPP. Tea polyphenol-Zn complex loaded β-CS NPs were further prepared with a tea polyphenol -Zn complex encapsulation efficacy of 97.33%, average particle size of 84.55 nm, and Zeta-potential of 29.23 mV. Tea polyphenol -Zn complex loaded β-CS NPs exhibited higher antioxidant activity than that of tea polyphenol loaded β-chitosan nanoparticles. The synthetic strategy of preparing tea polyphenol and tea polyphenol-Zn complex loaded CS NPs is illustrated in Fig. 32.6 [70]. Chitosan nanoparticles were also prepared using the ionic gelation method to evaluate their effect on protection of rice plants from blast fungus. Chitosan nanoparticles were evaluated for suppression of rice blast fungus (Pyricularia grisea) under detached leaf conditions. The results showed that chitosan nanoparticles have great potential in suppressing blast disease in rice [71].
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Fig. 32.6 The synthetic procedure the tea polyphenols complex and tea polyphenols-Zn loaded chitosan nanoparticles [70]. Reprinted from H.C. Zhang, Y.Y. Zhao, β-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated tea polyphenolZn complex as a potential antioxidant substances delivery carrier, Food Hydrocoll. 48 (2015) 260–273 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
32.5.3 Magnetic nanoparticles-based methods for food safety detection and quality evaluation Magnetic nanoparticles, smaller than <100 nm particles, can be manipulated by an external magnetic field. In recent years, biosensors using magnetic nanoparticles have attracted considerable interest in food applications by virtue of unique advantages over conventional detection methods. Use of magnetic nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent is the subject of current studies, with metal nanoparticles including silver, gold, copper, iron, and metal oxide nanoparticles. The high antibacterial activity of magnetic nanoparticles is due to their large surface area to volume ratio, which allows binding of a large number of ligands on magnetic the nanoparticle’s surface and hence, its complexation with receptors present on the bacterial surface. Most biological samples exhibit negligible magnetic properties, and thus highly sensitive measurements can be performed in visually obscured and minimally processed samples with the help of magnetic nanoparticles. Magnetic nanoparticles are biocompatible, nontoxic, inexpensive to produce, environmentally safe, and physically and chemically stable. It is well known that microbial contamination acquired in the field, cold storage, or the consumer’s home is one of the main causes for food quality, safety, and shelf life reduction. Singh and Sahareen [72] demonstrated the usefulness of low cost and ecofriendly cellulosic packets impregnated with silver nanoparticles for storage of vegetables. The MIC value of silver nanoparticles against Aeromonas sp. was 15.3 mg/mL [72]. Packets impregnated with silver nanoparticles exhibited significant antimicrobial properties. Periodic evaluation of stored vegetables (tomatoes and cabbages) in these packets demonstrated enhanced shelf-life with no significant changes in nutritional values, whereas vegetables stored in packets without silver nanoparticles impregnation demonstrated decreased nutritional values [72].
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Previous study has also reported on effects of ZnO nanoparticles combined with radio frequency (RF) heating on the sterilization and product quality attributes including hardness, color, carotenoids, and microstructure, compared to ZnO nanoparticles or RF heating treatment alone. The results showed that the combined sterilization effect of ZnO nanoparticles with RF treatments was superior to ZnO nanoparticles or RF heating treatment alone and could extend the shelf-life of prepared carrots by up to 60 d. ZnO nanoparticles combining RF heating 20 mm/20 min (plate spacing/RF heating time) reduced the loss of hardness, color difference value (ΔE), and carotenoids of prepared carrots [73]. Silver nanoparticles demonstrate antimicrobial action against multiple bacterial species while not affecting fungal species. The results show that sliver nanoparticles implemented in food production inhibited the growth of bacteria within the concentration of 0.03–0.05 g/dm3 in solid media and 0.001–0.005 g/dm3 in liquid media [74]. Patil and Taranath [75] also assayed for antibacterial activity of silver and ZnO nanoparticles against test bacterial species. The results showed that silver nanoparticles showed the maximum zone of inhibition 15.16, 15.50, and 13.33 mm at 400 μg/mL to Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively. This study showed that silver nanoparticles could be used as an antimicrobial due to their intrinsic properties in biomedical application and food packing industries [75].
32.5.4 Nanoparticles-based methods food packaging for food safety and quality evaluation Protecting food from contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources is the main goal of food packaging [76]. Indirect contamination of food can be expected when nanoparticles or nanotechnology-based devices are incorporated in packaging materials or storage containers to extend the shelf-life while keeping the products fresh. This type of application is seen as the most important of nanotechnologies in the food area in the near future [22]. For instance, nanoparticles are incorporated to increase the barrier properties of packaging materials (e.g., silicate nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and nano-silver, magnesium, and ZnO). When nanoparticles are applied into the food packaging materials, direct contact with food is only possible following migration of the nanoparticles. Moreover, Zhang, Jung, and Zhao reported that essential oils (EOs), including clover (CL), cinnamon bark (CB), and lemongrass (LG) oils, were loaded into β-chitosan beads using a simple two-step method: oil/water emulsion and ionic gelation with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). EOs loaded β-CS beads were then incorporated into cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) for producing antibacterial films. The results showed that β-chitosan beads can be used as a stable loading system for Eos, while CNCs as a film forming material and stabilizer for distributing EOs loaded β-chitosan beads in film matrix for creating antibacterial packaging materials [77]. The schematic diagram of preparing antibacterial CNCs films incorporated with EOs loaded β-chitosan beads is illustrated in Fig. 32.7 [77].
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Fig. 32.7 A schematic diagram of making antibacterial CNC films incorporated with EOs loaded β-CS beads [77]. Reprinted from Ref. H.C. Zhang, J. Jung, Y.Y. Zhao, Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals films incorporated with essential oil loaded β-chitosan beads. Food Hydrocoll. (69) (2017), 164–172 with the permission of Elsevier publications.
The bioactive components in functional foods often get degraded, and this eventually leads to inactivation due to the hostile environment. Moreover, the edible nano-coatings on various food materials could provide a barrier to moisture and gas exchange and deliver colors, flavors, antioxidants, enzymes, and antibrowning agents, and could also increase the shelf-life of food products, even after packaging is opened [78, 79]. Encapsulating functional components within the droplets often enables a slowdown of chemical degradation processes by engineering the properties of the interfacial layer surrounding them. For example, curcumin—the most active and least stable bioactive component of turmeric (Curcuma longa)—showed reduced antioxidant activity and was found to be stable to pasteurization and at different ionic strength upon encapsulation [80]. Nanoencapsulation of these bioactive components for food packaging extends the shelf-life of food products by slowing down the degradation processes or prevents degradation until the product is delivered at the target site. The application of nanotechnology in different areas of food packaging is an emerging trend that will grow rapidly in the coming years. Advances in food safety have yielded promising results leading to the development of intelligent packaging (IP). For example, edible chitosan nanoparticles coatings were responsible for delaying the ripening process of grapes, resulting in decreased weight loss, soluble solids, and reduced sugar content, as well as increased moisture retention and preservation of titratable acidity values and sensory characteristics. Chitosan nanoparticles are used as reinforcements to improve barrier and mechanical properties of food packaging polymers, resulting in packages with
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less demand for raw materials (more sustainable), contributing to reducing dependence on petroleum-based materials. Nanotechnology in food packaging includes addition of nanoparticles and nanoclays in to food packaging to increase barrier properties and also improve the antibacterial property of packaging materials for food safety and preservation [81]. The big advantage of biodegradable materials is the fact that they undergo biodegradation within a short time with no, or less, ecotoxicity or negative environmental impacts [82]. However, the development of nanotechnology raises the issue of incidental environmental contamination due to the release of nano-sized compounds during the degradation process. These so-called nanosensors are designed to respond to environmental changes (e.g., moisture or temperature in storage rooms), degradation products of food includes toxic and helpful compounds detected by nanosensors, or contamination by microbials. However, it is conceivable to assume that the use of food active packaging materials releasing nanoparticles with antimicrobial functions into food (e.g., nano-silver or ZnO nanoparticles), will result in direct consumer exposure to (free) nanoparticles. Hence, this urges the need for information on the effects of these nanoparticles to human health following chronic exposure. Moreover, attention should be given to life-cycle analysis (LCA) and effects of releasing nanoparticles on the environment. Antimicrobial food packaging plays a key role in reducing the risk of postprocessing microbial contamination, as well as extending the shelf-life of food. It is attracting global interest across the food industry, due to its potential to provide safe food with high quality. Currently, the development and commercialization of antimicrobial food packaging is limited because of availability of safe antimicrobials, cost involved in use of natural antimicrobials, and regulatory concerns. There is an urgent need to exploit nanotechnology to develop cheap, practically feasible antimicrobial coating and packaging materials that can withstand the environment present in the food system without changing the quality and sensory attributes of food.
32.6
Summary and outlook
In the past decade, the popularity of the uses of nano-sized materials in the food sector has increased; therefore, interest and activities in research have greatly focused on this area. Numerous research efforts have been made in recent years for foodborne pathogen detection, and these advances have led to improved food quality, safety, shelf-life, and usability of food. However, many challenges and opportunities persist to improve the current technology for food safety and quality, and issues about the consequences of nanotechnology that must be addressed in order to alleviate consumer concerns. The transparency of safety issues and environmental impact should be the priority while dealing with the development of nanotechnology in food systems and, therefore, safety testing of food products containing nanomaterials is required before they are released to the market. More studies are required in safety assessment of engineered nanoparticles being targeted to use directly in food or in food-contact surfaces such as food processing and handling equipment or food packaging materials, so that enough
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data is available for the regulatory agencies to draft universal safety policy on use of nanomaterials intended to be in food contact. Evaluation with large numbers and different varieties of food samples and comparison with well-established methods may help to deal with this challenge.
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