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Natural laws, or not
culture
Natural laws, or not The world is wilder than our rules would predict, finds Simon Ings
How the Zebra Got its Stripes and Other Darwinian Just So Stories by Léo Grasset, Profile Books, £9.99; The Serengeti Rules: The quest to discover how life works and why it matters by Sean B. Carroll, Princeton University Press, $24.95/£18.95; Lysenko’s Ghost: Epigenetics and Russia by Loren Graham, Harvard University Press, $24.95/£19.95; The Great Derangement: Climate change and the unthinkable by Amitav Ghosh, University of Chicago Press, $22
JUST how much does the world follow laws? The human mind, it seems, may not be the ideal toolkit with which to craft an answer. To understand the world at all, we have to predict likely events and so we have a lot invested in spotting rules, even when they are not really there. Such demands have also shaped more specialised parts of culture. The history of the sciences is one of constant struggle between the accumulation of observations and their abstraction into natural laws. The temptation (especially for physicists) is to assume these laws are real: a bedrock underpinning the messy, observable world. Life scientists, on the other hand, can afford no such assumption. Their field is constantly on the move, a plaything of time and historical contingency. If there is a lawfulness to living things, few plants and animals seem to be aware of it. Consider, for example, the charming “just so” stories in French biologist and YouTuber Léo Grasset’s book of short essays, How the Zebra Got its Stripes. Now and again Grasset finds order and 44 | NewScientist | 15 October 2016
coherence in the natural world. His cost-benefit analysis of how animal communities make decisions, contrasting “autocracy” and “democracy”, is a fine example of lawfulness in action. But Grasset is also sharply aware of those points where the cause-and-effect logic of scientific description cannot show the whole picture. There are, for instance, four really good ways of explaining how the zebra got its stripes, and those stripes arose probably for all those reasons, along with a couple of dozen others whose mechanisms are lost to evolutionary history. And Grasset has even more fun describing the occasions when, frankly, nature goes nuts. Take the female hyena, for example, which has to give birth through a “pseudo-penis”. As a result, 15 per cent of mothers die after their first labour and 60 per cent of cubs die at birth. If this were a “just so” story, it would be a decidedly off-colour one. The tussle between observation and abstraction in biology has a fascinating, fraught and sometimes violent history. In Europe at the birth of the 20th century, biology was still a descriptive science. Life presented, German molecular biologist Gunther Stent observed, “a near infinitude of particulars which have to be sorted out case by case”. Purely descriptive approaches had exhausted their usefulness and new, experimental approaches were developed: genetics, cytology, protozoology, hydrobiology, endocrinology, Is a single explanation enough to account for the zebra’s stripes?
next generation the ability “to sculpt organic forms at will”, Vavilov asserted (quoting historian David Joravsky) that “biological synthesis is becoming as much a reality as chemical”. The consequences of this kind of boosterism are laid bare in Lysenko’s Ghost by the veteran historian of Soviet science Loren Graham. He reminds us what happened when the tentatively defined scientific “laws” of plant physiology were wielded as policy instruments by a desperate and resource-strapped government. Within the Soviet Union, dogmatic views on agrobiology led to disastrous agricultural reforms, and no amount of modern, politically motivated
experimental embryology – even animal psychology. And with the elucidation of underlying biological process came the illusion of control. In 1917, even as Vladimir Lenin was preparing to seize power in Russia, the botanist Nikolai Vavilov was lecturing to his class at the Saratov Agricultural Institute, outlining the task before them as “the planned and rational utilisation of the plant resources “If there is a lawfulness to living things, few of the terrestrial globe”. plants and animals Predicting that the young science of genetics would give the seem to be aware of it”
age fotostock/Alamy Stock Photo
For more books and arts coverage, visit newscientist.com/culture
vito elefante/Getty
revisionism (the especial target of Ecological rules regulating a given place can help conservation efforts Graham’s book) can make those efforts seem more rational, or their aftermath less catastrophic. there are ecological rules In modern times, thankfully, a that regulate the numbers and naive belief in nature’s lawfulness, kinds of animals and plants in a reflected in lazy and increasingly given place”. outmoded expressions such as For example, in Gorongosa “the balance of nature”, is giving National Park, Mozambique, in way to a more nuanced, self2000, there were fewer than 1000 aware, even tragic view of the elephants, hippos, wildebeest, living world. The Serengeti Rules, waterbuck, zebras, eland, buffalo, Sean B. Carroll’s otherwise hartebeest and sable antelopes triumphant account of how combined. Today, with the physiology and ecology turned reintroduction of key predators, out to share some of the same there are almost 40,000 animals, mathematics, does not shy away including 535 elephants and from the fact that the “rules” 436 hippos. And several of the he talks about are really just populations are increasing by arguments from analogy. more than 20 per cent a year. Some notable conservation But Carroll is understandably triumphs have led from the flummoxed when it comes to discovery that “just as there are explaining how those rules might molecular rules that regulate the apply to us. “How can we possibly numbers of different kinds of hope that 7 billion people, in more molecules and cells in the body, than 190 countries, rich and poor,
with so many different political His hands are tied: he is trapped and religious beliefs, might begin in “the grid of literary forms and to act in ways for the long-term conventions that came to shape good of everyone?” he asks. How the narrative imagination in indeed: humans’ capacity for precisely that period when the cultural transmission renders accumulation of carbon in the every Serengeti rule moot, along atmosphere was rewriting the with the Serengeti itself – and a destiny of the Earth”. “law of nature” that does not The exciting and frightening include its dominant species is thing about Ghosh’s argument is not really a law at all. how he traces the novel’s narrow Of course, it is not just the compass back to popular and sciences that have laws: the influential scientific ideas – ideas humanities and the arts do too. that championed uniform and In The Great Derangement, a book that began as four lectures “In the literary imagination climate change was presented at the University of somehow akin to aliens Chicago last year, the novelist or interplanetary travel” Amitav Ghosh considers the laws of his own practice. The vast majority of novels, he explains, gradual processes over cataclysms are realistic. In other words, the and catastrophes. novel arose to reflect the kind of One big complaint about regularised life that gave you science – that it kills wonder – is time to read novels – a regularity the same criticism Ghosh levels achieved through the availability at the novel: that it bequeaths us of reliable, cheap energy: first, “a world of few surprises, fewer coal and steam, and later, oil. adventures, and no miracles at No wonder, then, that “in the all”. Lawfulness in biology is literary imagination climate rather like realism in fiction: change was somehow akin to it is a convention so useful that extraterrestrials or interplanetary we forget that it is a convention. travel”. Ghosh is keenly aware of But, if anthropogenic climate and impressively well informed change and the gathering sixth about climate change: in 1978, mass extinction event have he was nearly killed in an taught us anything, it is that unprecedentedly ferocious the world is wilder than the laws tornado that ripped through we are used to would predict. northern Delhi, leaving 30 dead Indeed, if the world really were and 700 injured. Yet he has in a novel – or even in a book of never been able to work this popular science – no one would story into his “realist” fiction. believe it. n 15 October 2016 | NewScientist | 45
Natural laws, or not The world is wilder than our rules would predict, finds Simon Ings
How the Zebra Got its Stripes and Other Darwinian Just So Stories by Léo Grasset, Profile Books, £9.99; The Serengeti Rules: The quest to discover how life works and why it matters by Sean B. Carroll, Princeton University Press, $24.95/£18.95; Lysenko’s Ghost: Epigenetics and Russia by Loren Graham, Harvard University Press, $24.95/£19.95; The Great Derangement: Climate change and the unthinkable by Amitav Ghosh, University of Chicago Press, $22
JUST how much does the world follow laws? The human mind, it seems, may not be the ideal toolkit with which to craft an answer. To understand the world at all, we have to predict likely events and so we have a lot invested in spotting rules, even when they are not really there. Such demands have also shaped more specialised parts of culture. The history of the sciences is one of constant struggle between the accumulation of observations and their abstraction into natural laws. The temptation (especially for physicists) is to assume these laws are real: a bedrock underpinning the messy, observable world. Life scientists, on the other hand, can afford no such assumption. Their field is constantly on the move, a plaything of time and historical contingency. If there is a lawfulness to living things, few plants and animals seem to be aware of it. Consider, for example, the charming “just so” stories in French biologist and YouTuber Léo Grasset’s book of short essays, How the Zebra Got its Stripes. Now and again Grasset finds order and 44 | NewScientist | 15 October 2016
coherence in the natural world. His cost-benefit analysis of how animal communities make decisions, contrasting “autocracy” and “democracy”, is a fine example of lawfulness in action. But Grasset is also sharply aware of those points where the cause-and-effect logic of scientific description cannot show the whole picture. There are, for instance, four really good ways of explaining how the zebra got its stripes, and those stripes arose probably for all those reasons, along with a couple of dozen others whose mechanisms are lost to evolutionary history. And Grasset has even more fun describing the occasions when, frankly, nature goes nuts. Take the female hyena, for example, which has to give birth through a “pseudo-penis”. As a result, 15 per cent of mothers die after their first labour and 60 per cent of cubs die at birth. If this were a “just so” story, it would be a decidedly off-colour one. The tussle between observation and abstraction in biology has a fascinating, fraught and sometimes violent history. In Europe at the birth of the 20th century, biology was still a descriptive science. Life presented, German molecular biologist Gunther Stent observed, “a near infinitude of particulars which have to be sorted out case by case”. Purely descriptive approaches had exhausted their usefulness and new, experimental approaches were developed: genetics, cytology, protozoology, hydrobiology, endocrinology, Is a single explanation enough to account for the zebra’s stripes?
next generation the ability “to sculpt organic forms at will”, Vavilov asserted (quoting historian David Joravsky) that “biological synthesis is becoming as much a reality as chemical”. The consequences of this kind of boosterism are laid bare in Lysenko’s Ghost by the veteran historian of Soviet science Loren Graham. He reminds us what happened when the tentatively defined scientific “laws” of plant physiology were wielded as policy instruments by a desperate and resource-strapped government. Within the Soviet Union, dogmatic views on agrobiology led to disastrous agricultural reforms, and no amount of modern, politically motivated
experimental embryology – even animal psychology. And with the elucidation of underlying biological process came the illusion of control. In 1917, even as Vladimir Lenin was preparing to seize power in Russia, the botanist Nikolai Vavilov was lecturing to his class at the Saratov Agricultural Institute, outlining the task before them as “the planned and rational utilisation of the plant resources “If there is a lawfulness to living things, few of the terrestrial globe”. plants and animals Predicting that the young science of genetics would give the seem to be aware of it”
age fotostock/Alamy Stock Photo
For more books and arts coverage, visit newscientist.com/culture
vito elefante/Getty
revisionism (the especial target of Ecological rules regulating a given place can help conservation efforts Graham’s book) can make those efforts seem more rational, or their aftermath less catastrophic. there are ecological rules In modern times, thankfully, a that regulate the numbers and naive belief in nature’s lawfulness, kinds of animals and plants in a reflected in lazy and increasingly given place”. outmoded expressions such as For example, in Gorongosa “the balance of nature”, is giving National Park, Mozambique, in way to a more nuanced, self2000, there were fewer than 1000 aware, even tragic view of the elephants, hippos, wildebeest, living world. The Serengeti Rules, waterbuck, zebras, eland, buffalo, Sean B. Carroll’s otherwise hartebeest and sable antelopes triumphant account of how combined. Today, with the physiology and ecology turned reintroduction of key predators, out to share some of the same there are almost 40,000 animals, mathematics, does not shy away including 535 elephants and from the fact that the “rules” 436 hippos. And several of the he talks about are really just populations are increasing by arguments from analogy. more than 20 per cent a year. Some notable conservation But Carroll is understandably triumphs have led from the flummoxed when it comes to discovery that “just as there are explaining how those rules might molecular rules that regulate the apply to us. “How can we possibly numbers of different kinds of hope that 7 billion people, in more molecules and cells in the body, than 190 countries, rich and poor,
with so many different political His hands are tied: he is trapped and religious beliefs, might begin in “the grid of literary forms and to act in ways for the long-term conventions that came to shape good of everyone?” he asks. How the narrative imagination in indeed: humans’ capacity for precisely that period when the cultural transmission renders accumulation of carbon in the every Serengeti rule moot, along atmosphere was rewriting the with the Serengeti itself – and a destiny of the Earth”. “law of nature” that does not The exciting and frightening include its dominant species is thing about Ghosh’s argument is not really a law at all. how he traces the novel’s narrow Of course, it is not just the compass back to popular and sciences that have laws: the influential scientific ideas – ideas humanities and the arts do too. that championed uniform and In The Great Derangement, a book that began as four lectures “In the literary imagination climate change was presented at the University of somehow akin to aliens Chicago last year, the novelist or interplanetary travel” Amitav Ghosh considers the laws of his own practice. The vast majority of novels, he explains, gradual processes over cataclysms are realistic. In other words, the and catastrophes. novel arose to reflect the kind of One big complaint about regularised life that gave you science – that it kills wonder – is time to read novels – a regularity the same criticism Ghosh levels achieved through the availability at the novel: that it bequeaths us of reliable, cheap energy: first, “a world of few surprises, fewer coal and steam, and later, oil. adventures, and no miracles at No wonder, then, that “in the all”. Lawfulness in biology is literary imagination climate rather like realism in fiction: change was somehow akin to it is a convention so useful that extraterrestrials or interplanetary we forget that it is a convention. travel”. Ghosh is keenly aware of But, if anthropogenic climate and impressively well informed change and the gathering sixth about climate change: in 1978, mass extinction event have he was nearly killed in an taught us anything, it is that unprecedentedly ferocious the world is wilder than the laws tornado that ripped through we are used to would predict. northern Delhi, leaving 30 dead Indeed, if the world really were and 700 injured. Yet he has in a novel – or even in a book of never been able to work this popular science – no one would story into his “realist” fiction. believe it. n 15 October 2016 | NewScientist | 45