Nature's infinite books of secrecy

ARTICLE IN PRESS Ultramicroscopy 109 (2009) 1393–1410

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Nature’s infinite books of secrecy Peter Hawkes CEMES-CNRS, B.P. 94347, F-31055 Toulouse cedex, France

a r t i c l e in fo Article history: Received 21 May 2009 Accepted 10 June 2009 Keywords: Books Proceedings

1. Electron optics In Nature’s infinite book of secrecy A little I can read Antony and Cleopatra

In the language of wine-lovers, the winter of 2008–2009 is an exceptionally fine cru: a monograph by H. Rose, a new edition of the late L. Reimer’s Transmission Electron Microscopy revised by H. Kohl, a substantially revised second edition of J. Orloff’s Handbook of Charged Particle Optics, with two new chapters, and a volume of Advances in Imaging & Electron Physics on aberrationcorrected electron microscopy; a collection of articles on the same subject will have been published in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London by the time you read this (see [40]). H. Rose has been publishing articles on aspects of electron optics since the 1960s and has at last placed his many contributions in context in his Geometrical Charged-particle Optics [1], a substantial work more than 400 pages long. As well as presenting the usual introductory material, it contains much that has not yet been included in monographs on the subject. It must also be said that there are several aspects of electron optics that are not included. In particular, there is nothing on numerical methods of calculating fields and potentials, nothing about raytracing and the calculation of aberration coefficients by polynomial matching to exact calculations, nothing about differential algebra. A short introduction brings us to ‘General properties of the electron’, with sections on the particle nature of the electron, wave properties and ray properties associated with the eikonal. ‘Wave properties’ may not, strictly speaking, be part of E-mail address: [email protected] 0304-3991/$ - see front matter & 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ultramic.2009.06.006

geometrical optics but here they are a convenient label for the eikonal and Fermat’s Principle. Chapter 3 gives ‘Multipole expansions of the stationary electromagnetic field’, a necessary preliminary to all the rest of the book, and is followed by ‘Gaussian optics’. Here, in addition to the usual cases, we find the equations of motion and their paraxial approximations for systems with a straight optic axis but no simplifying symmetry. There is also a section on ‘Highly symmetric telescopic systems’, in which the optics of the quadrupole arrangement used in Rose’s ultracorrector is explained. This is followed by ‘General principles of particle motion’, with sections on such subjects as the Lagrange and Poincare invariants, Liouville’s theorem and the relations between the various eikonals, after which a short chapter on ‘Beam properties’ gives a brief account of brightness and a useful, succinct discussion of emittance. Chapter 7, ‘Path deviations’, lays the groundwork for the subsequent chapter on ‘Aberrations’ and distinguishes Rose’s book from other texts on electron optics; it forms a clear and self-contained account of the formalism first developed some 30 years ago and this uniform presentation is a distinctly original feature of the book. In the chapter on aberrations, this formalism is used to derive the aberration integrals for several situations, including of course a long section on round lenses. The attention of aberration freaks will be caught by Rose’s observation that his relativistic form of the sum-ofsquares expression for the spherical aberration integrand does not collapse to Scherzer’s expression in the non-relativistic approximation. Both are correct, however, for, to my astonishment at least, there are two forms of the sum-of-squares integrand in the non-relativistic approximation. Perhaps there are others still waiting to be found. The last sub-section of this chapter, ‘Parasitic aberrations’, is included in the section on quadrupoles but is in fact a general discussion of such aberrations, not limited to any particular type of lens. Rose divides the parasitic aberrations into ‘coherent’ and ‘incoherent’ classes; the former are the result of

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static imperfections, such as constructional imperfections, while the latter change with time and are caused by misalignment, for example. Third-order aberrations of systems with a straight optic axis and second-order aberrations of those with a curved axis are considered – for a study of higher-order parasitic aberrations, the reader must turn to publications on aberration correctors, notably those by Krivanek, Haider and their colleagues. Chapter 9, correction of aberrations, will certainly be the most read. Unconventionally, Rose begins with chromatic correction. Among the various approaches, he presents an early suggestion of Scherzer’s in more detail than is usual but concedes that it is more likely to be useful for ions than for electrons. An important section examines chromatic correction in curved-axis systems. The second part of the chapter is concerned with geometrical aberrations and is by no means limited to spherical aberration. Very properly, Rose concentrates on the role of symmetry in aberration correction, especially in the case of filters and analysers. Correction of Cs is of course treated at length, with long sections on sextupole configurations and on quadrupoleoctopole correctors, inevitable when both Cs and Cc are to be corrected. This chapter is essential reading for users of Cs-corrected microscopes to understand what is going on, even if they choose to skip the fine details of the correction process. Chapter 10 is devoted to a subject that is rarely treated adequately in texts on electron optics, namely ‘Electron mirrors’. Rose explains how the difficulties of studying the optics of electron mirrors caused by the failure of the paraxial conditions in the zone of reflection can be avoided by an ingenious choice of the coordinates used. It is, however, surprising that he does not cite here the voluminous work of the Russian school on this subject, available in review articles, though he did acknowledge some of it in an earlier paper on mirror optics. The next chapter, ‘Optics of electron guns’ again covers a subject that fits somewhat uncomfortably into the traditional scheme of electron optics. Chapter 12, which occupies barely three pages, gives some idea of the problems of confining charged particles, in ion traps in particular. It is followed by a much more substantial one on ‘Monochromators and imaging energy filters’ a subject on which Rose has already published extensively, with a very full analysis of the mandoline filter and the W-filter. The book concludes with an account of Rose’s thinking on ‘Relativistic electron motion and spin precession’. ‘‘It is widely believed that the effect of the spin on electron motion cannot be accurately described within the frame of validity of geometrical charged-particle optics. However, there is no convincing reason that prevents one from incorporating the spin into the formalism of relativistic mechanics if an appropriate interaction Hamiltonian is found. To achieve a proper calculation procedure, it is advantageous to describe the relativistic motion and the spin precession of the electron in Minkowski space. By using x4 ¼ ict as the fourth spatial coordinate of the fourdimensional Euclidian space, we avoid difficulties in constructing relativistic covariant Lagrangians and Hamiltonians. We describe the motion of the electron by considering its four coordinates xm(t) as functions of the independent Lorentz-invariant variable t, which we conceive as the world time or universal time. This time increases monotonically, whereas the timelike position coordinate x4 ¼ ict needs not, contrary to classical mechanics. The fourdimensional Minkowski space is composed of the three-dimensional space with coordinates xl ¼ x, x2 ¼ y, x3 ¼ z and the imaginary timelike coordinate x4. The imaginary character of this coordinate is ultimately connected with certain properties of the time as experienced by meny . The difference between space and time encountered in our perception of the universe gives rise to several questions. Since the time-like coordinate x4 is imaginary in Minkowski space, we may ask (a) is time real and (b) what is time? Our senses, specialized for interacting with the

environment, are not suited for conceiving the time because we cannot see it or feel it. We subdivide the time according to our subjective experience into past, presence, and future. However, past and future are nonexistent. Although we can memorize events which have occurred in the past, we do not have access to the past and/or the future. Moreover, we neither know how long the presence is nor can go backward in timey . We consider the electron as a spinning particle in Minkowski space and assume that it has an intrinsic time-like rotation and an intrinsic spacelike rotation which is the spin. Moreover, we suppose that the intrinsic time-like angular rotation defines the charge. Hence, if the particle reverses its direction of rotation perpendicular to the time-like two-dimensional hypersurface in Minkowski space, it converts to its antiparticle in the three-dimensional laboratory system. An electron flipping its rotation in Minkowski space represents a positron in the laboratory frame. Reversal of the time-like angular momentum component requires an energy transfer of 2_oC ¼ 2mec2, which is emitted as a photon in the case of electron–positron annihilation. This process compensates for the time-like rotations (charges) and it adds up the space-like rotations (spins). Accordingly, the quantum number for the angular momentum of the photons must be 1 and their charge must be 0. These considerations differ from those of Feynman, who considered the positron as an electron flying backward in time. Within the frame of our model, particles flying backward in time represent dark-matter particles’’. The Handbook of Charged Particle Optics, edited by J. Orloff, first appeared in 1997, just too soon for successful aberration correction to be included. Some of the chapters have aged more than others but all have been revised and updated for the second edition [2], by their authors wherever possible, except for one that has vanished altogether. Two new chapters have been added so that much new work on gas field-ionization sources is now present as are the new commercial aberration-corrected microscopes. The Handbook now begins with the ‘Review of ZrO/W Schottky cathode’ by L.W. Swanson and G.A. Schwind, not very different from the earlier version but a few extra references have been added, only three of which are post-1997. A note to the printer has survived at the end of reference 47, ‘‘new old 38’’, which is unfortunate in that the author’s name and the page number are still wrong, as they were in the first edition. The next two chapters are on ion sources. First, LMIS by the late Graeme Mair, updated by R.G. Forbes, then Forbes’s own chapter on ‘Gas field ionization sources’, a masterly account as we should expect from this author. Then come the chapters on ‘Magnetic lenses for electron microscopy’ (K. Tsuno) and ‘Electrostatic lenses’ (B. Lencova ), both of which have been substantially updated and are beautifully illustrated. In the chapter on magnetic lenses, the opportunity of giving a full list of the new literature of these lenses has not been taken, which is a pity as this was the perfect home for such a compilation. The electrostatic lens chapter is the best account available of these lenses, as was the earlier version. It includes sections on the basic optics, on each of the many families of such lenses and provides detailed studies of several special cases (the electrostatic TEM, LVTEM, LEEM and PEEM, compound and retarding lenses for SEM, ion microscopy and lithography and ‘other applications’). A section is devoted to such practical design problems as insulation and breakdown, alignment accuracy, contamination and shielding, all vital for successful designs and rarely considered in electron optical texts. Many years ago, when Magnetic Electron Lenses was received very kindly by the reviewers, I contemplated a companion volume on electrostatic electron lenses; there would be no excuse for editing such a collection today, for this chapter by B. Lencova could hardly be bettered. Modesty forbids me to do more than mention the next

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chapter, ‘Aberrations’ (now more than twice the length of the earlier version). It is followed by ‘Space charge and statistical Coulomb effects’ by P. Kruit and G.H. Jansen and ‘resolution’ by M. Sato. The latter has required considerable rethinking, for ‘‘another type of problem has arisen as the probe size of electron and ion scanning microscopes approaches atomic dimensions: the interaction of the charged particles with the atomic structure of the specimen needs to be taken into account. The information obtained from a sample when it interacts with the focused beam depends on more than just the size of the beam. It depends critically on the interaction between the beam and the atoms in the sample and the way the atoms in the sample are arranged among themselves. Also, the information in an image depends not only on the fineness of the detail in it, but also on the contrast, and both are limited by the noise in the image. Thus it is necessary to rethink what resolution means in terms of the beam, the noise, and the structure of the sample – a problem faced earlier in transmission electron microscopyy . It appears the way things are evolving in scanning microscopy is similar to what happened in transmission microscopy. To characterize an image – to be able to state with some confidence what the true distribution of atoms in it really is, which is what I think a practical definition of resolution really involves – it will probably be necessary to make a best estimate of what this distribution is using an appropriate physical model and to convolve that with the known PSF of the instrument (including the source), to predict what the image should look like. Then the difference between the predicted and the measured image will be used to refine the model of the target until some convergence between measurement and prediction is achieved. One hopes that the final result corresponds to reality. This must be done in the presence of noise and instrumental/ environmental defects such as vibration, acoustical and electromagnetic noise, drift, human error, and so on. In going through this exercise it will be necessary to pay close attention to how the signal is generated in the sample (whether secondary electrons, e.g., are generated far from the impact point of the focused beam due to scattering and how to take these into account; how an ion beam changes the sample structure). It will be fraught with difficulties and there needs to be a well-defined way of doing all these so that different observers can agree that they are seeing, or doing, the same thing. Parenthetically, there is also the issue – if it still has meaning – of the relationship between the electron or ion beam probe size and the resolution that will be seen in an image at the nanometer or subnanometer level (it is the opinion of this writer that such a relationship is rather tenuous). There are a number of ways of defining beam size such as the diameter of a beam containing 50% of the beam current, the rise-distance of a beam swept over a knife-edge (a dicey proposition when the beam is of atomic size, although the number can be calculated if not measured), the method based on the information passing capacity (IPC) of an optical system, which is described in the following chapter, the contrast-to-gradient method, and the derivative method. This is of interest because beam size is a number used to compare different instruments’’. The last four chapters deal with instruments, quite a challenge as each of them has been the subject of monographs or at least of lengthy essays. The first, by A.E. Vlada r and M.T. Postek of NIST, describes the scanning electron microscope in about 60 pages. They give a clear introduction to the main features of the instrument and its modes of operation, including a few pages on variable-vacuum SEM, on helium-ion microscopy and on extrahigh-resolution SEM. This is a reasonable jumping-off place for further exploration of the SEM. In the first edition, the chapter on the STEM was written by A.V. Crewe and this has been updated by P.D. Nellist, who tells us just what he has done: ‘‘For this new

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edition of the Handbook of Charged Particle Optics I was delighted to be asked to update Albert Crewe’s original chapter on STEM, but it was also a project I approached with some trepidation. Albert Crewe is rightly acknowledged as the father of the modern STEM, and his original chapter elegantly described the particle-beam physics involved in its operation, the vast majority of which is still highly relevant to modern STEM instruments. I therefore decided to take a light touch and only make modifications where the modern technology and applications of STEM had moved on from the original chapter. Throughout most of this chapter I have limited my modifications to the addition of new references and relating the cited new work to the points Professor Crewe was making in his text. In two sections, however, I have made greater modifications. I have reworked the original sections on ‘Electron Interactions in the Specimen’ and ‘Postspecimen Optics’ into a single section, now near the start of the chapter, entitled ‘Imaging and Spectroscopy in the STEM’, to enable the reader to understand how a modern STEM is typically used, before delving into the details of the beam physics in the rest of the chapter. I have also added a new section on the correction of spherical aberration, which may be regarded as the most important area of development since the original chapter. Indeed, the impact of spherical aberration correction on STEM is so great that I have also highlighted it at several other relevant places in the chapter. Like all those using modern STEM instruments I remain indebted to Professor Crewe, and if my modifications to his chapter seem presumptuous then I can only apologize’’. No apology is necessary, for between them, Crewe and Nellist have produced a very worthy survey. Chapter 12, ‘Focused ion beams’ by M. Utlaut, has of course required much revision – the introduction lists three books on the subject that have appeared since 2003, when High Resolution Focused Ion Beams by J. Orloff, M. Utlaut and L.W. Swanson appeared. This chapter brings together many of the new developments, though the list of companies that make FIB systems fails to include Raith. The last chapter, ‘Aberration correction in electron microscopes’ by O.L. Krivanek, N. Dellby and M.F. Murfitt is the other new one and is essential reading for users of aberration-corrected instruments and those who are attempting to persuade funding agencies to buy them one. It is nicely organized, with a long section on corrector optics after a brief description of the historical background, a few pages on diagnostics and technical details of the corrected column of the Nion STEM. Both quadrupole-octopole and sextupole correction are described in the earlier sections and great emphasis is placed on the higher order (or rank) aberrations, intrinsic and parasitic. This is a preeminently useful chapter, leaning towards quadrupole-octopole correctors for STEM but very relevant for the whole corrector world – to be read in conjunction with the corresponding chapter in Rose’s book [1] and with [5] and [40]. But where, you may be asking, is the chapter on ‘Computational techniques for design of charged particle optical systems’ by E. Munro that occupied the first 76 pages of the first edition? In its place, J. Orloff has ‘‘decided to provide only [an] appendix [‘Computational resources for electron microscopy’], which briefly outlines the nature of the problem. For further information the reader should probably begin with the first edition of this book’’. This appendix gives some pointers to electron optical software (note that the SPOC website is now www.lencova.com, no longer .cz) and to books and conference proceedings. In case you have not met it, the Proceedings of CPO-7 are available free from ScienceDirect (Elsevier) in No. 1 of Vol. 1 of Physics Procedia, my next item. As far as I know, printed copies were supplied only to participants. The venue of the seventh international conference on chargedparticle optics, the first of which was held in Gießen in 1980, was

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Trinity College Cambridge, which can name Newton, Maxwell, Rayleigh and G.H. Hardy among past members, and above all, for electron microscopists, J.J. Thomson. But the Trinity website boasts only of its ‘‘princes, spies, poets and prime-ministers’’, with Newton et al. as mere runners-up. I have nothing against the poets but I would set Newton, Maxwell, Rayleigh, Hardy and Thomson well above the ‘‘princes, spies and prime-ministers’’! The Proceedings of CPO-7 [3] fill 572 pages of Physics Procedia with papers from the different communities regularly present at these meetings: electron optics, accelerator optics, mass spectrometer optics, with electron optics in the majority. The collection opens with a paper generated by ‘The fiftieth anniversary of the first applications of the scanning electron microscope in materials research’ by three former members of the late Sir Charles Oatley’s group in the Cambridge University Engineering Department, K.C.A. Smith, O.C. Wells and D. McMullan. They reproduce several early micrographs, three of which date from 1956 and hence justify choosing 2006 as the 50th anniversary. It is a nice coincidence that one of these shows an intact fibre from spruce, the same tree (though maybe not the same variety) as that studied by Ruel et al. [48] with one of the first Siemens STEMs. The 66 papers that follow cover electron guns, lenses, new sources such as the ALIS helium-ion source and multi-beam sources, Coulomb interactions, mirrors, monochromators, fieldemission displays, time-of-flight devices, PEEMs and LEEMs. There ¨ are papers on aberration correctors by H. Muller et 3 al., N. Dellby et 2 al., L.A. Baranova et 2 al. and G. Mart´ınez and K. Tsuno. Numerous papers describe software for CPO, including long accounts of their program suites by B. Lencova and J. Zla mal, M. Nishiguchi and M. Toyoda, H. Liu et 3 al. and S. Babin et 3 al. Basic theory is not forgotten and clearly not exhausted, as a paper by O.A. Baisanov et 2 al. (among several others) demonstrates. Watch out for CPO-8, to be held in Singapore in July 2010 (www. cpo-8.org); its proceedings will return to Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physical Research Part A, where all the earlier proceedings were published. I have long considered the late Ludwig Reimer’s books on Transmission Electron Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy by far the best texts available at their level, excellent though some of the rival books may be. Inevitably, the latest editions of both were drifting out of date and it is very good news that a fifth edition of Transmission Electron Microscopy has now appeared, updated by H. Kohl [4]. It cannot have been an easy task: the fourth edition appeared in 1997 and the subsequent years, though dominated by aberration correction and the ensuing need to rethink image formation, have also witnessed real progress and change in many other aspects of TEM. The difficulty is compounded by the fact that, although Reimer concentrated on the TEM, STEM and electron holography were also included and these too have been profoundly affected by aberration correction and seen many other changes. For this fifth edition, H. Kohl has not made any revolutionary changes. Everywhere, the material has been updated and new references added. However, the aberration correctors and monochromators are not explained in detail, perhaps because the subject was in a phase of rapid evolution when Kohl was working on his revisions. If a sixth edition follows in a few years, no doubt the changes will be much more sweeping and the account of the optics of these elements and the consequences for image formation will be fully covered. It is urgent to tell readers of this excellent monograph about electron interference, new holographic techniques, ptychography, 3-D reconstruction in materials science, confocal STEM – and no doubt new topics that will appear while H. Kohl is busy on the next edition. In his preface, he tells us that when he was asked to prepare a new edition of the book, he ‘‘agreed without hesitation as it had served me as a reference for more than 20 years’’. There

is every reason to expect that this new edition and its successors will serve for another 20. I do not think it right to devote much space here to the Advances in Imaging & Electron Physics (of which I am editor) but volumes 153 and 155 are exceptions. Volume 153 is a thematic volume on aberration-corrected electron microscopy with contributions from virtually all the players in this particular game [5]. The first of the three parts covers the history of aberration correction. H. Rose recounts much of the history from first-hand knowledge for he learned his electron optics from Otto Scherzer himself and is able to tell us something about Scherzer’s early years at AEG in Berlin as well as all the later work in Darmstadt. He also describes his own contributions to quadrupole-octopole and sextupole studies, setting these in the context of efforts elsewhere. He devotes little or no space to types of aberration correction that came to nothing, but this is compensated by the insider’s account of the Darmstadt project. Part 2 consists of two chapters on aberration-corrector design from CEOS and Nion, the two companies that manufacture correctors. The first, by M. Haider et 2 al., describes ‘Present and future hexapole correctors for high-resolution electron microscopy’; the second, by O.L. Krivanek et 5 al., presents ‘Advances in aberrationcorrected scanning transmission electron microcopy and electron energy-loss spectroscopy’. These fill some 120 pages and are essential reading for the aberration-conscious public. The third Part, ‘Results obtained with aberration-corrected instruments’, consists of nine contributions from laboratories equipped with such microscopes: P.E. Batson (IBM), A.L. Bleloch (SuperSTEM), F. Houdellier et 3 al. (CEMES, Toulouse), A.I. Kirkland et 3 al. (Oxford University Department of Materials), S.J. Pennycook et 8 al. (Oak Ridge National Laboratory), N. Tanaka (Japanese studies), ¨ K. Urban et 6 al. (Julich) and Y. Zhu and J. Wall (Brookhaven National Laboratory). There is also a forward-looking chapter by B. Kabius and H. Rose on ‘Novel aberration corrector concepts’. Volume 155 of the same series of Advances is in fact a monograph on Selected Problems of Computational Charged Particle Optics by D. Greenfield and M. Monastyrskiy (who are also present in [3]). The topics covered are the Integral equations method in electrostatics, Surface charge singularities near irregular surface points, Geometry perturbations, Some aspects of magnetic field simulation, Aberration approach and the tau-variation technique, Space charge in charged particle bunches, General properties of emission-imaging systems, Static and time-analyzing image tubes with axial symmetry and Spatial and temporal focusing of photoelectron bunches in time-dependent electric fields [6].

2. Regional microscopy congresses I was brought up in a part of the country so remote that it lies beyond the end of the Great East Road. What an uncouth creature I must have been in those days! Yet even shut away in the provinces I somehow came to hear that the world contained things known as Tales, and from that moment my greatest desire was to read them for myself. To idle away the time, my sister, my stepmother, and others of the household would tell me stories from the Talesy but, since they had to depend on their memories, they could not possibly tell me all I wanted to know and their stories only made me more curious than ever. In my impatience I got a statue of the Healing Buddha built in my own size. When no one was watching, I would perform my ablutions and, stealing into the altar room, would prostrate myself and pray fervently, ‘Oh, please arrange things so that we may soon go to the Capital, where there are so many Tales, and please let me read them all’ Lady Sarashina, As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams

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Two of the three regional meetings are held every 4 years, midway between the international congresses, while the CIASEM congresses are held biennially in odd years. In 2008, therefore, microscopists flocked to Aachen for the 14th European Microscopy Congress (the former EUREM) and to Jeju in Korea for the ninth Asia-Pacific Microscopy Congress (which used to be APEM). The Proceedings of the latter are available only as a CD-ROM, which is very sad as we are repeatedly told that these have a relatively short lifetime. Unless a few archival libraries revive copies of these at regular intervals, no trace will survive for those interested in the past of our subject. The same is true of the CIASEM congress [9] and as both are apparently to be cited as journal publications (in the Korean Journal of Microscopy and Acta Microscopica), it is a shame that these are mere electronic phantoms. Conversely, the activities of EMC-14 are recorded as three substantial books [7], as in the past, and this remains EMS policy. Volume 1, Instrumentation and Methods, is a very rich mine of electron optics, beginning with papers on ‘Aberrationcorrected STEM and EELS’ by A.L. Bleloch et 5 al., the TEAM project by U. Dahmen et 9 al., ‘Synchrotron-based X-ray microscopy’ by J. Susini at ESRF in Grenoble and ‘High-resolution spectromicroscopy with low-voltage electrons and double aberration correction’ by T. Schmidt et 3 al. (SMART, BESSY II). The next section, ‘TEM and STEM instrumentation and electron optics’, attracted so many papers that it has had to be subdivided into ‘Aberration correctors’, ‘Filters, spectrometers, monochromators and sources’ and ‘Phase plates and detectors’. Ultramicroscopists will want to read almost everything here and this evidence of an electron optical renaissance fills the first 92 pages of the book and continues into ‘TEM and STEM methods’, which takes us to p. 514. This includes many applications papers but also many fundamental studies, such as S. van Aert et 6 al. on ‘The benefits of statistical parameter estimation theory for quantitative interpretation of electron microscopy data’, C. Dwyer and J. Etheridge on ‘Spatial coherence and the quantitative interpretation of atomic resolution images’, J.M. Le Beau et 3 al. on a ‘New approach to quantitative ADF STEM’, Z. Saghi et 2 al. on ‘Three-dimensional HREM structure retrieval’ or A. Thust on ‘The Stobbs factor in HRTEM: hunt for a phantom?’ A long sub-section on ‘Quantitative diffraction and crystallography’ is followed by 25 papers on electron holography, which has at long last taken off. My attention was caught by the paper by D. Geiger et 6 al. on ‘Electron holography with Cs-corrected Tecnai F20 – elimination of the incoherent damping introduced by the biprism in conventional electron microscopes’, in which ‘‘an additional, previously not recognized, incoherent aberration effect of the biprism has been analysed’’. R.A. Herring describes ‘Energy-filtered DBI/H’, which turns out to mean Diffracted Beam Interferometry/Holography – not decibel isotropic, database interface or diazepam binding inhibitor, the possibilities offered by the Wiki disambiguator. C.T. Koch et 2 al., in ‘Nonlinear electron inline holography’, ‘‘report on first experimental results obtained with a flux-preserving inline holography reconstruction algorithm which allows the reconstruction of a focal series recorded over a large focal range’’. Long sections on Tomography (now well-established in materials science), EELS/EFTEM and In-situ TEM and dynamic TEM bring us to the third part of this first volume, SEM/FIB Instrumentation and Methods. Then come Other Microscopies, Image Analysis and Processing and lastly, Sample Preparation for Materials Science and Biology. In Image Processing, I noticed ‘New considerations for exit wavefunction restoration under aberration-corrected conditions’ by S.L. Haigh et 4 al.: ‘‘yfor practical operation it is frequently the higher order non-radially symmetric parasitic aberrations that limit the interpretable resolution of an aberration-corrected microscope. A critical element of the corrector alignment is the accurate measurement of all the higher order

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aberration coefficients, typically up to fifth order spherical aberration. Although these high order aberrations cannot be removed during imaging, an accurate knowledge of their values allows their compensation during a posteriori restoration of the exit wavefunction’’. The two other volumes also contain a host of interesting contributions but I must treat them very briefly. Volume 2, Materials Science, with 838 pages of abstracts, is divided into five sections: Materials for information technology, Nanomaterials and catalysts, Structural and functional materials, Soft matter and polymers and Materials in mineralogy, geology and archaeology. Volume 3 is rather shorter (390 pages): Analysis of macromolecules and their supramolecular assemblies, Cell structure and dynamics, Microscopy advances in the life sciences, Sample preparation and identification of molecular targets and Hybrid methods and approaches in microscopy. The ninth Asia-Pacific Microscopy Conference provides further evidence of the resurgence of activity in electron optics. I shall have to be cruelly selective as the List of Contents alone fills 37 pages and the abstracts, 1322 [8]. After plenary lectures by W. Baumeister, A. Tonomura, N. Hirokawa, L.-m. Peng and D. Kum, we meet TEM and STEM Instrumentation. This includes a short abstract by K. Takayanagi on ‘Spherical-aberration corrected 50 pm electron microscopy’, in which the Cs-corrector has an asymmetric sextupole arrangement; its advantage is that it ‘‘suppresses the inevitable increment of the chromatic aberration more than the symmetric (Rose–Haider) one’’. Next, SEM Instrumentation, which includes not only instrumentation but some applications, notably ‘A comparison of the microstructure of a modified Tridacna squamosa marine shell and archaeological shell beads from Ille Cave, Palawau, Philippines by scanning electron microscopy’ by P. Basilia et 2 al. and ‘Ostracoda in seagrass bed at Pulau Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia’ by S. Idris et 3 al. P. Basilia introduced me to archaeomalachology and concludes that ‘‘SEM analysis of archaeological shell artefacts will contribute to the analysis of microstructural taphonomy’’; S. Idris found 903 specimens of ostracoda belonging to 31 species, 24 genera and 13 families but we are not told why seagrass attracts these creatures. To find out, you must turn to journals not often cited in Ultramicroscopy, such as Revista ˜ola de Micropaleontologia or Acta Micropalaeontologia Sinica. Espan H.-f. Chuang et 2 al. from Taiwan have designed a miniature SEM with magnetic lenses, only 25 cm long, which operates up to 15 kV. The two condensers use permanent magnets while the objective has a yoke and windings; for a working distance of 12 mm, Cs ¼ 8 cm. A most interesting paper by M. Nakamura et 2 al. demonstrates that wet STEM is possible. And I cannot let pass the delightful title of a paper by C. Jin et 2 al., ‘Plumbing carbon nanotubes’: ‘‘Since their discovery, the possibility of connecting carbon nanotubes together like water pipes has been an intriguing prospect’’ but there is as little lead in CNT plumbing as in modern domestic pipework. It comes as no surprise that S. Iijima is one of the co-authors. Bad news from A.G.M. Kamel et 4 al., who contribute to knowledge about Acanthamoeba keratitis, a sight-threatening infection that is on the increase in Malaysia. I had not realised how many sorts of cats roam South-East Asia. Among them are leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis), of which C. Salakij et 4 al. have made haemologic studies and found that ‘‘Most of cytochemical staining of blood cells in leopard cats were similar to those in domestic cat, fishing cat and flat-headed cat except basophils in leopard cats were negative for ANAE. This information will be useful for health managementy in these endangered cats’’. Let us hope that, like electron opticians, also considered endangered a few years ago, all these felines will again flourish.

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I must move on, reluctantly passing over the Black Tiger Shrimp, the Blue Swimming Crab, the many Malaysian Sea Cucumbers, some of which are ‘‘taxonomically unknown’’, Adzuki beans (‘‘Sensory evaluation was conducted by serving 10 g beans to 22 panellists (mean age 20.3 years old), and each panellist evaluated by biting one bean for each evaluation question (redness, aroma, brightness, softness and preference) according to a 5-level numerical scale’’), bamboo culms and the snap-shut mechanism of the Venus fly-trap but I cannot help halting at ‘‘Preservation of hair collected from full-term baby mummy of medieval Joseon dynasty, Korea’ by B.S Chang et 5 al.: ‘‘Because studies on infant or sub-adult mummies are very few, and since they have focused mainly on the palaeopathological aspects of these mummies, the preservation pattern of the hair of the fullterm baby mummy could contribute significantly to our knowledge of mummies from around the world’’. Let me also say just a few words about ‘Correlation between bacteria and fungi on judo mats’, for there must be many ultramicroscopists who don the kimono and suffer from ‘‘purulent diseases and bruises’’. M. Nara et 5 al. (mostly from a ‘Sport Science University’ in Yokohama, entry to which is no doubt governed by belt-colour) have shown that there are more fungi than bacteria on the tatami in the rainy season and vice versa, suggesting ‘‘competition between bacteria and fungi in nutritional intake from mats [and from martial artists] for growing and the action of an antibiotic-like substance produced by fungi’’. Towards the end of the Proceedings is a section of the highest interest: ‘New phase contrast methods for TEM and their applications’, containing nine abstracts. These are so directly relevant for ultramicroscopists that I list them all in abbreviated ¨ form: a review of in-focus phase contrast (R.R. Schroder et 4 al.), the Zernike electrostatic phase plate (F.R. Chen et 7 al.), drift-tube design for an electrostatic phase-contrast aperture (R.M. Glaeser et 6 al.), an Aharonov–Bohm effect design for Hilbert differential contrast (K. Nagayama et 5 al.), a Zernike phase plate for cryoelectron tomography (M. Marko et 2 al. and M. Yamaguchi et 5 al.), Hilbert differential contrast (Y. Kaneko et 2 al.), a HVEM equipped with a Zernike phase plate (H. Shigematsu et 4 al.) and measurements on rosette nanotubes by EFTEM and holography (M. Malac et 6 al). The CIASEM meeting in Cusco was also a large congress and the Proceedings CD is less easy to browse through than the AsiaPacific one as the Table of Contents is divided into numerous files, each of which has to be selected and if required, printed individually [9]. There are 15 ‘Conferences in Instrumentation’, all invited, mostly by speakers from outside South and Central ´ and L.S. Gomez ´ America, though H. Calderon are first authors of two of them. There are likewise 24 ‘Conferences in materials’. Further on are 29 oral presentations on materials and instrumentation but, as far as I could see, these were all applications, none seemed to be concerned with instrumentation unless we count the daguerrotype as an instrument. E.A. Gregory et 3 al. remind us that ‘‘daguerreotypes do not age well unless kept in strictly controlled environments, which most museums now do. The Smithsonian’s National Portrait Gallery, for example, has over 110 daguerreotypes in its collection. However, many of the images have suffered from exposure to the atmosphere and show varying amounts of discoloration and numerous blemishes. There have been a number of attempts to study the chemistry and morphology of the corrosion and tarnish and it seems that the most frequently encountered corrosion phase is silver sulfide. However, there has been no systematic study of the various phases and compounds that form on the daguerreotype surface during aging and how they affect the appearance of the image. Additionally, there has been little study, to date, of the feasibility of selectively removing the corrosion products to restore the

quality of the image. A number of restoration techniques have been proposed, including sputtering and electrolytic cleaning. However, each of these techniques involves the exposure of the entire daguerreotype to the cleaning action, leading in some cases to the degradation of the whole surface. The aim of this project is to systematically identify the various different corrosion products that exist on daguerreotypes, and to determine whether they maybe selectively removed by a high localized targeted technique. The two techniques readily availabley are focused gallium ion beams in the focused ion beam workstation (FIB) or by ultrafast laser ablation. The sample daguerreotype chosen for study is a portrait of a woman wearing a white bonnet dating from June 1863 (Fig. 1). To the left of the bonnet, near the top of the head, a clearly defined isolated corrosion region was identified (Fig. 2a). Analysis by X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy revealed that although some of this corrosion is the expected silver sulfide, a number of other phases were also detectedy . The XEDS spectrum of [one] particle contains a great deal of copper and oxygen, suggesting it is predominantly copper oxide. Full characterization of these phases continues in parallel with refinement of the FIB particle removal. Although the particle is easily removed by the gallium ions, the raw exposed surface of the daguerreotype is predominantly silver and it is missing the gold toning coating. This surface is highly reflective and the corrosion mark is initially more noticeable than before (Fig. 2b). As the silver oxidizes the bright spots become less noticeable, however they are still not quite the correct contrast. Refinement of the treatment continues and various material deposition protocols are being reviewed to determine which will produce the desired contrast.’’ I could not find any electron microscope instrumentation among the posters either, though there is instrumentation of other kinds. Thus L. Centeno et 3 al. have used SEM and EDAX to ‘‘determine the root cause of the failure that occurred in the shaft of a Coker Heater Charge Pump’’, used in the Venezuela Extra Heavy Oil Project. In the same section are reflections on ‘La otra ´ ´ resolucion’ by A. Garc´ıa- Borquez, who asks ‘‘Pero, +cua l es el ´ especial actual de los ME? +de que depende?’’ poder de resolucion As always, it is in the life sciences that local subjects are to be ´ found. A most unusual topic is ‘Composicion de la arcilla

Fig. 1. Daguerreotype of unknown female subject recorded June 1863.

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Fig. 2. Corrosion mark near bonnet before (a) and after (b) particle removal by FIB. Note enhanced contrast.

comestible del altiplano peruano’ by J. Quispe Marcatoma et 2 al. I guessed that arcilla is clay but checked in the dictionary to be sure, only to find that it means ‘squirrel’; this was clearly wrong as the consumption of arcilla is described as ‘‘geophagy’’ and a second check showed that I had confused ardilla (squirrel) with arcilla (clay)! This clay, Ch’aqo in Quechuan, is considered good for gastrointestinal problems and we are told which minerals and microfossils it contains. J. Arenas-Alatorre et 3 al. have used TEM and AFM to shed light on the bond between palygorskite clay and indigo in Maya Blue Pigment, and magnetic force microscopy reveals the ‘‘influence of the earth magnetic field during the elaboration period’’ of ‘‘red prehispanic painting from archaeological site of Mayapan, Yucata n’’. Roquefort is near enough to Toulouse for me to buy my blueveined cheese from the producer and many other cheeses made from unpasteurized milk of ‘‘free-range’’ cows are available here so I was all the more horrified to learn that ‘‘Recently, water-inoil-in-water (W1/o/W2) multiple emulsions have been proposed as being suitable for developing reduced-fat food products’’, notably ‘‘cheese-like products containing emulsified vegetable oils in substitution of saturated milk-fat’’ (O. Sandoval-Castilla et 4 al.). We are told a great deal about the composition of this ersatz cheese but nothing about its palatability – I strongly suspect that none of the four authors has ever tasted it. G. Andre s Torres R. et 2 al. have studied the kidneys of the bullfrog Rana catesbeiana, the biggest amphibian in ‘‘Norte Ame rica’’, where it is considered an aggressive predator, very harmful for the native fauna. In Colombia, it lives in such wet areas as the Laguna de Sonso, which is contaminated with heavy metals and the authors examine the effect of this exposure to such poisons on the bullfrogs. Microscopy and Microanalysis is not officially a regional congress but I cover it here as the number of papers is much the same as at the above congresses. The 2008 meeting was held in Albuquerque, together with the 42nd annual meeting of the Microbeam Analysis Society and the 41st annual meeting of the International Metallographic Society. As in the past, the vast majority of the papers are relegated to the CD-ROM, only 167 of the 1616 pages appearing in the printed book (together with lxvi pages of prelims and 16 pages of indexes) [10]. ‘Ultrafast electron microscopy and ultrafast science’ has a section of its own, with several papers on source design and on ‘Particle swarm optimization of iterative phase retrieval algorithms for untrafast coherent diffractive imaging’ by D. Masiel et 4 al. ‘Spectral image aberration correction using image transforms’ by R.M. Noek et 3 al. is mentioned here not only because it is interesting but also because ‘‘line-scan imaging systemsy [have] the potential for unique aberrationsy: image distortion such as keystone or pincushion and spectral curvature’’. What can ‘‘keystone distortion’’ be? For me, ‘‘keystone’’ evokes only Cops and roof-bosses in cathedrals

and elsewhere. An example is shown but it resembles neither of these. In ‘TEM accessories, instrumentation and automation’, ‘Four-dimensional STEM-EELS tomography of nano-strutures materials’ by K. Jorausch et 3 al. shows ‘‘how to extract many materials properties in three dimensions, including elemental, physical and chemical state information’’. D. Typke et 5 al. describe their ‘Boersch-type phase shifting device’ and it is in this section that aberration correctors are placed (Haider et 7 al.; S. Hidetaka et 9 al.). A. Hashimoto et 4 al. tell us about their confocal STEM, which has no aberration correctors, unlike the one described at length by E.C. Cosgriff et al. in Ultramicroscopy 108 (2008) 1558–1578. In ‘Transmission electron microscopy, techniques and applications’ are papers on holography and a discussion of ways of defining and estimating resolution by M.A. O’Keefe et 2 al.: ‘Young’s fringes are not evidence of HRTEM resolution’. A long section on ‘21st century scanning microscopy – electrons and ions’ contains several papers on helium-ion microscopes and discussion of low and ultra-low energy SEM (L. Roussel et 3 al; S. Takeuchi et 7 al.). The prize for best title goes to two life scientists, however: ‘Singing spiders: scanning electron microscopy examination of the sound-producing structures males [sic] jumping spiders use to woo females (Araneae: Salticidae)’ by C.B. Marks and D.O. Elias. The text is as readable as the title: ‘‘Animal song is something that we are all familiar with; who hasn’t heard a bird sing? And, many of us are also familiar with the songs crickets and cicadas use to communicate. But, singing spiders? The highly visually ornamented jumping spiders (Aranae: salticidae) are familiar to many, and for those who study animal behavior, the male jumping spider’s courting display is a well known example of the visual courtship in animals. The large anterior median eyes, sexual dimorphism, gaudy ornamentation, and conspicuous courtship make the visual modality so compelling, that for quite some time the audible, and additional substrate-borne portion of the display was overlooked. Recent work has revealed very distinct, synchronized airborne and substrate-borne vibrations that accompany the elaborate mating display of male jumping spiders of the species Habronattus dossenus. Further investigation into this phenomenon has shown these vibratory signals are associated with increased copulation rate, a decrease in pre-copulatory cannibalism, and are thus crucial for male mating success. In all spiders, jumping spiders (Salticidae) represent the most diverse family and Habronattus is the most species rich of all genera. One of the aspects that make Habronattus unique is the presence, in some groups, of complex species-specific vibratory songs. No work however, has been done documenting the diversity of sound producing structures, and the diversity of these structures. In this study we use Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to examine the diversity of accompanying structures that

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are used by male spiders to produce the sounds exhibited during courting behavior. Different species complexes have morphologically distinct structures used for both airborne and substrateborne sound production. Complex multi-component songs are associated with heterogeneous sound structures, while simpler songs are associated with homogeneous structures. Simply stated, the more complex the spider’s song is, the more complex the sound producing structures are. Diversity of songs and song producing structures are thus an important aspect that may lead to rapid diversification of species’’. One extra reference could have been included: by typing Habronattus dossenus into YouTube (or Google), you can see and hear the creature prancing and clicking though we are not told whether this particular frolicking male escaped ‘‘pre-copulatory cannibalism’’. Before moving on, I must make my annual complaint about the disappointingly tiny fraction of abstracts that appear in the printed book. The M&M Proceedings editor certainly has access to the EMS Proceedings [7], the first volume of which is perfectly manageable, despite its 834 pages of abstracts, thanks to the choice of paper and binding; if authors were allowed only one well-filled page, about half of the M&M abstracts could be printed in such a book.

3. Scanning I have several books and conference issues on scanning microscopy to record. First, a very fashionable topic, ESEM. D.J. Stokes has written a short monograph on Principles and Practice of Variable Pressure/Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy [11]. This is a down-to-earth practical text, with section headings such as ‘Which gas?’ and ‘How much gas?’ It begins with ‘A brief historical overview’, with a few words about pre-war SEMs and half a page on the work of Oatley and his group. I cannot imagine how the author managed to spell McMullan’s name wrongly, as until recently he regularly spent time in the Cavendish Laboratory where she used to work. She then guides us expertly through the early years of environmental SEM before launching into ‘Principles of SEM’ and ‘General principles of VP-ESEM: utilising a gas’. An entire section is devoted to the case in which the gas is water vapour. The next chapter, ‘Imaging and analysis in VP-ESEM: the influence of a gas’ has sections on theoretical calculations, exploring the path length and X-ray microanalysis in VP-ESEM and it is here that D.J. Stokes asks ‘Which gas?’ and ‘How much gas?’ The last two chapters are concerned more with the specimen than with the instrument: ‘Imaging uncoated specimens in the VP-SEM’ and ‘A lab in a chamber – in situ methods in VP-SEM and other applications’. This short book, informative and easy to read, cannot fail to please. It is quite a bumper year for SEM too, for I have two other SEM titles before me, Biological Low-voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy edited by H. Schatten and J.B. Pawley and Scanning Microscopy for Nanotechnology edited by W. Zhou and Z.L. Wang as well as three more Bhushan’s and some scanning proceedings. Biological Low-voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy is an excellent and timely collection, written by many of the recognized experts in the subject [12]. It opens with an account of ‘The early development of the scanning electron microscope’ by D. McMullan, who finds quite a lot new to say, even though he has already published extensively on the history of the SEM; in particular, he draws attention to R.F.M. Thornley’s very early contribution to LVSEM. This is followed by a chapter by J.B. Pawley that sets the scene for all that follows; ‘LVSEM for biology’ explains the merits of low-voltage operation and is lavishly illustrated. Chapter 3, ‘The aberration-corrected SEM’ by D.C. Joy is particularly interesting, for he asks what kind of aberration corrector is best for low-voltage SEM, a question that is not often

put. How much will the performance of the SEM be improved by aberration correction? And are there any drawbacks to correcting any or all of the (third-order) aberrations? Each of these questions is taken very seriously and my only quarrel is that, after telling us that the widely used ‘‘quadrature approximation is probably pessimistic’’, he offers only ray-tracing analysis as a way of improving it and does not even mention the careful studies of J.E. Barth and P. Kruit (Optik 101, 1996, 101–109), expanded in the recent paper by M.S. Bronsgeest et 3 al. (J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B26, 2008, 949–955), which is of course too recent to be cited. Under ‘Problems’, he points out that SEM users will not like losing depth of field, as they must if the pixel size falls to, say, 0.2 nm and the beam convergence angle increases to perhaps 40 mrad. Such figures give a depth of field of only 5 nm, rather than 100 nm in a conventional SEM. The following chapter, ‘Noise and its effects on the low-voltage SEM’, is also by D.C. Joy and is highly germane. The next four chapters deal with specific specimen problems, including both animal and plant cells. The book ends with contributions on ‘High-resolution cryoscanning electron microscopy of biological samples’ by P. Walther and ‘Developments in instrumentation for microanalysis in low-voltage scanning electron microscopy’ by D.E. Newbury. Strongly recommended. The collection edited by W. Zhou and Z.L. Wang [13] contains 15 chapters and is intended to be self-contained. The introduction to Chapter 1, ‘Fundamentals of scanning electron microscopy’ by the editors together with R. Apkarian and D.C. Joy, tells us that ‘‘In this section, we will, for a split second, go over the theoretical basics of scanning electron microscopy including the resolution limitation. Electron beam interactions with specimens, and signal generation’’. Separate chapters are then accorded to EBSD, X-ray microanalysis, LVSEM, e-beam lithography. STEM, in-situ nanomanipulation, FIB and dual-beam operation. Several specific topics are then examined, such as nanowires and carbon nanotubes and bio-inspired nanomaterials. This last tells us how materials can be assembled for all kinds of bodily replacements and reinforcements – bladder and bone, for example. A final chapter describes ‘Cryo-temperature stages in nanostructural research’ (R.P. Apkarian). An unusual and very welcome bonus is an author index as well as the normal subject index. Both these volumes are very nicely produced, printed on glossy paper and lavishly illustrated; the Springer knight can be proud of them. The indefatigable B. Bhushan and H. Fuchs have produced three more volumes in their Applied Scanning Probe Methods series: volume XI on Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques [14], XII on Characterization [15] and XIII on Biomimetics and Industrial Applications [16]. The next three are no doubt already in the pipeline for ‘‘The field is progressing so fast that there is a need for a set of volumes every 12–18 months’’! Volume XI is entirely concerned with SPM, AFM, contact resonance force microscopy, nano-indentation and dynamic force microscopy. SEM is not discussed but appears in passing as a way of observing tip shape and, using ESEM, of imaging ‘‘water meniscus formation between an AFM tip and a surface’’. Volume XII has nine contributions, from both the life sciences (receptor–ligand interactions, molecular recognition sites) and the physical sciences (polymers, micro-indentation, which is presumably 1000 times deeper than nano-indentation, metallic nanocontacts, confined liquids, microtensile tests, the Si (111) – 7*7 surface and adsorbed Ge nanostructures). Volume XIII also has nine chapters, the first of which shows us what the epicuticular grease on the covering wings of the Colorado potato beetle looks like. This is of considerable interest to the male beetle for ‘‘Taking into account the mating posture of both sexes, one can suggest a possible role of the female epicuticular grease in male attachment to the female surfacey . The insect adhesive system relies on a certain amount of fluid in the contact area. An increase in the fluid layer due to the

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presence of grease presumably leads to an aquaplaning effect when, instead of an increase in frictional forces, a lubrication (slipping) effect occurs. Video recordingsy demonstrate the difficulties male beetles have in getting a firm grip on the female elytra’’. In short, most males slip off, only the most agile succeed. ‘‘Mate choice of females [is] a mix of cooperative and conflict interactions with males’’, suggesting that Colorado beetles have more in common with humans than might be thought. Subsequent chapters also contain gems. The description by F. Barthelat et 2 al. of molluscan shells and in particular of nacre, ‘‘a natural material which developed a highly sophisticated microstructure for optimal performance, over millions of years of evolution’’, is ¨ fascinating, as is that by T. Schoberl et 2 al. on ‘Application of SPM and related techniques to the mechanical properties of biotool materials’: ‘‘The claws of a cat are biotools, as well as the hooves of ungulates, or the thick horny soles the camelids evolved for travelling over burning-hot sand or rugged terrainy here, we shall focus on jaws and teeth and discuss the heavily mineralized version found in vertebrates as well as selected invertebrate tooth tissues containing little or no mineral’’. For example, ‘‘The jaws of the marine worm Glycera contain very low levels of a rare copper mineral (atacamite)’’, which, embedded in a layer rich in unmineralized copper, gives ‘‘an excellent resistance to abrasion’’ – unfortunately, we are not told anything about the worm’s diet, why does it need to crunch and gnash? Another marine worm, Nereis, has zinc in its jaws instead of copper, while the ‘‘beaks of the jumbo squid Dosidicus gigas represent a purely organic biotool material [and] exhibit a hardness and stiffness up to twice as high as that of the most competitive synthetic organic materials’’. D.M. Steppich et 3 al. use ‘Micromechanics and microfluidics’ to unravel the mysteries of ‘blood clotting disease’, and hold our attention from the outset with the observation that ‘‘A normal human being is bleeding continuously in small arterioles and veins without even being aware of it’’. Other chapters, less alarming, deal with piezoelectric polymers, diamond coatings and graphite and lithium-ion batteries. Turning now from scanning books to scanning proceedings, I have two International Scientific Meetings on Scanning Microscopies to record, the pile-up being caused by the change of publisher of Scanning in which these Proceedings appear, now Wiley. The 2007 meeting [17] has abstracts on Cryomicroscopy, Scanning cultural heritage, FIB microscopy, Quality assurance for measurements in the SEM, Disease, Forensic science and Advances in scanning microscopy and analysis. ‘‘In a 1999 murder case’’, R.G. Miller et 2 al. tell us, ‘‘a victim was almost entirely incinerated. The only remaining evidence was a few pieces of bone and one tooth. The tooth had been restored shortly before the victim’s abduction and there were clear dental records indicating the use of a specific combination of materials. The records indicated that a resin cement was placed under an amalgam restoration. This cement was known to contain zirconia. At the time there was only one brand of material on the market that had this unique composition. SEM/EDS analysis was performed on the tooth, and the presence of zirconia was confirmed. The elemental composition was consistent with the brand documented in the victim’s dental chart. This information formed an important part of the evidence that led to identification of the victim and conviction of the killer’’. The abstracts of the 2008 meeting [18] are not classified and are apparently in random order, apart from the plenary lectures which come at the beginning. The first of these, ‘Backscattered electron imaging in the scanning electron microscope’’‘ by O.C. Wells et 6 al. must have been enjoyable for ‘‘a series of significant discoveries in SEM image contrast which were made by microscopists who have passed away will show the way in which the present understanding of the subject depends upon so many different people’’.

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I do not know why the living are excluded but no doubt there are enough discoveries by dead microscopists to make a good lecture. The second plenary lecture, ‘Scattered helium for imaging and elemental analysis’ by J. Notte of ALIS/Zeiss, dealt with a subject in rapid development, while the last one, by D.E. Newbury, comments on the ‘‘paradigm shift’’ caused by the emergence of the silicon drift detector. In the subsequent abstracts, there is more about the helium-ion microscope and about these detectors as well as forensic applications (always a major theme in these meetings) and an alarming account by J.E. Charbonneau of ‘Investigations of foreign substances in food’: ‘‘Foreign substances in food may lead to safety and quality problems for the food processor which can lead to interruptions in commercial production as well as consumer complaints. If foreign substance or product tampering results in a recall, an entire business may be destroyed and this can have an effect on the credibility of the entire food industry’’. J.E. Charbonneau works for the Grocery Manufacturers Association, which ‘‘investigates foreign substances in food for its members’’. He describes seven intruders: Mysterious strands (‘‘A consumer alleged that a foreign substance found in a food product was the skeletal remains of a rodent’s foot’’ but it turned out to be polypropylene); Food processing materials and storage-related foreign substances (‘‘Particles about 0.2 mm wide caused a fruit juice to become cloudy. The particles were composed of bubbles attached to a solid matrix. Using Commassie Blue stain the solid matrix tested positive for protein. Using FTIR and SEM-EDS, the bubbles were identified as a siliconbased antifoam agent’’); Glass fragments (in canned beef); Glasslike particles (‘‘For example, using FTIR rectangular crystals found on beets were identified as myristic acid, which is present in beets’’); Metals; Plastic pieces (‘‘Cheese sauce packaged in a plastic retort pouch developed a grey discoloration. The cheese sauce was washed with water to remove the cheese. What remained was the grey discoloration in an unknown white substance. Using SEM it was determined that the grey discoloration was not due to particles but to voids up to 100 mm in length that were present in the white material. Using FTIR it was determined that the white substance did not come from the polyethylene (PE) food contact surface or the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) outside surface of the pouch. The spectrum of the white material is a good match for erucylamide. This compound is a fatty acid amide slip agent used to reduce friction effects in polyethylene film processing. Use of this compound prevents jams in automated packaging equipment. It appears that an excessive amount of this material transferred to the PE during manufacture of the pouch’’); and Drugs (‘‘A capsule was allegedly found in a food product. Using SEM-EDS, the capsule was found to contain sulfur and chlorine. Using FTIR, the capsule contents were identified as Cardizem, a medication to treat heart disease. It contains sulfur and chlorine. It was determined that the claimant was taking this medication and the claim was denied’’). N.W.M Ritchie and J. Davis have devised an ‘Effective [method of] data mining of particle data sets through diluvian clustering’, ‘‘an algorithm which searches for islands of similarity in a multidimensional histogram of compositional data’’. The Proceedings of the XV Russian Symposium on Scanning Electron Microscopy and Analytical Methods for Studying Solids (SEM-2007) are to be found in Izv. Ross. Akad. Nauk or Bull. Russ. Acad. Sci. [19] and in Poverkhnost’ (the tables of contents of which are available in Russian and English at www.issp.ac.ru/journal/ surface and are mostly translated in Journal of Surface Investigation: X-ray, Synchrotron and Neutron Techniques, see SpringerLink); as far as I could see, the papers in Izvestiya/Bulletin complement those in Poverkhnost’. The subset in Izvestiya/Bulletin contains several titles of interest here: characterization of semiconductor detectors (A.V. Gostev et 7 al.), the Microscan SEMs of the MS20

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series (V.V. Kaz’miruk), electron extraction through an objective lens (O.D. Potapkin and A.A. Mel’nikov), Koehler illumination (O.D. Potapkin), cryoSEM (E.M. Belavtseva et 6 al.) and charging of dielectric targets (E.N. Evstaf’eva et 2 al.). Those in Poverkhnost’ are all concerned with applications.

4. Popularizers It is said, a book should be read with the same spirit with which it has been written! In that case, fatal must be the reception of this – for the writer frankly avows, that during the time she has been writing it, she has suffered every quality and degree of weariness and lassitude, into which no other employment could have betrayed her. It has been the destiny of the writer of this story, to be occupied throughout her life, in what has the least suited either her inclination or capacity – with an invincible impediment in her speech, it was her lot for thirteen years to gain a subsistence by public speaking – and, with the utmost detestation to the fatigue of inventing, a constitution suffering under a sedentary life, and an education confined to the narrow boundaries prescribed her sex, it has been her fate to devote a tedious seven years to the unremitting labour of literary productions – whilst a taste for authors of the first rank has been an additional punishment, forbidding her one moment of those self-approving reflections which are assuredly due to the industriousy . But this important secret I long wished, and endeavoured to conceal; yet one unlucky moment candidly, though unwittingly, divulged it – I frankly owned, ‘That Fortune having chased away Necessity, there remained no other incitement to stimulate me to a labour I abhorred.’ – It happened to be in the power of the person to whom I confided this secret, to send NECESSITY once more.-Once more, then, bowing to its empire, I submit to the task it enjoins. This case has something similar to a theatrical anecdote told (I think) by Colley Cibber: ‘A performer of a very mean salary, played the Apothecary in Romeo and Juliet so exactly to the satisfaction of the audience, that this little part, independent of the other characters, drew immense houses whenever the play was performed – The manager in consequence, thought it but justice to advance the actor’s salary; on which the poor man (who, like the character he represented, had been half starved before) began to live so comfortably, he became too plump for the part; and being of no importance in any thing else, the manager of course now wholly discharged him – and thus, actually reducing him to the want of a piece of bread, in a short time he became a proper figure for the part again.’

Elizabeth Inchbald, A Simple Story The huge advances, upheavals even, in most branches of science in the nineteenth century excited widespread popular interest, fed by writers of books and magazine articles. But who were these writers? Were they competent to translate difficult new findings faithfully into simple language? Did they impress their own religious or social convictions on their subjects? These and many other such questions are examined by B. Lightman in Victorian Popularizers of Science. Designing Nature for New Audiences [20]. Pure and above all applied science impinged on everyday life to a greater degree than in previous centuries: the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, for which the Crystal Palace was built in 1851, is said to have attracted 50,000 visitors a day. And after the Crystal Palace was dismantled and rebuilt outside London, on the site we still call Crystal Palace, it housed a large collection of replicas of extinct reptiles and

mammals, notably dinosaurs, which drew in huge crowds (‘‘a million people a year’’) for 50 years. The books about life on the seashore by Edmund Gosse’s father Philip launched a craze for collecting seaside creatures in aquaria; ferneries too were filled with rare filicales. It is impossible to survey this densely written and highly readable book in a few lines but a few pointers will give some idea of its flavour. One theme is the conflict between the scientists such as T.H. Huxley (‘‘a larger than life public figure’’) and the amateur naturalists, notably the clergy. ‘‘It may seem somewhat surprising that Church of England parsons were so well represented within the ranks of popularizers of science in the second half of the nineteenth century. Theories in geology, biology, and physiological psychology in this period were taking on a naturalistic direction that made the attempt to reconcile science with revelation and theology more difficult. Studies on the professionalization of British science in the nineteenth century have shown that the numbers of clergyman-naturalists in positions of importance in scientific societies and institutions declined during this periody . Physics and chemistry faculties expanded and membership in major scientific societies increased. However, professors and scientific society members were, more and more, practicing men of science rather than wealthy amateurs or aristocrats. The ‘young guard’ of science in the 1850s, men such as Huxley and Tyndall, publicly championed the professionalization of science. By the 1870s they dominated the editorships, professorships, and offices in the major societies. Committed to a naturalistic approach to science, the ‘young guard’ believed that science should he pursued without regard for religious dogma, natural theology, or the opinion of religious authorities. As a result, Huxley and professionally minded scientists worked to eliminate from their ranks the clergymen-scientists who saw the study of nature as a handmaiden to natural theology or as subordinate to theology and religious authority. Participation by Anglican clergy in scientific societies such as the British Association dropped significantly in the second half of the nineteenth centuryy . Huxley and his friends may have intended to drive Anglican clergymen out of the institutions and societies they controlled, but their power did not extend to the periodical press and the great publishing housesy . [they] not only failed to eliminate the power of the clergyman-naturalist tradition, they were also unable to destroy the appeal of themes drawn from a theology of nature’’. Another major theme is the role of women. ‘‘The prediction of a ‘rich harvest’ of literary fruit by women proved to be accurate. Women distinguished themselves as novelists, but the second half of the nineteenth century was also a golden age for female popularizers of science. They wrote about virtually every aspect of the natural sciences, though natural history topics tended to dominate. Lydia Becker, Phebe Lankester, Anne Pratt, Elizabeth Twining, and Jane Loudon all explored the world of botany. Arabella Buckley and Alice Bodington wrote primarily on evolutionary biology, while Margaret Gatty was more interested in marine biology. Other women, such as Mary Roberts, Anne Wright, Sarah Bowdich Lee, Annie Carey, Eliza Brightwen, and Elizabeth and Mary Kirby, moved across topics in natural history, from geology, to conchology, ornithology, and entomology. A smaller number of women tackled natural philosophy. Agnes Clerke and Agnes Giberne concentrated on astronomy. Some women were agile and knowledgeable enough to range over both the physical and life sciences. Mary Ward covered astronomy in one book and the use of the microscope to study living things in the other. Rosina Zornlin penned works on electricity, geology, geography, astronomy and hydrology, Mary Somerville began with astronomy, but also dealt with other physical sciences and the life sciences in her later books. Enough women were involved in writing (though not lecturing) about science in the second half of

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the century that several of them should be included along with Brewer, Kingsley, and the other Anglican clerics as influential figures in the popularization of science. There are good reasons to deal separately with female popularizers of science in this period, at least initially. The men of the last chapter drew on their authority as clergymen to write on scientific issues. The women did not have this option, and the historical features of their activities as popularizers are therefore somewhat different. The maternal tradition that had given agency to women in the early nineteenth century to write for an audience of women and children had to be redefined in order for female popularizers to communicate with the new audiences formed at the middle of the century. Women did not have to claim to be mother figures in the second half of the century in order to have narrative voice, as they could capitalize on other writing strategies. In addition, unlike their male counterparts, women had to come to terms with the towering figure of Mary Somerville. They also encountered obstacles erected by male practitioners tied directly to their status as women’’. Male hostility was no light matter: ‘‘To those male practitioners bent on professionalizing their discipline, women were considered to be doubly disqualified from full participation in science, including the role of popularizer. Not only were they more easily seduced by the lure of Christianity, they also did not possess the required intellectual power to engage in genuine scientific research. By nature they were religious, emotional, and subjective. Essentialism pervaded the thinking of even the most liberal scientific minds. Darwin’s Descent of Man (1871) provided an evolutionary rationale for the alleged intellectual inferiority of women. Writing to the geologist Charles Lyell, T.H. Huxley declared, ‘five sixths of women will stop in the doll stage of evolution, to be the stronghold of parsondom.’ Huxley made it his special mission to drive women from would-be professional scientific societies and from positions of importance in scientific institutions. Part of his strategy for amalgamating the Ethnological Society and the Anthropological Society, in order to bring anthropology under Darwinian control, involved the reconstitution of the Ethnological Society into a ‘gentlemen’s society.’ By excluding women from the ‘Ordinary Meetings’ of the Society, where the serious scientific discussion took place, Huxley could upgrade its professional status and remove a major impediment to the union of the two societies’’. Such misogynous attitudes were of course by no means universal. Thus Margaret Gatty, ‘‘suffering from a bronchial condition’’, went to recuperate by the seaside at Hastings. ‘‘When [she] became bored, she took the advice of the local doctor to collect seaweeds and read William Harvey’s Phycologia Britannica to pass the time. She became a lifelong marine biology enthusiast. This led her to establish a friendship with Harvey, who was later to become Professor of Botany at Trinity College Dublin in 1857, and to write a number of widely read books on phycology and other zoological topics. Her British Sea-Weeds (1863, Bell and Daldy), an introductory book to the topic, established her credentials as a knowledgeable collector, but her series of didactic and scientifically informed short stories, Parables from Nature (1855–71, Bell and Daldy), became an international bestseller that made her a household name in Britain. Six editions of the first series were published by 1858. Reaching an eighteenth edition in 1882, it was reissued many times by different publishers right up until 1950. Gatty’s Parables contained a mixture of science, morality, and religion that was considered to be appropriate Sunday reading for Victorian families. Although working from a remote vicarage in Ecclesfie1d, well outside of Sheffield, Gatty was able to achieve considerable success as a popularizer’’. A long chapter evokes ‘The Showmen of Science’, notably John Henry Pepper and John George Wood, who were ‘‘among the most

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well known popularizers of science in the second half of the centuryy.[Both] turned their lectures into spectacles and incorporated a multitude of visual images in their books’’. Both had an extraordinary sense of publicity: ‘‘Just before Christmas Day, 1862, John Henry Pepper invited a small group of literary and scientific friends, and members of the press, to his Royal Poytechechnic Institution to see a performance of Edward Bulwer-Lytton’s ‘A Strange Story.’ His plan to surprise his visitors with a preview of a new optical illusion worked better than he could possibly have imagined. The audience was so startled by the ghost illusion that Pepper decided not to explain how it worked. The following day he hurriedly took out a provisional patent, sensing its almost unlimited potential. Pepper then prepared a companion lecture for the play, ‘A Strange Lecture,’ where he explained the wonders produced by the ‘Photodrome,’ an optical apparatus that caused phantoms to appear at will. One periodical recommended that ‘everybody should go and hear this lecture’ and praised the Photodrome for its ability to create ‘the most beautiful effects we have ever witnessed.’ But the crowning triumph of the lecture was Pepper’s production of a ‘real veritable spectre, so real that the spectator hardly believes the Professor when he states that is a mere illusion, a fact, however, which he establishes by walking clean through it.’ Pepper’s ghost caused a sensation and drew thousands of visitors to the Royal Polytechnic Institution, including Prince Albert and other members of the royal family’’. Wood’s lectures were no less thrilling: ‘‘Nearly twenty-one years later, John George Wood, another showman of science, also startled his audiences with a carefully managed spectacle. To illustrate key points in his Lowell Lectures in Boston, he drew ‘rapid impromptu sketches’ of creatures that gradually took shape before the eyes of those attending. Audiences were particularly impressed by their magnitude. The sheet of black canvas that he used to draw on was stretched on a wooden frame that gave him a surface of eleven feet by five feet six inches. Close up, the drawings appeared coarse and clumsy, but when viewed from thirty or forty feet away they were elegant pictures that were clearly visible in every part of the largest hall. The impact on the audience was electrifying. In one of his Lowell Lectures Wood spoke on the whale to a packed room. ‘When I opened the lecture,’ he reported to his family, ‘by drawing the whale, eleven feet long, in two strokes, there was first dead silence, and then such a thunder of applause that I had to wait.’ Then Wood drew a little sailor on the whale’s back to illustrate its gigantic size, and the crowd ‘laughed and cheered in the heartiest manner.’ Wood’s larger-than-life sketches catered to the popular audience’s taste for spectacle. He realized that if science lectures were to become a popular form of entertainment, and if he were to succeed as a public lecturer, he had to satisfy the craving for visual images that was the hallmark of mass culture in this period’’. Naturally enough evolution occupies a large place in the book – a long chapter examines ‘The evolution of the evolutionary epic’. Less familiar is the work of Richard Proctor, founder-editor of the journal Knowledge and among the most prolific of the popularizers: he ‘‘wrote at least five hundred essays, not counting his many technical papers in the Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices. In his obituary, The Times declared that he had ‘probably done more than any other man during the present century to promote an interest among the ordinary public in scientific subjects’. Proctor’s religious sensibilities led him to co-opt evolutionary theory in support of his powerful mix of pluralism and a discourse of design. Evolutionary theory gave his theories more scientific plausibility in at least two ways. First, Proctor used Darwin’s theory of natural selection to explain how alien life could exist in extreme environments. In the opening pages of his Other Worlds Than Ours he discussed the tendency to believe that other

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planets would be inhospitable to life in the same way that we might believe that certain parts of our planet – such as the Arctic or the bottom of the ocean – are uninhabitable. ‘Who would believe,’ he declared, ‘for example, that men can live, and not only live but thrive and multiply, in the frost-bound regions within the Arctic circle, if travellers had not visited the Esquimaux races, and witnessed the conditions under which they subsist?’ Similarly, if we did not know that living creatures inhabit the depths of the ocean, where land creatures would quickly die, would we not conclude that no life existed there as well? But life survived even in these harsh conditions. Proctor concluded, ‘even though we could prove that every living creature on this earth would at once perish if removed to another orb, yet we cannot thence conclude that the orb is uninhabited. On the contrary, the lesson conveyed by our earth’s analogy leads to the conclusion that many worlds may exist, abundantly supplied with living creatures of many different species, where yet every form of life upon our earth – bird, beast, or fish, reptile, insect, or animalcule – would perish in a few moments.’ Life could exist in the most extreme environments on earth because of the power of natural selection’’. After Proctor’s death, Robert Ball ‘‘became the foremost popularizer of astronomy’’ but, unlike Proctor, he continued to work as a practising scientist. Lightman links him with T.H. Huxley in a chapter on some of the professional scientists who deigned to write popular science; Huxley’s reluctance to embark on such writings and his astonishment that his first such efforts were so successful is beautifully described. A last chapter considers ‘Science writing in New Grub Street’. One theme that is missing from the book is physics. Most of the writers discussed by Lightman are writing about natural history or evolution and geology or astronomy and they were, for obvious reasons, the majority – the exact sciences are not totally absent but occupy few pages. It would be nice to know whether many attempts were made to tell the general public about the discoveries and speculations that were revolutionizing physics and mathematics – it was doubtless very difficult to persuade magazine editors to accept them. If Bernard Lightman devotes a volume to such writings one day, I shall buy it on the day of publication.

5. More books For my part, I shall not consider the æsthetic of men’s dress properly worked out until it can be expressed in mathematical formulæ. Something like this, for example. Let us postulate a mild temperature, a Parliamentary crisis, a little melancholy, a slight attack of dyspepsia, and some tiresome afternoon calls to pay. This (in the mathematical æsthetic of the future) ought to lead to the following equation: –   Temp: M: Mel: D W:W: þ  Calls ¼  p:b: þ Crisis P: Dys: d L:G:T: Or, in non-mathematical language, a coat of the class D (which reference to a book of rules will show to be ‘‘severe, without excessive sombreness’’), trousers to match, patent-leather boots, a white waitcoat, and a light grey tie. But we shall have to wait a long time, I fear, for this æsthetic algebra; for mathematicians never dress well. A.B. Walkley, Frames of Mind (1899) Electron Crystallography of Biological Macromolecules [21] appeared in 2007 but did not reach me in time to be included last time. Here, R.M. Glaeser, K. Downing, D. DeRosier, W. Chiu and J. Frank, all of whom have been leading figures in biological structure determination by electron microscopy since the subject began, have written a ‘‘unified source of didactic material related

to electron crystallography’’ – in short, a textbook. The first eight chapters were drafted by R.M. Glaeser (and, like all the others, read critically by the co-authors) and fill nearly half the book: Introduction, Structure determination as it has been developed through X-ray crystallography, Fourier optics and the role of diffraction in image formation, Theoretical foundations specific to electron crystallography, Instrumentation and experimental techniques, Specimen preparation, Symmetry and order in two dimensions and Two-dimensional crystallization techniques. It is a sign of the times that the reader is assumed to be perfectly at home with wave optics and Fourier transforms but ignorant of the geometrical optics that my generation was taught at ‘‘O Level’’ (that is, at the age of about 15). The ‘‘lens law’’, for example, is likely to be new to him. In the opening paragraphs of ‘Instrumentation and experimental techniques’, it even seems that some resistance to electron microscopy on the part of the reader was anticipated and that tactful cajoling would be needed to overcome it! Three chapters by K. Downing and R.M. Glaeser come next: Data processing: diffraction patterns of 2-D crystals, Data processing: images of 2-D crystals and High-resolution density maps and their structural interpretation. D. DeRosier then describes ‘Electron crystallography of helical structures’, W. Chiu ‘Icosahedral particles’ and J. Frank, ‘Single particles’. R.M. Glaeser concludes with ‘Special considerations encountered with thick specimens’. Although the content is certainly reliable, there are some points that could have been improved. The half-tones have not reproduced well and there is some carelessness in the references (a missing accent and capitals in the very first reference, citation of editions of books that are not the most recent, notably Reimer and Spence, italics overlooked for some Latin names). Even so, the book has no real rivals and should do well. The Annual Review of Materials Research for 2008 [22] begins with a dozen articles on ‘Low- and high-temperature wetting’. The following section, ‘Current interest’, contains two articles of direct interest to ultramicroscopists: ‘The theory and interpretation of electron energy-loss near-edge fine structure’ by P. Rez and D.A. Muller and ‘Transmission electron microscopy of multilayer thin films’ by A.K. Petford-Long and A.N. Chiaramonti. In between the wetting and the ELNES is an irresistible chapter by U.G.K. Wegst on ‘Bamboo and wood in musical instruments’ and although your professional conscience may urge you to read the other chapters on ferroelectrics, quasicrystals, metallic glasses, Mg alloys, perovskites and ‘Integral textile ceramic structures’, I am sure you will enjoy U.G.K. Wegst’s introduction: ‘‘When one is writing about the history of musical instruments and the materials from which they are made, it is very tempting to concentrate primarily on the musical instruments of the Western symphony orchestra because they have been studied in detail. The literature accessible to the Western reader tends to take this approach and focuses on the use of wood for sound applications. Rare are attempts to describe from a materials science point of view the design requirements for musical instruments and the materials selection criteria that result from these. To date, there is only one comprehensive overview [by Wegst himself] that analyzes and describes which of the several hundred available wood species worldwide instrument makers choose for specific musical instruments because of their mechanical and acoustical properties and their aesthetic appeal. Using material property charts, it explains why low-density softwoods such as spruce are the preferred choice for soundboards, why high-density tropical species such as rosewood are favoured for xylophone bars and woodwind instruments, why violinists still prefer the tropical pernambuco over other species as a bow material, and why the temperate species hornbeam and birch are used in piano actions. The essence of this analysis is that instrument design and

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materials were optimized together and that there is no one wood species with a mechanical and acoustical property profile that simultaneously satisfies all design criteria and functional requirements of the diverse range of wind, string, and percussion instruments. In this review, we wish to take a more global approach in an attempt to do better justice to the rich musical traditions in all continents that are reflected in the large number and considerable diversity of musical instruments played worldwide, instruments that often are significantly older than the string and wind instruments of the Western symphony orchestra. A large range of natural materials, in addition to wood, have traditionally been used for the manufacture of musical instruments. These are, for various structural parts of the instruments, bone, ivory, skin, hide, bladder, horn, gourds or calabashes, sea shells, tortoise shells, and the shell of the armadillo and, for strings and in bows, vegetable fibers, silk, gut, sinew, and animal hairs. Important factors for the choice of these materials were partially climatic, partially human, and partially technological – as expressed in the available materials, which, in addition to location, also reflect patterns of trade and migration that led to the introduction of new materials, new musical traditions, and new musical instruments. The choice has also depended on artistic skills as well as mythic and symbolic preoccupations. Examples for these are the bone and skin instruments in the Arctic and the wood, bamboo, and gourd instruments in the temperate and tropical zones as well as the animal-sounding and -shaped bone, skin, and hide instruments in herding societies that depend spiritually as well as economically on a particular animal species. Among all the natural materials used worldwide in the manufacture of musical instruments, one stands out in its versatility: the grass bamboo. We describe and explain below why bamboo is the only material that makes possible what is impossible with a single wood species or any other individual material, namely that instruments of all classes – wind, percussion, and string instruments and even the strings themselves – can be made exclusively from this one material. When and what kind of musical instruments first were made from bamboo are unknown. It is universally accepted that the oldest surviving musical instruments are three 35,000-year-old flutes found in the ¨ Geißenklosterle Cave in the southwestern part of Germany. Two of the flutes were made from hollow swan wing bones, and the third from solid mammoth ivory. These first flutes were not only highly sophisticated in their construction but also remarkable in the quality of sound and complexity of music that could be produced with them, as experiments by Seeberger on modern reproductions of the bone flutes demonstrate. This indicates that our ancestors had considerable experience in the manufacture of such instruments, making it probable that similar or other types of flutes were either simultaneously or previously made from hollow plant stems such as those of bamboo because these can be shaped more easily than bone and ivory with the relatively simple stone, bone, or antler tools that our ancestors possessed. The very skilled use of materials and tools in the manufacture of bone and ivory flutes also makes it likely that other instruments of simpler design and construction, such as percussion instruments, for example, predated these flutes. Like the earliest wind instruments in human history, these flutes would very likely have been made from suitable plant parts and materials. Examples of these earliest musical instruments have not survived most likely because purely polymeric plant matter such as wood and bamboo decays much more quickly than highly mineralized tissues such as bone and ivory’’. Clearly we need the word ‘‘bamboowind’’as well as ‘‘woodwind’’. It is unfortunate for Oxford University Press Inc. that I am turning the pages of Annual Review of Materials Research

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immediately after Electron Crystallography for the contrast is striking and uncomplimentary. The Annual Review is a handsome volume, nicely printed on slightly glossy paper, admirably suited for half-tones. Colour is present throughout and chapter and section heading are likewise in colour (a pleasant light claret). The margins are wide and are used for figure captions and shoulder-notes, the latter spelling out acronyms or reminding the reader of the meaning of a term used in the text (‘Approximants’, ‘Mackay cluster’, ‘Bergman cluster’, ‘Nanoquasicrystal’, for example, in the chapter on quasicrystals by D.V. Louzquine-Luzgun and A. Inoue). P. Rez and D.A. Muller have used the margins to annotate their list of references: ‘‘First paper showing anomalous effects at transition-metal L edges’’, for example. It is regrettable that reference 6, described as ‘‘The definitive reference for EELS in electron microscopy,’’ is the 1986 edition of R.F. Egerton’s book and not the second edition published 10 years later. Microscope Image Processing [23], edited by Q. Wu, F.A. Merchant and K.R. Castleman, is a most unusual book in that ‘‘only a few pages’’ are devoted to basic image processing and microscopy, very sensibly in my opinion. ‘‘The focus is on those techniques that routinely prove useful to research investigations involving microscope images and upon which more advanced techniques are built’’. The authors have not dared to omit all basic material, however and the first four chapters, all by K.R. Castleman (together with I.T. Young for the first two), do in fact contain much useful material on the fundamentals. The next seven chapters deal in detail with specific topics in image processing: ‘Geometric transformations’ (K.R. Castleman), ‘Image enhancement’ (Y.-p. Wang, Q. Wu and K.R. Castleman), ‘Wavelet image processing’ (H. Choi and A.C. Bovik), ‘Morphological image ´ processing’ (R.A. Lotufo, R. Audiger, A.V. Saude and R.C. Machado), ‘Image segmentation’ (Q. Wu and K.R. Castleman), ‘Object measurement’ (F.A. Merchant, S.K. Shah and K.R. Castleman) and ‘Image classification’ (K.R. Castleman and Q. Wu). These are followed by chapters on types of imaging: ‘Fluorescence imaging’ (F.A. Merchant and A. Periasamy), ‘Multispectral imaging’ (J. Thigpen and S.K. Shah), ‘Three-dimensional imaging’ (F.A. Merchant), ‘Time-lapse imaging’ (E. Meijering, I. Smal, O. Dzyubachyk and J.-C. Olivo-Marin) and ‘Structured illumination imaging’ (L.G. Krzewina and M.K. Kim). Finally, Q. Wu discusses ‘Autofocusing’ and T. Macura and I. Goldberg consider ‘Image data and workflow management’. I turned to the chapter on mathematical morphology, always a difficult subject for newcomers, to see whether the authors had managed to soften the blow. This was certainly their intention: ‘‘This chapter presents the main concepts of morphological processing (MP) for the microscope image analyst. Morphological processing has applications in such diverse areas of image processing as filtering, segmentation, and pattern recognition, to both binary and grayscale images. One of the advantages of MP is its being well suited for discrete image processing, because its operators can be implemented in digital computers with complete fidelity to their mathematical definitionsy. . Although MP is based on strong mathematical concepts, there are only a few references that describe the MP operators with stress on intuitive concepts or implementation, presumably because of the risk of weakening the mathematical formalism. This chapter introduces the most commonly used concepts as they are applied to real situations in microscopy imaging, with explanations that appeal to one’s intuition whenever possible. Despite the lack of full detail, this chapter remains true to the underlying mathematical theory [and] gives the main mathematical equations’’. But only a couple of pages later, we read ‘‘The basic fitting operation of morphology is the erosion of an image by a structuring element. Erosion is done by scanning the image with the structuring element. When the structuring

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element fits completely inside the object, the probe position is marked. The erosion result consists of all scanning locations where the structuring element fits inside the object. The eroded image is usually a shrunken version of the image, and the shrinking effect is controlled by the structuring element size and shape. The erosion of set A by set B is defined by A  B ¼ fx : Bx  Ag where C denotes the subset relation and Bx ¼ {b+x:bAB} is the translation of set B by a point x. And a little further on still, under ‘Markers’, ‘‘The morphological reconstruction of an image A from a marker M (a subset of A) is denoted by ADM and defined as the union of all connected components of image A that intersect marker M. This filter is also called a component filter: ADE M ¼ [fCk : Ck \ Ma+g The reconstruction operation requires the input image, the marker, and a selection of the type of connectivity. The marker specifies which component of the input image is to be extracted. The result of the reconstruction depends on the connectivity used’’. To be fair, this is a good condensed account of the topic but newcomers would do well to start elsewhere, lest they fall at the first hurdle – the old paper by R.M. Haralick, S.R. Sternberg and X.-h. Zhuang in IEEE Trans. PAMI-9 (1987) 532–550, not cited here, is among the least forbidding. Those who are already into mathematical morphology will plunge happily into Mathematics of Shape Description, a Morphological Approach to Image Processing and Computer Graphics by the late P.K. Ghosh and K. Deguchi for nothing is more difficult to define than ‘shape’ [24]. In his Preface, K. Deguchi tells us that Ghosh was searching for an answer to the question ‘‘Is it possible to do addition and subtraction (or multiplication and division) with geometrical shapes as we do in ordinary arithmetic with numbers?’’ ‘‘In other words, continues K. Deguchi, ‘‘given a geometrical shape, does its inverse – that is negative shape – exist? If this were possible, then we might have obtained a remarkable insight into analyzing and synthesizing shapes, just as we have in the case of numbers. This notion still fascinates me. We discussed the central problem in the understanding of shape, which can be compared with the analogous problem in number theory: ‘Given a positive integer number n, are there integers k and l41 such that n ¼ k  l?’ As is well known, this question gave rise to one of the most fundamental concepts of number theory; namely, the concept of prime numbers. Analogously, there exist sets of points in the plane or space that cannot be expressed as a Minkowski sum in any manner other than the most trivial one; that is, as the sum of a single point and the given set S itself – in other words, they cannot be decomposed further, as a Minkowski sum of two simpler shapes. Such point sets may be termed morphologically indecomposable shapes, or prime shapes. Then, one may ask, what shape can be considered to be the ‘prime shape’? The book lives up to the promise of the Preface, beginning with ‘In search of a framework for shape description’. Two chapters of algebra follow, on ‘Sets and functions for shape description’ and ‘Algebraic structures for shape description’, very lucidly written. Chapter 4 is on ‘Morphological models for shape description and Minkowski operators’ and is a model for future writers on this subject. Chapter 5 brings us to the question asked in the Preface: ‘Arithmetics of geometrical shape’. After explaining that the familiar shape systems are monoids, not groups as are such number systems as ðZ; þÞ, ðQ; þÞ and ðR; þÞ, ‘‘The following

question then naturally arises: ‘Is it possible to extend our notion of geometrical shape so that with a convenient composition operation we can form an algebraic group-like structure?’’’ I cannot devote more space to this here but am sure that I have whetted a few morphological appetites. Chapter 6 attacks an aspect of shape algebra that raises fresh difficulties, ‘Morphological operations on nonconvex objects’ and a final chapter considers ‘The morphological composability and indecomposability of binary shapes’. This is a beautifully written account of a very unusual subject, remarkably readable given the nature of the material. Its limited readership will love it. Like Annual Reviews, Progress in Optics is an annual fixture. Its editor, E. Wolf, must surely hold the record for the longest editorship of such a series: volume 1 appeared in 1961. There are seven essays in volume 51 [25], at least three of which are of potential interest to ultramicroscopists. ‘Negative refractive index metamaterials in optics’ by N.M. Litchinitser et 3 al. is one of these and the brief history tells us that the idea of such materials goes back to papers by Lamb (1904) and von Laue (1905), Lamb acknowledging ‘‘Schuster for noticing that a group velocity can be negative (i.e., can have a sign opposite to that of the phase velocity) owing to anomalous dispersion’’. The next three chapters are perhaps somewhat remote from ultramicroscopy (‘Polarization techniques for surface nonlinear optics’ by M. Kauranen and S. Cattaneo; ‘Electromagnetic fields in linear bianisotropic mediums’ [sic] by T.G. Mackay and A. Lakhtakia, who are perhaps also members of the Society for Psychical Research; ‘Ultrafast optical pulses’ by C.R. Pollock) but ‘Quantum imaging’ by A. Gatti et 2 al. is of wider appeal. ‘Assessment of optical systems by means of point-spread functions’ by J.J.M. Braat et 3 al. is definitely relevant for although the authors have light in mind, much of what they have to relate is applicable to electrons as well. This long and lucid essay may be thought of as an extension of the relevant sections of Principles of Optics. Finally, there is a chapter, also for a wide audience, on ‘The discrete ¨ et 2 al. This is an exciting area, full of Wigner function’ by G. Bjork unsolved or vexatious questions – ‘‘the discrete Wigner function is an adolescent formulation, slowly developing into adult maturity’’ say the authors. Two volumes have appeared in 2009. The first [26] contains four contributions, all rather remote from ultramicroscopy: C.M. Aegerter and G. Maret on Coherent backscattering and Anderson localization of light; Y.V. Kartashov et 2 al. on Soliton shape and mobility control in optical lattices; P. Gallion et 2 al. on Signal and quantum noise in optical communications and cryptography; and M. Yang et 2 al. on Invisibility cloaking by coordinate transformation. Volume 53 [27] has six chapters: M. Mart´ınez-Corral and G. Saavedra on The resolution challenge in 3-D optical microscopy; U. Leonhardt and T.G. Philbin on Transformation optics and the geometry of light; E. del Re et 2 al. on Photorefractive solitons and their underlying nonlocal physics; G.S. He on Stimulated scattering effects of intense coherent light; M.R. Dennis et 2 al. on Singular optics: optical vortices and polarization singularities; and U.L. Anderson and R. Filip on Quantum feedforward control of light. For French readers, there is a three-volume set on Les Nanosciences, edited by M. Lahmani, P. Boisseau, C. Bre chignac, C. Dupas and P. Houdy [28–30].

6. Other proceedings ‘‘Ah, Mr Fox,’’ a friend said to him, ‘‘how delightful it must be to loll along in the sun at your ease with a book in your hand.’’ ‘‘Why the book? Why the book?’’ was the reply. Arthur Bryant

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Every 2 years, the Czech Institute of Scientific Instruments organizes a meeting on ‘Recent Trends in Charged Particle Optics and Surface Physics Instrumentation’ in Skalsky´ Dvu˚r, near Brno. The 11th meeting was held in July 2008, with a new organizer and Proceedings editor, Filip Mika. The informal atmosphere encourages speakers to try out their latest ideas here, and there are many contributions on novelties or the latest developments in existing projects. The 39 papers in the Proceedings [31] include work on PEEM, cathode lens properties, energy analyser design, LVTEM in biology, e-beam welding, Wien filter optics, gun simulation, accessories for the SEM, electron optical software, LEEM, Monastyrskiy’s tau-variable approach to aberration theory, aberration corrector design using differential algebra, a new way of obtaining the high-order derivatives needed for aberration calculation, miniaturized electron optics, space charge in ion traps and TOF mass spectrometers and a SAM/SEM column. The level is impressively high throughout and it is clear that the CPO community regards Skalsky´ Dvu˚r as a good platform for displaying its findings. It is always a pleasure to open the Proceedings of the conferences of the Microscopy Society of Southern Africa, the 46th of which was held in the University of Botswana in July 2008 and is well up to standard [32]. As usual, it begins with the Boris Balinsky and John Matthews lectures, the first by M. Yeager on the use of electron crystallography to explore HIV-assembly and the second by F.J. Humphreys on an application of EBSD. Six Special Plenary Lectures follow on such topics as EBSD from nonconductive samples (M. Farynal), Cs-corrected TEM (J.H. Neethling), sample preparation (M.J. Witcomb), cryo-EM and 3-D reconstruction (B.T. Sewell), VP-SEM (A.G. Bruton) and ‘Anomalies and pitfalls in phase analysis using BSE’ (L.A. Cornish et 4 al.). A long section on ‘Physical Sciences: Techniques and Applications’ is followed by three sections from the Life Sciences: Microbiological techniques and applications, Botanical techniques and applications and Medical and zoological techniques and applications. Despite the high quality of many of the physics papers, and posters, it is always the life scientists who steal the show in Africa. Home brewing enthusiasts may be interested to learn that ‘‘Local beer (umqombothi) is made in many South African townships by mixing maize flour, sorghum malt and water in a pot and fermenting it in a warm place for a few days, occasionally stirring and adding more liquids to it. A similar process is followed for making sour, curdled milk (mafi) in Lesotho by just using unpasteurised cow milk. As is the custom, specific pots are used for several repeats of fermenting these beverages separately. It is assumed that a biofilm remains as inoculum after each session. The aim of this study was to compare the ultrastructural nature of biofilms respectively formed by beer or milky . The pots were washed with water to replicate the cleaning process generally used in Lesotho and townships. The remaining mafi biofilm, after cleaning the pots, formed a residue (visible with the naked eye) on the clay pot surface and also a thin film with the bacteria enmeshed in it. A thick crust of umqombothi residue also remained, which showed a high number of yeast cells and bacteria attached to the shards. These organisms in the mafi film and non-removed umqombothi crust represented the biofilms of the two beverages respectively and would probably be a sufficient and viable inoculum source for starting the next fermentation and brewing process’’ (‘Comparison between microbial biofilms of local beer and curdled milk in a clay pot’ by B.B. Janeke et 3 al.). ‘‘Eat at least five fruits and vegetables a day’’, we are urged, but are these always good for us? K. de Reuck, S. Collignon and L. Korsten have studied ‘‘the attachment and colonisation of four foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica and Staphylococcus aureus)’’ on the surfaces of pears (cv. Forell) and plums. They ‘‘highlight the potential of fresh fruit

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contamination if pears are exposed to foodborne pathogens even as short as 30 sec’’ while for plums, ‘‘Fruit being contaminated could lead to survival and proliferation through the cold chain and it should be avoided in all production, transportation and distribution environments’’. Happy the ultramicroscopists who have their own fruit trees or a local growers’ market! E. Jonathan and J.S. Dam contribute a paper on ‘Optical coherence tomography: in vivo human hand explorer’, which sounds faintly indelicate. But no, ‘‘The hand palm is an important human body part, primarily for physical manipulation of the environment. For example, palmar hyperhidriotics report a low quality of life due to excessive palmar sweating that disrupts normal palm use. As a body part in frequent contact with the environment, proper palm care should include routine checks to identify and localize surface and internal abnormalities at an early stage when chance for health recovery is particularly high. Effective intervention on palm care can benefit from a hand palm explorer device for in situ morphometry. High result reliability can be achieved if the device affords noninvasive, non-destructive and non-contact operation to avoid disturbing normal functioning of the palm during assessment. The hand palm hosts micron-size organs, e.g., a dense network of blood vessels, sweat glands, ducts and pores. When observed functioning in situ, they are good indicators of an individual’s health state. Because of their micron-dimensions, spatial resolution is another important performance specification parameter of the in vivo explorer device. Here we demonstrate the potential applicability of an optical coherence microscope, operating on the well-known principle of optical coherence tomography (OCT). Briefly, this type of microscope, originally developed for human eye imaging, operates by illuminating a biological sample with a safe dose of tissuepenetrating, near-infrared light of low-coherent length through an amplitude-division interferometer. Sample back-reflection is collected and analysed interferometrically and at video-rate into a 2-D or 3-D spatial map of tissue microstructure reflectivity’’. The botanists tell us about the desiccation-resistant resurrection plant Xerophyta viscosa, so-called because it can survive long periods of drought. ‘‘Widely distributed and found in all the continents except Antarctica’’, say A. Bhatt et 3 al. and the Royal Horticultural Society’s Gardeners’ Encyclopedia confirms that another resurrection plant, the Rose of Jericho (Selaginella lepidophylla) does indeed flourish in England, where its defences against drought are less often called on than those of Xerophyta. But where, regular readers of this column will be asking, is the ostrich? He is indeed present, in the form of the efferent ducts of his epididymis (M.Z.J. Elias et 3 al.) but first we meet the tongue of the emu (which apparently has no taste buds), the oral and pharyngeal cavities of the Nile crocodile (only commercially raised saurians were studied by J.F. Putterill and J.T. Soley, ‘‘animals in the wild’’ refusing their cooperation) and the ‘‘copulatory complex’’ of a monogenean flatworm. Also present is the fungus-growing termite Macrotermes michaelseni: ‘‘The shady part of termite mounds above the ground level was excavated, thus opening the galleries towards the royal chamber, which was located 50 to 80 cm below ground level. The royal chamber hosted the queen, king, major and minor soldiers, workers, nymphs and eggs; all of which were collected. In addition, fungus combs in the galleries were investigated and soldier, worker and secondary reproductive castes were isolated’’. The surprise is at the end: ‘‘Although the results of sociality investigations indicated eusociality amongst the termites, a recording of two queens of the same size and one king that inhabited the same royal chamber was made at Kubung. This novel observation requires further study in order to clarify the atypical coexistence of two queens in a single mound’’ (O. Sithole et 3 al.). The volume ends with speculation about the macho attitudes of an early hominid (Paranthropus robustus), living at

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Drimolen 1.5–2 Mya ago. ‘‘Gorillas were recently proposed as a model for Paranthropus robustus social structurey . According to female aggregation practices present in both models, we can speculate that if Paranthropus robustus was the user of the bone tools [discussed earlier in the paper], the foraging activity in which they were used may have been conducted mainly by females’’ (L.R. Backwell and F. d’Errico). The Proceedings of the 21st All-Russian Conference on Electron Microscopy are to be found in Izv. Ross. Akad. Nauk and its English translation Bull. Russ. Acad. Sci. [33]. This contains only a very small selection of the papers delivered at the conference – smaller even than the fraction printed in the Microscopy & Microanalysis volume [10] and there, the remainder are at least available on the CD. Of those present in BRAS, ‘Prospects of developing multi-beam systems for low-voltage electron lithography’ (G.I. Fat’yanova and B.N. Vasichev) and ‘Mini-lenses for tiny low-voltage electronbeam devices’ (G.I. Fat’yanova) represent electron optics. Note that, like [19], these can be read on SpringerLink. I was about to submit this when a SpringerLink ‘‘New issue alert’’ displayed the proceedings of the XXII Conference [34]. Only 11 papers are listed, but several are of ultramicroscopical interest: First Russian standards in nanotechnology (V.P. Gavrilenko et 5 al.); Depth range of primary electrons, electron beam broadening and spatial resolution in electron-beam studies (F.A. Lukyanov et 2 al.); New principles of designing multibeam electron-optical microsystems for diagnostics of semiconductor structures (V.V. Kazmiruk and T.N. Savitskaya); and Equivalent cylinder model for describing the field of low-voltage electron gun (O.D. Potapkin). Better late than never, the Proceedings of EMAG 2007 are now available as vol. 126 of Journal of Physics: Conference Series, accessible free of charge at jpcs.iop.org [35]. The EMAG meetings have often been exciting, young microscopists presenting their Ph.D. and postdoc results alongside the older guard, and 2007 was not at all disappointing in this respect. The plenary lecture was delivered by M.M.J. Treacy et 8 al., who showed how fluctuation microscopy allows one to glimpse ‘‘order within the disarray’’. Sections on Functional materials, Biomaterials and Nanomaterials follow and these are not simply applications papers – several contain useful information about techniques. X. Xu et 4 al., for example, discuss electron tomography of cerium oxide nanostructures; L. Livadaru et 2 al. use point-source holography and U. Bangert et 5 al., single-atom EELS. There are five papers and four posters on nanofabrication. In the section on SEM, there are some striking examples of nanomanipulation by Y. Peng et 4 al. and by E. Meyer and H.-G. Braun, who have ‘‘integrated [a nanomanipulation tool] into a low voltage scanning electron microscope which guarantees the imaging of non-conductive uncoated polymer materials without charging effects’’. There are four papers and one poster on aberration correction; three of these are from Oxford and include work from the Department of Materials on confocal electron microscopy (E.C. Cosgriff et 5 al.), depth sectioning (A.L. d’Alfonso et 6 al. and, in a poster, G. Behan and P.D. Nellist) and tilt-series restoration (S. Haigh et 2 al.). I particularly recommend this group of papers, which are written in a style that draws the reader into the subject and form a concise introduction to, or even induction into, these new topics. The other paper is by J.M. Rodenburg, who considers the fundamental limitation of the geometric and multiple scattering constraints on the ptychographical principle; ptychography is also the subject of two posters ((K.M. Atkinson et 2 al. and A.C. Hurst and J.M. Rodenburg). The sections on TEM contain many other innovative contributions and the new generation of detectors is not forgotten (G. Moldovan et 2 al.). Altogether, an excellent EMAG and the brochure for the 2009 meeting, to be held in Sheffield in September, looks a worthy successor, with plenary or invited papers by D. Cockayne, D. Joy, G. van Tendeloo, L. Allen, P. Brown,

P. Gai, M. Hy¨tch, U. Kaiser (mistress of the SALVE project), A. Porter (carbon nanotubes interacting with human cells), J. Rodenburg, I. Utke and M. Varela. Returning to thematic proceedings, the record of the eighth Seminar on Problems of Theoretical and Applied Electron and Ion Optics, held in Moscow in May 2007, is available from SPIE [36]. Many of the papers are concerned with high-current-density beams but a few belong to the low-density domain. D.E. Greenfield and A.P. Shulenok describe a hybrid method of obtaining the field in magnetic systems when saturation is present. L.A. Baranova and G.M. Gusinsky simulate the behaviour of field-emission multi-tip cathodes, pointing out the critical points for their performance. The concluding section, ‘Electron and ion beam interactions with matter’, has a paper by T.A. Grishina and O.D. Potapkin on ‘Many-beam diffraction and electron beam channelling in crystal lattice’’. The European Microbeam Analysis Society (EMAS) held its tenth workshop on Modern Developments and Applications in Microbeam Analysis in May 2007 and much of the material presented is recorded in [37]. These workshops consist of invited plenary lectures and poster presentations by the participants and this ‘‘volume contains the full texts of six of the invited plenary lectures and of 25 papersy originating from the posters’’. The ¨ poster prize was won by E. Langer, M. Haschke and S. Dabritz, who have succeeded in using X-ray fluorescence to excite Kossel patterns in the SEM: ‘‘For the first time, it was shown how the micro-X-ray fluorescence analysis, the Laue method, and the X-ray excited Kossel diffraction can be combined advantageously with the high lateral resolution of the SEM. It comprises the determination of the crystal phase and lattice constants in the micro-range (Kossel technique), concentrations (X-ray fluorescence analysis, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy), crystal orientations (Laue method, EBSD and extremely precisely via Kossel diffraction) and the characterization of crystal defects (Kossel diffraction).’’ There are many excellent surveys as well as applications, notably in petrology and in the fine arts. R. Haswell et 2 al., for example, apply AEM to van Gogh’s painting grounds, after taking paint samples from his Basket with Pansies, Study of Cut Sunflowers and Portrait of Gauguin. I happened to look up one of the references, which is cited as an Amsterdam Ph.D. thesis but has two authors – is this a Dutch innovation? The next Workshop is to be held in Gdynia/Rumia, near Gdansk from 10 to 14 May 2009 but the Proceedings will be published not in Microchemica Acta but in the Institute of Physics Conference series. Volume 1026E of the MRS Symposia is available only on-line [38]; it contains the papers delivered at a symposium on ‘Quantitative electron microscopy for materials science’ in November 2007. Among the subjects discussed are magnetic chiral dichroism in the TEM, EELS of AlGaN nanowires, cement and concrete, STEM tomography, ultra-fast HRTEM, lattice-fringe fingerprinting, electron holography and strain measurement by quantitative HRTEM. It is many years since the last international conference on HVEM was held, in Kyoto in 1986 and the major congresses today rarely include sessions on HVEM. In recent years, however, high voltage has regained interest, in Japan especially, and in November 2008 an International Workshop on Recent Applications of HVEM was held in Tokyo. A ‘‘Collaborative Research Station’’ has been created, consisting of the HVEM units at Hokkaido University, Nagoya University, The National Institute of Physiological Sciences, Osaka University and Kyushu University, and one purpose of this workshop was to survey recent activity of this Research Station; future prospects and the role of aberration correction wee also on the agenda. Eleven abstracts are printed in the Program Book [39]. C.B. Carter opens the discussion by asking ‘‘TEM – at what voltage?’ and replies ‘‘All of them. But – not all in

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one instrument. We need centers of excellence that are run as Facilities – where different machines operating at different voltages and optimized for different applications, are available. In this talk, I’ll illustrate my personal (unbiased) viewpoint on why we should be installing more high-voltage microscopes, even though the textbooks [here, two books of which Carter is coauthor are cited] and the Journal of Materials Science hardly mention them – there are now so few available’’. He is followed by M.H. Ellisman (Director of the National Centre for Microscopy and Imaging Research in the University of California at San Diego), for whose research (on the nervous system) a high-voltage microscope is essential and who goes to Japan to find one. H. Mori then describes the Collaborative Research Station, illustrating his paper with examples of results that could not have been obtained without HVEM. A group from the Korea Basic Science Institute in Daejeon (Y.-j. Kim et al.) describe the numerous applications of their HVEM, mainly 3-D structural analysis of materials at the atomic level. They also perform electron tomography on thick biological specimens and are currently developing cryo-HVEM. S. Watanabe et 2 al. describe ‘Recent activities at HVEM Laboratory in Hokkaido University’, after which R. Shigemoto presents ‘Highvoltage electron microscopy for biomedical use: 25 year experience of shared use’ with justifiable pride: ‘‘This machine has been kept in the best condition by dedicated staff members and contributed to more than 400 projects and 165 research papers in 25 years. Major application has been 3-D observation and morphometric measurement of contrasted material of experimental animals’’. H. Shigematsu et 4 al., one of whom is the Y.-j. Kim mentioned above, use a Zernike phase plate in the Korean HVEM to observe ice-embedded cyanobacteria directly. The last HVEM in the USA is in Albany NY; as M. Marko et 22 al. recount, it is the last of the AEI EM-7 microscopes still in operation and many accessories have been constructed for it (for example, ‘‘a special ultra-sensitive TV-rate camera for working with radiation-sensitive specimens’’). S. Matsumura then gives a most interesting account of the ‘Present status of the HVEM Laboratory, Kyushu University’, where a new HVEM came into operation in October 2007. A new instrument (JEM-1300NEF) with an in-column O-filter, a pulsed laser illumination system, 3-D tomography tools and an X-ray detector unit will be completed in March 2010. The next abstract, by E. Johnson et 3 al., describes the use of environmental TEM to study cerium oxide as a soot catalyst. No details of the microscopy are given and, in particular, we are told nothing about the accelerating voltage or the environmental cell; a reference is given to a paper in Advances in Catalysis 50 (2006) 77–95 but I could find no mention of HVEM there. The last abstract, by S. Muto, describes ‘Recent studies and future plans of HVEM in Nagoya University’. After commenting on the decline in high-voltage microscopy outside Japan, S. Muto presents the preliminary design of the new HVEM that Nagoya hopes to acquire. The ‘‘key functions [of this] high-voltage electron microscope for reaction science [are] (i) scanning the nano-probe, (ii) a post-column electron energy-loss spectrometer, (iii) 3-D observation by STEM and (iv) an environmental cell for in situ chemical reaction observation’’. By the time you read this, the papers presented at the Royal Society Discussion Meeting on ‘New possibilities with aberrationcorrected electron microscopy’ will no doubt have appeared in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London [40] and I therefore give a quick preview here – more details next time. The contributions form three groups: ‘Aberration correction: history and instrumentation’, ‘Advanced applications of aberration correction’ and ‘Future directions’. In the first group were lectures by M. Haider and O. Krivanek et 8 al. on aberration corrector design and on a highresolution monochromator for aberration-corrected STEM/EELS respectively and by J. Zach on chromatic correction, as well as an

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account of the history of aberration correction by me. In the second group are H. Lichte et 2 al. on off-axis electron holography in aberration-corrected TEM, K. Urban et 5 al. on negative spherical aberration conditions, S. Haigh et 2 al. on aberration correction and super-resolution exit-wave reconstruction in studies of nanoparticles and S. Pennycook et 15 al. on solving energy problems via aberration-corrected STEM. ‘Future directions’, orchestrated by J.C.H. Spence, were charted by U. Dahmen et 5 al. (TEAM), H. Rose, who presented the SALVE project at the University of Ulm, G. Behan et 3 al. (optical sectioning in the aberration-corrected STEM), C. Colliex et 9 al. (multi-dimensional and multi-signal approaches in STEM) and A. Howie (zooming out to overview). The journals offer several other proceedings collections: a special issue of Materials Transactions on Advances in Electron Microscopy for Materials Characterization [41]; Ion sources [42]; Microscopy applied to Building Materials [43]. The June 2009 issue of Journal of Electron Microscopy is a special number [44] on ‘Advanced electron microscopy in materials physics’ with papers on the history of correction and general reviews (H. Rose, S.J. Pennycook et 4 al., A. Maigne and R.D. Twesten), instrumentation (H. Inada et 4 al., P.E. Batson, M. Saito et 7 al., J. Shiue et 13 al., B. Kabius et 7 al.), methods (H.L. Xin and D.A. Muller, L.C. Gontard et 4 al., K. Jarausch and D.N. Leonard)) and applications (5 articles); more details next time.

7. Forthcoming books Je feuilletais Paludes, Le Paysan de Paris, Le soleil se le ve aussi et je me disais que jamais, au grand jamais, je ne pourrais commencer un livre, le poursuivre pendant des mois et des mois et trouver la force de le terminer. )Finir, e crit Delacroix dans son Journal, demande une aˆ me d’acier.* I turned the pages of Paludes, Le Paysan de Paris, The Sun also Rises and I told myself never, absolutely never would I be capable of starting to write a book, continuing month after month and then summoning up the strength to end it. )Finishing*, writes Delacroix in his Journal, )requires a soul of steel* Jean d’Ormesson, Une fˆete en larmes The impatiently awaited new edition of ‘‘Williams & Carter’’ is due in June 2009 [45]; also due later this year are 3-D Images of Materials Structures by J. Ochser and K. Schladitz [46] and Nanoscopy and Multidimensional Fluorescence Microscopy edited by A. Diaspro [47]. References [1] H. Rose, Geometrical Charged-particle Optics, Springer, Berlin and New York, ISBN 978-3-540-85915-4, 2009 Price: h137.10. [2] J. Orloff (Ed.), Handbook of Charged-particle Optics, CRC/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, ISBN 978-1-4200-4554-3, 2009 Price: US$134.95. [3] E. Munro, J. Rouse (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Charged-particle Optics (CPO-7), Cambridge, 24–28 July 2006. Physics Procedia 1(1), 2008. Price: access free on /www.sciencedirect.comS, ISSN:1875-3892. [4] L. Reimer revised by H. Kohl, Transmission Electron Microscopy, fifth ed., Springer, Berlin and New York, ISBN 978-0-387-40093-8, 2008 Price: h109.95, USD 139, E`87. [5] P.W. Hawkes (Ed.), Aberration-corrected electron microscopy, Advances in Imaging & Electron Physics, vol. 153, 2008. Price: E`110, US$215, h160, ISBN:978-0-12-374220-9; ISSN:1076-5670. [6] D. Greenfield, M. Monastyrskiy, Selected problems of computational charged particle optics, Advances in Imaging & Electron Physics 155 (2009) Price: E`110, US$215, h160. [7] EMC 2008, Proceedings of the 14th European Microscopy Congress, Aachen, 1–5 September 2008. M. Luysberg, K. Tillmann, T. Weirich (Eds.), vol. 1, Instrumentation and Methods; S. Richter, A. Schwedt (Eds.), vol. 2, Materials

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