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Needs of foster parent resource workers
Children and Youth Services Review 46 (2014) 120–127
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Children and Youth Services Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth
Needs of foster parent resource workers Jason D. Brown a,⁎, Landy Anderson b, Julie Rodgers a a b
Western University, Canada Native Child and Family Services of Toronto, Canada
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 2 June 2014 Received in revised form 14 August 2014 Accepted 18 August 2014 Available online 27 August 2014 Keywords: Foster care Resource worker Canada Concept map
a b s t r a c t Foster parent resource workers are those staff members in foster care who have dedicated support and monitoring functions. Resource workers in a large metropolitan Canadian area were asked the question “What do you need to be a good resource worker?” A total of 68 participants generated responses and those responses were analyzed using the concept mapping method. The result was 7 concepts, including: good conflict management, understanding of family functioning, knowledge of policy and practice, voice in decisions, confidence, self awareness, and right kind of personality. © 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction While only a small proportion of child welfare investigations result in out of home placement, the ratio of foster home versus group or institutional care for children entering the system remains approximately 5:1 (Trocmé et al., 2010). Foster care remains the most often utilized placement. However, retention challenges persist in many jurisdictions and there are not enough homes to meet current demand. A major factor associated with foster parent attrition is poor support from the fostering agency. Foster parent support has been found to be the most effective aspect of agency service to them pre-placement (Esaki, Ahn, & Gregory, 2012) as well as a major consideration in their decision to remain or quit fostering (Geiger, Hayes, & Lietz, 2013). In addition, a review of state level initiatives to promote placement stability identified common strategies of which several focus on support to foster parents through service provision, training, consultation and teamwork (Blakey et al., 2012). Foster parent resource workers are primary staff within agencies that have multiple responsibilities associated with recruitment and retention of foster parents as well as placement stability and quality assurance for children served. They assess and approve as well as monitor foster placements as well as address issues that arise in placement. They also carry responsibility for ensuring that government standards are maintained and relevant procedures followed. Despite the centrality and importance of their roles in foster care, very little research has
been conducted on their experiences. The purpose of the present study was to describe the needs of foster parent resource workers using a mixed-methodology known as Concept Mapping (Trochim, 1989). 2. Literature review Resource workers in foster care are those staff members within an agency who work most directly with foster parents. The job typically has a dual focus on both recruitment and retention of caregivers and placements as well as supervision and monitoring to ensure that standards are met. There are few references to the title “resource worker” in the literature but multiple references via Internet search, suggesting that while the role exists in many jurisdictions research to date has used other terms to refer to the workers who are most closely connected to foster families within agencies. In our search of the existing literature we found the terms “social worker”, “child protection” and “child welfare” worker to be the most common. To focus our search we reviewed studies that included reference to the professional staff members who worked directly with foster parents within the context of children's services agencies. The needs of staff who work directly with foster families include: good self-care, professional knowledge, physical presence, role clarity, good collaboration, knowledge of the community, appreciate strengths and effort, good relationships, effective teacher, know the system, know yourself, and good communication. 2.1. Good self-care
⁎ Corresponding author at: Faculty of Education, University of Western Ontario, 1137 Western Road, London N6G 1G7, Canada. Tel.: +1 519 661 2111x88617; fax: +1 519 661 3833. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.D. Brown).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.08.014 0190-7409/© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Good self care (Schwartz, 2011) for staff in foster care has personal, workload, and development dimensions. Qualities that contribute to personal engagement in care for self include clear goals, hope,
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willingness to make changes, appreciation of personal motives, respect for differences in culture, as well as honesty and persistence (Altman, 2008). Additionally, a manageable caseload (Roux, Bungane, & Strydom, 2010), adequate preparation for the work and educational opportunities on the job (McGarrigle & Walsh, 2011) contribute to willingness and engagement in self care. 2.2. Professional knowledge Knowledge that is not necessarily agency or system-based, but gained from academic and professional education or training is necessary. Specific areas that have been a focus in the literature include knowledge about disabilities and children with disabilities (Shannon & Tappan, 2011) as well as the histories and realities with which children who come into care and the needs of foster families to successfully care for them (Skrypek, Wells, Bauerkemper, Koranda, & Link, 2008). 2.3. Physical presence In addition to education and support, workers need to have a physical presence in the lives of foster parents. While there is increasing recognition of the possibilities for distance delivery, including Internet- and telephone-based options, there remains a need for physical contact. The extent of physical presence and involvement, supplemented by virtual contact, varies but there is a need for at least some in-person connection (Dodsworth et al., 2013) as well as ongoing involvement between contacts (McGarrigle & Walsh, 2011). 2.4. Role clarity The role of the resource worker also has to be clear in terms of activities as well as organizational placement. Principal activities of resource workers include reinforcement of the responsibilities that foster parents have with the foster children (Christiansen, Havik, & Anderssen, 2010) to ensure quality care, as well as reinforcement of foster parents' commitment to care for the foster children (Brannen, Mooney, & Statham, 2009), to promote retention. Within the organization, workers benefit from latitude in decision-making that is respected by others (Stanley et al., 2013) as well as a good supervisor and supervision plan (Renner, Porter, & Preister, 2009). 2.5. Good collaboration Collaboration with a range of others who are involved with a foster family is essential. The need for cooperation (Briggs, 2009) with all members of the foster home is necessary (Richardson, 2008). Workers also need to work effectively with a range of other professionals (McLean, 2012) including others in children's services including protection, placement services and foster care (Cox, 2013). The challenge lies in the ability to bring interests from these parties together to ensure that there is some continuity among service providers involved (Cushing & Greenblatt, 2009). 2.6. Knowledge of the community The community context within which they are working includes norms and resources that should be understood. As much as possible, workers who take time to learn about the context and develop practical knowledge and understanding (Pölkki, Vornanen, Pursiainen, & Riikonen, 2012) benefit a great deal in their decision-making. The local knowledge is itself a resource for foster families (Raphel, 2012) who may, as a result of good referrals, avoid some out of pocket expenses (Farmer, 2010) while obtaining needed support.
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2.7. Appreciate strengths and effort A significant effort by workers to attend to what is going well is needed. This applies to an understanding of children, foster families and the community as well as organizational context. In general, workers who appreciate the emotional efforts of foster parents with the children (Pickin, Brunsden, & Hill, 2011) also witness the resilience in both foster children and foster parents (Fernandez, 2008). 2.8. Good relationships There is a considerable literature on the qualities of good relationships and the interconnections between workers and foster families. Specifically, a good relationship with foster parents is important (Gerring, Kemp, & Marcenko, 2008). This relationship includes active listening and honesty (Randle, Miller, Dolnicar, & Ciarrochi, 2012) as well as sensitivity (Koren-Karie, Oppenheim, Yuval-Adler, & Mor, 2013) and awareness by both all parties about professional responsibilities that workers have (Leeson, 2010). In addition, an emphasis of caring and responsible relationships between foster parents and children is important (Frey, Cushing, Freundlich, & Brenner, 2008). 2.9. Effective teacher Workers also have responsibilities to educate about the responsibilities of being a foster parent. To do this, they need to be supportive (Goldberg, Moyer, Kinkler, & Richardson, 2012) as well as a good organizer and planner who can make suggestions that are followed through on (Hibbert & Frankl, 2011). In terms of content, they assist foster parents to assist foster children with promoting self-esteem, identity and confidence (Moss, 2009), as well as preparing families and children for transitions (Castellanos-Brown & Lee, 2010). 2.10. Know the system Workers need to know how the system works, the layers of bureaucracy and political context within which they function. There is clear recognition in the literature about the importance of workers knowing and applying relevant policies and guidelines (Hicks, Gibbs, Weatherly, & Byford, 2009) as well as how organizing by foster parents themselves, also known as “foster parent professionalization” can be to their benefit (Hollin & Larkin, 2011). 2.11. Know yourself Self-awareness is another important need for workers that has received attention in the literature. It begins with knowing one's own values and biases (Mallon, 2011) and where they come from, such as one's own family experiences and values and how they affect their work in foster care (O'Brien, 2012). Armed with personal awareness workers are better positioned to promote emotional awareness in others (Mullins, 2011). In addition, the cultural dimension of awareness and practice is essential to have (Howe, 2010). 2.12. Good communication skills There has also been attention to the communication skills of workers in the fostering literature. Being clear and focused in expectations (Keddell, 2012) is the key. However, an emphasis has been placed on willingness by workers in foster care to work with the foster children and youth as well as foster parents (Murphy & Jenkinson, 2012). In particular, workers should be ready to listen to the foster children about what is working for them (Mitchell, Kuczynski, Tubbs, & Ross, 2010). While there is considerable amount of high quality literature about what workers in foster care need to be effective at their roles, little
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attention has been paid to the needs of resource workers specifically. This is a significant limitation of the existing literature. Resource workers are distinguished by their central role in foster care within agencies as those who not work most closely with the foster parents having a dual function as both support providers and monitors for quality assurance. These are not typical functions for workers in foster care. We found the literature to be heavily weighted toward the roles of social workers with foster children in care, as opposed to workers for foster parents. The purpose of the present study was to describe the needs of foster parent resource workers according to the resource workers themselves and compare these to the existing literature for points of convergence and divergence. Resource workers in a large metropolitan Canadian area were asked to respond to the question “What do you need to be a good foster parent resource worker?”
3. Method Concept mapping (Trochim, 1989) is a mixed method approach for the collection and quantitative analysis of qualitative data. It has been used with different participant groups for a range of purposes. Recent studies utilizing this approach have focused on topics ranging from music improvisation from the perspectives of successful musicians (Wopereis, Stoyanov, Kirschner, & Van Merriënboer, 2013) and constructing a definition of commitment in romantic relationships from the perspective of adults (Pope & Cashwell, 2013). Concept mapping has been used to develop conceptual frameworks, for example adolescent Internet addiction (Moreno, Jelenchick, & Christakis, 2013), as well as program development in substance use (Windsor, 2013) smoking cessation (Dawson, Cargo, Stewart, Chong, & Daniel, 2013) strategies to address bullying (Vaughn, Jacquez, & McLinden, 2013) and parent training in children's mental health (Johnson, Byers, Byrnes, Davis-Groves, & McDonald, 2013). The approach has been employed in the field of program evaluation (Neuman, Shahor, Shina, Sarid, & Saar, 2013), for example in the expected effects of surveillance technology with individuals in residential placement (Niemeijer, Frederiks, Depla, Eefsting, & Hertogh, 2013). The concept mapping (Trochim, 1989) process includes four main steps. These steps include: collecting responses, organizing the responses, representing responses and interpreting responses. In the present study, responses to the questions were collected through focus-group discussions and written verbatim on flipcharts by participants attending a foster parent resource worker workshop. Those who expressed interest in organizing responses provided by all resource workers were contacted by telephone by researchers at a later date to group them into concepts. Their combined groupings were analyzed using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to identify themes.
3.1. Obtaining responses Researchers provided a presentation on current research in foster care to a group of foster parent resource workers in a large metropolitan area. All were invited to participate in the study following the presentation. Those who were interested provided written consent. In focus groups of 6–8, participants brainstormed responses to the focal question and recorded them on flipcharts. Each was asked about her or his interest in grouping responses at a later time and those who were willing provided their contact information to the researchers. A total of 68 individuals participated. Each was employed by one of the 14 Children's Aid Societies in the area. They were predominantly female (90%). The average age was 44. They had been working in child welfare for an average of 18 years and 9 years, on average, in foster care. Participants had been employed as a foster parent resource worker for an average of 8 years.
3.2. Organizing responses The researchers reviewed all responses. Unclear responses were edited for clarity (e.g. “unfortunately is necessary to have a reliable vehicle” was changed to “dependable vehicle”). Redundant responses were removed (e.g. from the responses “family centered” and “family focused”, only “family focused” was retained). There were 73 unique responses for the concept mapping analysis. These responses were cut into separate slips of paper and mailed to participants from the focus groups that had indicated their interest. Each was asked to group the responses together in whatever way made sense. There were 12 sorts sent back to the researchers. 3.3. Representing responses Multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis were used to analyze the sort data using the concept system (Trochim, 1987). Multidimensional scaling is used to “represent and provide a basis for understanding the structure inherent in certain types of data involving judgments about stimuli” (MacCallum, 1988, p. 421). In this non-parametric analysis, a table of similarities is represented as distances between each of the responses. The table of similarities is constructed by combining individual matrices, completed by each sorter, based on their groupings of responses. A high value within the final matrix suggests that the cell where two responses intersect reflects conceptual similarity between those responses. A low value in a cell suggests that there is limited conceptual similarity between responses. The results of multidimensional scaling plotted responses into a two-dimensional space, with distances between them that represented the frequencies with which they were sorted into the same groups by participants in distances. For example, response 58 “self-care for workers” and 12 “computer skills” were located in the “west” and “east” ends of the map, furthest apart from one another indicating that they were rarely, if ever, grouped together by participants. In contrast, response 52 “raise difficult issues” and 22 “excellent assessment and clinical skills” in the “south-east” area were often, if not always, grouped together by participants. A bridging index indicated the degree to which a response “bridged” or was grouped together with responses in other areas of the map. A low bridging index, between 0.00 and 0.25, indicated that a response was grouped only with others in close proximity to it. A high bridging index, between 0.75 and 1.00, indicated that a response was grouped with responses in other areas of the map. Cluster analysis used the multidimensional scaling results to organize individual responses into clusters. Ward's (1963) minimum variance technique was used for the hierarchical cluster analysis (Everitt, 1980) of the multidimensional scaling coordinate values to group the responses into clusters. At the beginning of the analysis each response was treated as its own cluster and at each step, two clusters were combined until at the end, all responses were within one cluster. The final decision about an appropriate number of concepts was based on both qualitative (i.e. conceptual similarities between responses within the clusters and conceptual differences between responses within different clusters) and quantitative (i.e. low average bridging indices reflected clusters with responses that were rarely grouped with responses in other clusters) evidence. The researchers reviewed maps with 12, 10, 8, 7, 6 and 5 clusters before determining that the 7-concept solution fits the data best. Researchers also assigned labels to the concepts that reflected the content of each. 4. Results In the concept map below (see Fig. 1), each number represents one of the 74 unique responses provided by participants (see Table 1). The concepts represent the way that 12 participants grouped the responses. In response to the question “What do you need to be a good foster parent resource worker?” there were 7 concepts, including: good conflict
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Fig. 1. Concept map.
management, understanding of family functioning, knowledge of policy and practice, voice in decisions, confidence, self awareness, and right kind of personality. 5. Discussion In this section, responses made by participants are described and compared to the literature. 5.1. Good conflict management In this concept responses emphasized the prevention and remediation of conflict. Workers need the ability to “resolve and manage conflict”, with “good conflict resolution skills”, being “fair but firm” as well as “able to set clear boundaries”. Conflict prevention is aided by a worker's “strength based” approach as well as personal and professional “knowledge of parenting skills” and ability to “understand impact of fostering on their family”. They are “able to challenge and praise” and “motivate change”. Workers also need “leadership skills” and “advocacy ability”. They function at times as “teachers” and “trouble shooter(s)” who find themselves “multi tasking” with the skills they have working with people as well as “computer skills” and “paper skills”. Practically, they also need a “dependable vehicle”. There is a literature in the area of communication, emphasizing the qualities of clarity (Keddell, 2012), supportive listening (Goldberg et al., 2012), cooperation (Briggs, 2009; Richardson, 2008) and consistent follow through (Hibbert & Frankl, 2011). Positive relationships between workers and foster parents have also been described as a need (Frey et al., 2008). Additionally, the recognition of emotional efforts that foster parents put into their care of children (Pickin et al., 2011) and the family, was important (Fernandez, 2008). While the literature attended most clearly to preventive aspects of worker–parent relationship, there was less attention to the management of direct conflict and escalation that participants in the present study noted were important needs for workers.
5.2. Understanding of family functioning In this concept the responses focused on the needs of resource workers to have good working knowledge of families and systems. They need “knowledge of whole system” within which they are situated, as well as remaining “family focused”, with an ability to “understand family dynamics”, and application of “knowledge of child development”. Workers need good judgment based on “excellent assessment and clinical skills” as well as willingness to “raise difficult issues” when necessary. In the area of systems, there is a related literature on the types of issues children may come into care with, and disabilities in particular (Shannon & Tappan, 2011), where sensitivity to family functioning and family functioning within the community as well as systems of support for the child her or himself are needed (Skrypek et al., 2008). However, emphasis of participants on the family system was not as well matched with the literature. There was less attention to the knowledge of types of systems within which families exist in the literature than the participants described. 5.3. Knowledge of policy and practice The responses in this concept centered on the need for resource workers to have a good knowledge and judgment about standards regarding safety in foster homes. Specifically, they need “understanding of functions in agency and procedures” as well as “legislation and guidelines” for “risk management” purposes. This knowledge could be gained through “training” as well as direct “child welfare experience”. They would benefit from having “share(d) values of agency” as well as good “work/life balance” and “time management” skills. It was also noted that “lower case loads would help”. There was considerable overlap between participants' experiences and the literature concerning knowledge of the government systems, within which the agency operates, and the ways that workers can practice self-care to manage the manifestations of large scale challenges. Specifically, participants and the literature referred to the need to be
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Table 1 Cluster items and bridging values for concept map. Cluster and statement Good conflict management 1. Able to challenge and praise 3. Advocacy ability 16. Dependable vehicle 43. Motivate change 27. Good conflict resolution skills 2. Able to set clear boundaries 12. Computer skills 62. Strength based 71. Understand impact of fostering on their family 65. Teachers 23. Fair but firm 53. Resolve and manage conflict 44. Multi tasking 36. Knowledge of parenting skills 38. Leadership skills 68. Trouble shooter 47. Paper skills Understanding of family functioning 22. Excellent assessment and clinical skills 52. Raise difficult issues 35. Knowledge of child development 70. Understand family dynamics 24. Family focused 37. Knowledge of whole system Knowledge of policy and practice 56. Risk management 72. Understanding of functions in agency and procedures 61. Share values of agency 9. Child welfare experience 74. Work/life balance 67. Training 39. Legislation and guidelines 66. Time management 40. Lower case loads would help Voice in decisions 4. Be heard by the agency 50. Personal support network 20. Empowering foster parents 30. Grief, trauma, attachment, loss issues 31. Have time for your foster families 60. Sense of where the kids come from 58. Self-care for workers 42. More time 63. Strong supportive team Confidence 34. Know about attachment 73. Validation 51. Pick your battles 69. Trust your gut 6. Build trust 41. Mediation 45. Objective Self awareness 8. Child centered 15. Culturally aware and adept 54. Respect for individuality 57. Self reflection 64. Tact Right kind of personality 5. Be human 26. Gentleness 17. Diplomacy 7. Caring 29. Good listener 49. Personable 10. Communication skills 11. Compassion 19. Empathy 32. Honesty 18. Emotional intelligence 33. Integrity 21. Engagement skills 46. Organized 13. Confidence 48. Patience
Table 1 (continued) Bridging index 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.21 0.32 0.38 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.22 0.35 0.35 0.31 0.30 0.40 0.47 0.42 0.46 0.35 0.32 0.39 0.53 0.51 0.40 0.58 0.51 0.49 0.69 0.52 0.42 0.61 0.80 0.74 0.72 0.54 0.97 0.91 0.97 1.00 0.69 0.68 0.36 0.36 0.33 0.27 0.43 0.28 0.42 0.42 0.55 0.81 0.50 0.60 0.40 0.46 0.09 0.08 0.03 0.12 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.17
Cluster and statement
Bridging index
14. 55. 28. 25. 59.
0.04 0.05 0.20 0.19 0.25
Creativity Responsible Good judgment Flexibility Sense of humor
up to date on relevant legislation and standards (Hicks et al., 2009). Additionally, there were references to the need for good preparation (Schwartz, 2011) as well as opportunities to develop knowledge and skills once in the position (Cheung, 2011), and reduced demands on time through caseload reduction (Roux et al., 2010). 5.4. Voice in decisions Responses in this concept focused on the need for resource workers to have a regular place in agency decision-making and feeling that their contributions were considered. Specifically, they needed “more time” to contribute and “be heard by the agency”. Resource workers remained cognizant of their efforts for “empowering foster parents” and to do this, they needed to “have time for your foster families”. They were also aware because of a “sense of where the kids come from” that there were “grief, trauma, attachment, loss issues” for foster children that foster parents were working with. Foster parents needed the resource workers to be part of a “strong supportive team”. To remain emotionally and physically available, resource staff needed their own “personal support network” and to put emphasis on “self-care for workers” themselves. There were several consistencies between participants' experiences and the literature concerning resource workers' decision-making. Recognition of resource worker role (Christiansen et al., 2010) and skill (Stanley et al., 2013) for working with foster parents was reflected in responses and the literature The ability to work with others (Cushing & Greenblatt, 2009), both outside (McLean, 2012) as well as within the agency (Cox, 2013) with clarity about lines of communication and accountability were also consistent (Renner et al., 2009) with existing research. Time for the relationships with foster parents and children was also reported by participants and found within the literature (Brannen et al., 2009; Mitchell et al., 2010; Murphy & Jenkinson, 2012). However, we did not find reference in the literature to formal attention by the agency for staff time dedicated to self care, which was identified by participants. Additionally, there was literature concerning foster parent “professionalization” (Hollin & Larkin, 2011), but participants in the present study did not identify this. 5.5. Confidence In this concept resource workers described the need for selfconfidence. While it was important to have specific knowledge, such as “know about attachment”, the more central ingredient to confidence was “validation” from self and others. This validation could come from positive or successful experience “trust(ing) your gut” and “pick(ing) your battles”, or from “build(ing) trust” with families where there have been challenges. Additionally, the ability to use “mediation” and be “objective” when necessary, were identified. We did not locate literature in the area of intuitive practice from life and work experience as needs for foster parent resource workers. However, participants in the present study identified these issues. 5.6. Self awareness Being aware of self and others was a common issue represented by responses within this concept. The need for “respect for individuality”
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was noted, as was having “tact” when addressing issues with families and other professionals. Workers were needed to have a “child centered” awareness of needs and difficulties as well as be “culturally aware and adept”. The practice of “self reflection” was seen as a means to develop this awareness. There was considerable overlap between this concept and the literature on self-awareness and interpersonal sensitivity. Both participants and the existing literature attended to the need for care when interacting, based on awareness of self (Mallon, 2011; O'Brien, 2012) and awareness of other, so that positive outcomes were more likely (Mullins, 2011). Cultural competence was also identified as a need for resource workers (Howe, 2010). 5.7. Right kind of personality There were many responses within this concept organized around the topic of personality. Workers need to “be human”, “caring” as well as having the “flexibility” to address problems in a reasonable way. Their sense of humanity would find expression in the qualities of being “personable” as well as having “patience” and a “sense of humor”. They need to be people of “good judgment” who are also “good listener(s)” and display “diplomacy” in their dealings. Participants also noted that workers need “gentleness” as well as a quiet “confidence”, “organized” and “responsible” conduct, particularly in emotionally charged situations. Workers need abilities as well as talent in the areas of “emotional intelligence”, “engagement skills”, and “communication skills”. Workers also display “compassion”, “empathy”, “honesty”, and “integrity”. Finally, there was a need for “creativity” to find solutions to difficult problems. There was limited literature on the personality characteristics needed by resource workers, but considerable literature concerning the importance and ingredients for a positive working relationship with foster families. Similar ingredients to forming a healthy relationship for working purposes are reflected in the traits of individuals who come to that relationship. In terms of what the resource worker can bring, such as caring and flexibility as well as gentleness and confidence, clarity and accountability, have been reported in the literature (Gerring et al., 2008; Koren-Karie et al., 2013; Leeson, 2010; Randle et al., 2012) as has been the ability to be directive (Castellanos-Brown & Lee, 2010; Moss, 2009). 6. Conclusion There were many similarities between the needs of foster parent resource workers in the present study and the issues identified in the existing literature. Areas where similarities exist centered on selfawareness, clear communication with supportive listening, understanding of government systems including relevant policies and regulations, clarity of various team members' roles, and the value of good working relationships with foster parents. Despite their particular role and functions in their agencies, it appears that the needs of resource workers, those who work most closely with foster families in child welfare agencies, are similar in many ways to the needs of child protection staff in general. It is important to note, however, that there were some differences between the existing literature and the needs of foster parent resource workers in the present study. These differences reflect ways in which the needs of resource workers have particular relevance to their work and distinguish the demands of the role from those of child welfare workers in general. These differences also suggest ways to improve conditions for these workers and to promote stability in their efforts to recruit, retain, support and monitor foster parents. Differences evident by presence in the literature but not by participants in the study included distance service delivery and attention to professionalization in foster care. Needs identified by participants, but not apparent in the existing
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literature, included dealing with conflict as well as the importance of self-care and intuition for their practice. Study participants did not refer to the distance delivery of service by resource workers to foster parents that was apparent in the literature. One possible interpretation of this difference is the geographic location of the present study. While the existing literature draws from communities of varying sizes and locations, including proximity to major urban centers, participants in the present study all resided within a large metropolitan area. The cost savings of distance delivery would likely be more pronounced in areas where travel was costly, whereas within a metropolitan area travel avoidance because of cost was not justifiable. On the issue of professionalization, there was no reference by resource workers in the present study. However, there is a literature on the topic and differing opinions about what professionalization would look like and mean for the foster parents and agencies. There are two possibilities we suggest that can account this difference. The first possibility is that the specialization of foster care, based on foster children's needs and foster parents' experience, already distinguished between different types of foster parents. Those with more specialization (e.g. treatment foster care of children with sever disabilities) may have already been viewed with greater credibility and assigned that status, based on responsibility and demands of foster parents. The second possibility is that resource workers or foster parents in these jurisdictions may not have seen “professionalization” as desirable. Agencies may have found the potential financial and political costs of an organized workforce to be too high, and foster parents may have found the startup costs and barriers beyond their means. It would be worthwhile to explore different stakeholders' perceptions of professionalization, as well as costs and benefits according to each, in future research including resource workers. There were two differences identified by the resource worker participants in the present study but not the existing literature. Resource workers recognized the topic of conflict. The expectation was not that conflict was to be avoided, but rather, it was expected but managed well. Resource workers saw their preventive work being done through forging a good relationship, with friendliness, clarity and accountability, that would put them in better stead to assist when challenges arose within the home or between foster parents and the agency. They did describe the need for “resolution” skills, and this notion could be expanded upon to include how to recognize conflicts, types of conflicts, the stakeholders involved, opportunities for give-and-take in solution development and implementation as well as management of the relationship following resolution. These are essential components that have not been attended well in the literature, but ones which resource workers have insight into from their experience. It is suggested that future research attend to the issue of conflict and its management, including the preventive and reactive as well as follow up aspects. Finally, there was recognition by resource workers that self care and intuition were important parts of their work. In terms of self care, workers knew what they could do to relax and manage their expectations and reactions, because they were teaching and modeling these for foster parents as part of their role. However, taking the time to use their knowledge and skills on themselves came in as a secondary priority and not only for themselves by themselves in their off hours, but for themselves during work hours within the context of the agency. The pressures to do more with less prioritized recruitment and retention, safety and support functions, understandably, as fundamental. Their needs for self care did not only occur when not at work and it is suggested that there may be benefit in exploring the possibilities for a self care regimen in the workplace for its potentially positive effects on productivity and judgment. In the age of accountability with a corresponding need to follow evidence informed practice, there is much less attention to the notion of intuition and that role it plays in judgment. Resource workers in the present study relied on their experience to assist with decisions that
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were not clear-cut or clearly outlined in guides or templates. There is a danger, we believe, in moving forward to greater specificity without a corresponding recognition of what is not known and how these unknowns can be represented through a combination of personal and professional experience as well as intuited based on the situation at hand. We are not suggesting complete freedom without accountability in decision-making for resource workers, but rather, that the concept of practice-informed evidence be considered as a means to respect the wisdom that experienced practitioners bring to their work. This too, can be systematically studied, and it would seem relevant to explore the idea of intuition, where and how it is expressed and what the outcomes are of these processes for resource workers. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of this research through a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. 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The mutual benefits of listening to young people in care, with a particular focus on grief and loss: An Irish foster carer's perspective. Child Care in Practice, 18(3), 243–253. Neuman, A., Shahor, N., Shina, I., Sarid, A., & Saar, Z. (2013). Evaluation utilization research— Developing a theory and putting it to use. Evaluation and Program Planning, 36(1), 64–70. Niemeijer, A., Frederiks, B., Depla, M., Eefsting, J., & Hertogh, C. (2013). The place of surveillance technology in residential care for people with intellectual disabilities: Is there an ideal model of application. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57(3), 201–215. O'Brien, Valerie (2012). The benefits and challenges of kinship care. Child Care in Practice, 18(2), 127–146. Pickin, Lauren, Brunsden, Vivienne, & Hill, Rowena (2011). Exploring the emotional experiences of foster carers using the photovoice technique. Adoption & Fostering, 35(2), 61–75. Pölkki, Pirjo, Vornanen, Riitta, Pursiainen, Merja, & Riikonen, Marjo (2012). Children's participation in child-protection processes as experienced by foster children and social workers. Child Care in Practice, 18(2), 107–125. Pope, A. L., & Cashwell, C. S. (2013). Moral commitment in intimate committed relationships: A conceptualization from cohabiting same-sex and opposite-sex partners. The Family Journal, 21(1), 5–14. Randle, Melanie, Miller, Leonie, Dolnicar, Sara, & Ciarrochi, Joseph (2012). Heterogeneity among potential foster carers: An investigation of reasons for not foster caring. Australian Social Work, 65(3), 382–397. Raphel, Sally (2012). Latest on child welfare systems and continued call for White House conference on children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 25(2), 105–107. Renner, Lynette M., Porter, Rebecca L., & Preister, Steven (2009). Improving the retention of child welfare workers by strengthening skills and increasing support for supervisors. 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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Children and Youth Services Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth
Needs of foster parent resource workers Jason D. Brown a,⁎, Landy Anderson b, Julie Rodgers a a b
Western University, Canada Native Child and Family Services of Toronto, Canada
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 2 June 2014 Received in revised form 14 August 2014 Accepted 18 August 2014 Available online 27 August 2014 Keywords: Foster care Resource worker Canada Concept map
a b s t r a c t Foster parent resource workers are those staff members in foster care who have dedicated support and monitoring functions. Resource workers in a large metropolitan Canadian area were asked the question “What do you need to be a good resource worker?” A total of 68 participants generated responses and those responses were analyzed using the concept mapping method. The result was 7 concepts, including: good conflict management, understanding of family functioning, knowledge of policy and practice, voice in decisions, confidence, self awareness, and right kind of personality. © 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction While only a small proportion of child welfare investigations result in out of home placement, the ratio of foster home versus group or institutional care for children entering the system remains approximately 5:1 (Trocmé et al., 2010). Foster care remains the most often utilized placement. However, retention challenges persist in many jurisdictions and there are not enough homes to meet current demand. A major factor associated with foster parent attrition is poor support from the fostering agency. Foster parent support has been found to be the most effective aspect of agency service to them pre-placement (Esaki, Ahn, & Gregory, 2012) as well as a major consideration in their decision to remain or quit fostering (Geiger, Hayes, & Lietz, 2013). In addition, a review of state level initiatives to promote placement stability identified common strategies of which several focus on support to foster parents through service provision, training, consultation and teamwork (Blakey et al., 2012). Foster parent resource workers are primary staff within agencies that have multiple responsibilities associated with recruitment and retention of foster parents as well as placement stability and quality assurance for children served. They assess and approve as well as monitor foster placements as well as address issues that arise in placement. They also carry responsibility for ensuring that government standards are maintained and relevant procedures followed. Despite the centrality and importance of their roles in foster care, very little research has
been conducted on their experiences. The purpose of the present study was to describe the needs of foster parent resource workers using a mixed-methodology known as Concept Mapping (Trochim, 1989). 2. Literature review Resource workers in foster care are those staff members within an agency who work most directly with foster parents. The job typically has a dual focus on both recruitment and retention of caregivers and placements as well as supervision and monitoring to ensure that standards are met. There are few references to the title “resource worker” in the literature but multiple references via Internet search, suggesting that while the role exists in many jurisdictions research to date has used other terms to refer to the workers who are most closely connected to foster families within agencies. In our search of the existing literature we found the terms “social worker”, “child protection” and “child welfare” worker to be the most common. To focus our search we reviewed studies that included reference to the professional staff members who worked directly with foster parents within the context of children's services agencies. The needs of staff who work directly with foster families include: good self-care, professional knowledge, physical presence, role clarity, good collaboration, knowledge of the community, appreciate strengths and effort, good relationships, effective teacher, know the system, know yourself, and good communication. 2.1. Good self-care
⁎ Corresponding author at: Faculty of Education, University of Western Ontario, 1137 Western Road, London N6G 1G7, Canada. Tel.: +1 519 661 2111x88617; fax: +1 519 661 3833. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.D. Brown).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.08.014 0190-7409/© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Good self care (Schwartz, 2011) for staff in foster care has personal, workload, and development dimensions. Qualities that contribute to personal engagement in care for self include clear goals, hope,
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willingness to make changes, appreciation of personal motives, respect for differences in culture, as well as honesty and persistence (Altman, 2008). Additionally, a manageable caseload (Roux, Bungane, & Strydom, 2010), adequate preparation for the work and educational opportunities on the job (McGarrigle & Walsh, 2011) contribute to willingness and engagement in self care. 2.2. Professional knowledge Knowledge that is not necessarily agency or system-based, but gained from academic and professional education or training is necessary. Specific areas that have been a focus in the literature include knowledge about disabilities and children with disabilities (Shannon & Tappan, 2011) as well as the histories and realities with which children who come into care and the needs of foster families to successfully care for them (Skrypek, Wells, Bauerkemper, Koranda, & Link, 2008). 2.3. Physical presence In addition to education and support, workers need to have a physical presence in the lives of foster parents. While there is increasing recognition of the possibilities for distance delivery, including Internet- and telephone-based options, there remains a need for physical contact. The extent of physical presence and involvement, supplemented by virtual contact, varies but there is a need for at least some in-person connection (Dodsworth et al., 2013) as well as ongoing involvement between contacts (McGarrigle & Walsh, 2011). 2.4. Role clarity The role of the resource worker also has to be clear in terms of activities as well as organizational placement. Principal activities of resource workers include reinforcement of the responsibilities that foster parents have with the foster children (Christiansen, Havik, & Anderssen, 2010) to ensure quality care, as well as reinforcement of foster parents' commitment to care for the foster children (Brannen, Mooney, & Statham, 2009), to promote retention. Within the organization, workers benefit from latitude in decision-making that is respected by others (Stanley et al., 2013) as well as a good supervisor and supervision plan (Renner, Porter, & Preister, 2009). 2.5. Good collaboration Collaboration with a range of others who are involved with a foster family is essential. The need for cooperation (Briggs, 2009) with all members of the foster home is necessary (Richardson, 2008). Workers also need to work effectively with a range of other professionals (McLean, 2012) including others in children's services including protection, placement services and foster care (Cox, 2013). The challenge lies in the ability to bring interests from these parties together to ensure that there is some continuity among service providers involved (Cushing & Greenblatt, 2009). 2.6. Knowledge of the community The community context within which they are working includes norms and resources that should be understood. As much as possible, workers who take time to learn about the context and develop practical knowledge and understanding (Pölkki, Vornanen, Pursiainen, & Riikonen, 2012) benefit a great deal in their decision-making. The local knowledge is itself a resource for foster families (Raphel, 2012) who may, as a result of good referrals, avoid some out of pocket expenses (Farmer, 2010) while obtaining needed support.
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2.7. Appreciate strengths and effort A significant effort by workers to attend to what is going well is needed. This applies to an understanding of children, foster families and the community as well as organizational context. In general, workers who appreciate the emotional efforts of foster parents with the children (Pickin, Brunsden, & Hill, 2011) also witness the resilience in both foster children and foster parents (Fernandez, 2008). 2.8. Good relationships There is a considerable literature on the qualities of good relationships and the interconnections between workers and foster families. Specifically, a good relationship with foster parents is important (Gerring, Kemp, & Marcenko, 2008). This relationship includes active listening and honesty (Randle, Miller, Dolnicar, & Ciarrochi, 2012) as well as sensitivity (Koren-Karie, Oppenheim, Yuval-Adler, & Mor, 2013) and awareness by both all parties about professional responsibilities that workers have (Leeson, 2010). In addition, an emphasis of caring and responsible relationships between foster parents and children is important (Frey, Cushing, Freundlich, & Brenner, 2008). 2.9. Effective teacher Workers also have responsibilities to educate about the responsibilities of being a foster parent. To do this, they need to be supportive (Goldberg, Moyer, Kinkler, & Richardson, 2012) as well as a good organizer and planner who can make suggestions that are followed through on (Hibbert & Frankl, 2011). In terms of content, they assist foster parents to assist foster children with promoting self-esteem, identity and confidence (Moss, 2009), as well as preparing families and children for transitions (Castellanos-Brown & Lee, 2010). 2.10. Know the system Workers need to know how the system works, the layers of bureaucracy and political context within which they function. There is clear recognition in the literature about the importance of workers knowing and applying relevant policies and guidelines (Hicks, Gibbs, Weatherly, & Byford, 2009) as well as how organizing by foster parents themselves, also known as “foster parent professionalization” can be to their benefit (Hollin & Larkin, 2011). 2.11. Know yourself Self-awareness is another important need for workers that has received attention in the literature. It begins with knowing one's own values and biases (Mallon, 2011) and where they come from, such as one's own family experiences and values and how they affect their work in foster care (O'Brien, 2012). Armed with personal awareness workers are better positioned to promote emotional awareness in others (Mullins, 2011). In addition, the cultural dimension of awareness and practice is essential to have (Howe, 2010). 2.12. Good communication skills There has also been attention to the communication skills of workers in the fostering literature. Being clear and focused in expectations (Keddell, 2012) is the key. However, an emphasis has been placed on willingness by workers in foster care to work with the foster children and youth as well as foster parents (Murphy & Jenkinson, 2012). In particular, workers should be ready to listen to the foster children about what is working for them (Mitchell, Kuczynski, Tubbs, & Ross, 2010). While there is considerable amount of high quality literature about what workers in foster care need to be effective at their roles, little
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attention has been paid to the needs of resource workers specifically. This is a significant limitation of the existing literature. Resource workers are distinguished by their central role in foster care within agencies as those who not work most closely with the foster parents having a dual function as both support providers and monitors for quality assurance. These are not typical functions for workers in foster care. We found the literature to be heavily weighted toward the roles of social workers with foster children in care, as opposed to workers for foster parents. The purpose of the present study was to describe the needs of foster parent resource workers according to the resource workers themselves and compare these to the existing literature for points of convergence and divergence. Resource workers in a large metropolitan Canadian area were asked to respond to the question “What do you need to be a good foster parent resource worker?”
3. Method Concept mapping (Trochim, 1989) is a mixed method approach for the collection and quantitative analysis of qualitative data. It has been used with different participant groups for a range of purposes. Recent studies utilizing this approach have focused on topics ranging from music improvisation from the perspectives of successful musicians (Wopereis, Stoyanov, Kirschner, & Van Merriënboer, 2013) and constructing a definition of commitment in romantic relationships from the perspective of adults (Pope & Cashwell, 2013). Concept mapping has been used to develop conceptual frameworks, for example adolescent Internet addiction (Moreno, Jelenchick, & Christakis, 2013), as well as program development in substance use (Windsor, 2013) smoking cessation (Dawson, Cargo, Stewart, Chong, & Daniel, 2013) strategies to address bullying (Vaughn, Jacquez, & McLinden, 2013) and parent training in children's mental health (Johnson, Byers, Byrnes, Davis-Groves, & McDonald, 2013). The approach has been employed in the field of program evaluation (Neuman, Shahor, Shina, Sarid, & Saar, 2013), for example in the expected effects of surveillance technology with individuals in residential placement (Niemeijer, Frederiks, Depla, Eefsting, & Hertogh, 2013). The concept mapping (Trochim, 1989) process includes four main steps. These steps include: collecting responses, organizing the responses, representing responses and interpreting responses. In the present study, responses to the questions were collected through focus-group discussions and written verbatim on flipcharts by participants attending a foster parent resource worker workshop. Those who expressed interest in organizing responses provided by all resource workers were contacted by telephone by researchers at a later date to group them into concepts. Their combined groupings were analyzed using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to identify themes.
3.1. Obtaining responses Researchers provided a presentation on current research in foster care to a group of foster parent resource workers in a large metropolitan area. All were invited to participate in the study following the presentation. Those who were interested provided written consent. In focus groups of 6–8, participants brainstormed responses to the focal question and recorded them on flipcharts. Each was asked about her or his interest in grouping responses at a later time and those who were willing provided their contact information to the researchers. A total of 68 individuals participated. Each was employed by one of the 14 Children's Aid Societies in the area. They were predominantly female (90%). The average age was 44. They had been working in child welfare for an average of 18 years and 9 years, on average, in foster care. Participants had been employed as a foster parent resource worker for an average of 8 years.
3.2. Organizing responses The researchers reviewed all responses. Unclear responses were edited for clarity (e.g. “unfortunately is necessary to have a reliable vehicle” was changed to “dependable vehicle”). Redundant responses were removed (e.g. from the responses “family centered” and “family focused”, only “family focused” was retained). There were 73 unique responses for the concept mapping analysis. These responses were cut into separate slips of paper and mailed to participants from the focus groups that had indicated their interest. Each was asked to group the responses together in whatever way made sense. There were 12 sorts sent back to the researchers. 3.3. Representing responses Multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis were used to analyze the sort data using the concept system (Trochim, 1987). Multidimensional scaling is used to “represent and provide a basis for understanding the structure inherent in certain types of data involving judgments about stimuli” (MacCallum, 1988, p. 421). In this non-parametric analysis, a table of similarities is represented as distances between each of the responses. The table of similarities is constructed by combining individual matrices, completed by each sorter, based on their groupings of responses. A high value within the final matrix suggests that the cell where two responses intersect reflects conceptual similarity between those responses. A low value in a cell suggests that there is limited conceptual similarity between responses. The results of multidimensional scaling plotted responses into a two-dimensional space, with distances between them that represented the frequencies with which they were sorted into the same groups by participants in distances. For example, response 58 “self-care for workers” and 12 “computer skills” were located in the “west” and “east” ends of the map, furthest apart from one another indicating that they were rarely, if ever, grouped together by participants. In contrast, response 52 “raise difficult issues” and 22 “excellent assessment and clinical skills” in the “south-east” area were often, if not always, grouped together by participants. A bridging index indicated the degree to which a response “bridged” or was grouped together with responses in other areas of the map. A low bridging index, between 0.00 and 0.25, indicated that a response was grouped only with others in close proximity to it. A high bridging index, between 0.75 and 1.00, indicated that a response was grouped with responses in other areas of the map. Cluster analysis used the multidimensional scaling results to organize individual responses into clusters. Ward's (1963) minimum variance technique was used for the hierarchical cluster analysis (Everitt, 1980) of the multidimensional scaling coordinate values to group the responses into clusters. At the beginning of the analysis each response was treated as its own cluster and at each step, two clusters were combined until at the end, all responses were within one cluster. The final decision about an appropriate number of concepts was based on both qualitative (i.e. conceptual similarities between responses within the clusters and conceptual differences between responses within different clusters) and quantitative (i.e. low average bridging indices reflected clusters with responses that were rarely grouped with responses in other clusters) evidence. The researchers reviewed maps with 12, 10, 8, 7, 6 and 5 clusters before determining that the 7-concept solution fits the data best. Researchers also assigned labels to the concepts that reflected the content of each. 4. Results In the concept map below (see Fig. 1), each number represents one of the 74 unique responses provided by participants (see Table 1). The concepts represent the way that 12 participants grouped the responses. In response to the question “What do you need to be a good foster parent resource worker?” there were 7 concepts, including: good conflict
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Fig. 1. Concept map.
management, understanding of family functioning, knowledge of policy and practice, voice in decisions, confidence, self awareness, and right kind of personality. 5. Discussion In this section, responses made by participants are described and compared to the literature. 5.1. Good conflict management In this concept responses emphasized the prevention and remediation of conflict. Workers need the ability to “resolve and manage conflict”, with “good conflict resolution skills”, being “fair but firm” as well as “able to set clear boundaries”. Conflict prevention is aided by a worker's “strength based” approach as well as personal and professional “knowledge of parenting skills” and ability to “understand impact of fostering on their family”. They are “able to challenge and praise” and “motivate change”. Workers also need “leadership skills” and “advocacy ability”. They function at times as “teachers” and “trouble shooter(s)” who find themselves “multi tasking” with the skills they have working with people as well as “computer skills” and “paper skills”. Practically, they also need a “dependable vehicle”. There is a literature in the area of communication, emphasizing the qualities of clarity (Keddell, 2012), supportive listening (Goldberg et al., 2012), cooperation (Briggs, 2009; Richardson, 2008) and consistent follow through (Hibbert & Frankl, 2011). Positive relationships between workers and foster parents have also been described as a need (Frey et al., 2008). Additionally, the recognition of emotional efforts that foster parents put into their care of children (Pickin et al., 2011) and the family, was important (Fernandez, 2008). While the literature attended most clearly to preventive aspects of worker–parent relationship, there was less attention to the management of direct conflict and escalation that participants in the present study noted were important needs for workers.
5.2. Understanding of family functioning In this concept the responses focused on the needs of resource workers to have good working knowledge of families and systems. They need “knowledge of whole system” within which they are situated, as well as remaining “family focused”, with an ability to “understand family dynamics”, and application of “knowledge of child development”. Workers need good judgment based on “excellent assessment and clinical skills” as well as willingness to “raise difficult issues” when necessary. In the area of systems, there is a related literature on the types of issues children may come into care with, and disabilities in particular (Shannon & Tappan, 2011), where sensitivity to family functioning and family functioning within the community as well as systems of support for the child her or himself are needed (Skrypek et al., 2008). However, emphasis of participants on the family system was not as well matched with the literature. There was less attention to the knowledge of types of systems within which families exist in the literature than the participants described. 5.3. Knowledge of policy and practice The responses in this concept centered on the need for resource workers to have a good knowledge and judgment about standards regarding safety in foster homes. Specifically, they need “understanding of functions in agency and procedures” as well as “legislation and guidelines” for “risk management” purposes. This knowledge could be gained through “training” as well as direct “child welfare experience”. They would benefit from having “share(d) values of agency” as well as good “work/life balance” and “time management” skills. It was also noted that “lower case loads would help”. There was considerable overlap between participants' experiences and the literature concerning knowledge of the government systems, within which the agency operates, and the ways that workers can practice self-care to manage the manifestations of large scale challenges. Specifically, participants and the literature referred to the need to be
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Table 1 Cluster items and bridging values for concept map. Cluster and statement Good conflict management 1. Able to challenge and praise 3. Advocacy ability 16. Dependable vehicle 43. Motivate change 27. Good conflict resolution skills 2. Able to set clear boundaries 12. Computer skills 62. Strength based 71. Understand impact of fostering on their family 65. Teachers 23. Fair but firm 53. Resolve and manage conflict 44. Multi tasking 36. Knowledge of parenting skills 38. Leadership skills 68. Trouble shooter 47. Paper skills Understanding of family functioning 22. Excellent assessment and clinical skills 52. Raise difficult issues 35. Knowledge of child development 70. Understand family dynamics 24. Family focused 37. Knowledge of whole system Knowledge of policy and practice 56. Risk management 72. Understanding of functions in agency and procedures 61. Share values of agency 9. Child welfare experience 74. Work/life balance 67. Training 39. Legislation and guidelines 66. Time management 40. Lower case loads would help Voice in decisions 4. Be heard by the agency 50. Personal support network 20. Empowering foster parents 30. Grief, trauma, attachment, loss issues 31. Have time for your foster families 60. Sense of where the kids come from 58. Self-care for workers 42. More time 63. Strong supportive team Confidence 34. Know about attachment 73. Validation 51. Pick your battles 69. Trust your gut 6. Build trust 41. Mediation 45. Objective Self awareness 8. Child centered 15. Culturally aware and adept 54. Respect for individuality 57. Self reflection 64. Tact Right kind of personality 5. Be human 26. Gentleness 17. Diplomacy 7. Caring 29. Good listener 49. Personable 10. Communication skills 11. Compassion 19. Empathy 32. Honesty 18. Emotional intelligence 33. Integrity 21. Engagement skills 46. Organized 13. Confidence 48. Patience
Table 1 (continued) Bridging index 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.21 0.32 0.38 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.22 0.35 0.35 0.31 0.30 0.40 0.47 0.42 0.46 0.35 0.32 0.39 0.53 0.51 0.40 0.58 0.51 0.49 0.69 0.52 0.42 0.61 0.80 0.74 0.72 0.54 0.97 0.91 0.97 1.00 0.69 0.68 0.36 0.36 0.33 0.27 0.43 0.28 0.42 0.42 0.55 0.81 0.50 0.60 0.40 0.46 0.09 0.08 0.03 0.12 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.17
Cluster and statement
Bridging index
14. 55. 28. 25. 59.
0.04 0.05 0.20 0.19 0.25
Creativity Responsible Good judgment Flexibility Sense of humor
up to date on relevant legislation and standards (Hicks et al., 2009). Additionally, there were references to the need for good preparation (Schwartz, 2011) as well as opportunities to develop knowledge and skills once in the position (Cheung, 2011), and reduced demands on time through caseload reduction (Roux et al., 2010). 5.4. Voice in decisions Responses in this concept focused on the need for resource workers to have a regular place in agency decision-making and feeling that their contributions were considered. Specifically, they needed “more time” to contribute and “be heard by the agency”. Resource workers remained cognizant of their efforts for “empowering foster parents” and to do this, they needed to “have time for your foster families”. They were also aware because of a “sense of where the kids come from” that there were “grief, trauma, attachment, loss issues” for foster children that foster parents were working with. Foster parents needed the resource workers to be part of a “strong supportive team”. To remain emotionally and physically available, resource staff needed their own “personal support network” and to put emphasis on “self-care for workers” themselves. There were several consistencies between participants' experiences and the literature concerning resource workers' decision-making. Recognition of resource worker role (Christiansen et al., 2010) and skill (Stanley et al., 2013) for working with foster parents was reflected in responses and the literature The ability to work with others (Cushing & Greenblatt, 2009), both outside (McLean, 2012) as well as within the agency (Cox, 2013) with clarity about lines of communication and accountability were also consistent (Renner et al., 2009) with existing research. Time for the relationships with foster parents and children was also reported by participants and found within the literature (Brannen et al., 2009; Mitchell et al., 2010; Murphy & Jenkinson, 2012). However, we did not find reference in the literature to formal attention by the agency for staff time dedicated to self care, which was identified by participants. Additionally, there was literature concerning foster parent “professionalization” (Hollin & Larkin, 2011), but participants in the present study did not identify this. 5.5. Confidence In this concept resource workers described the need for selfconfidence. While it was important to have specific knowledge, such as “know about attachment”, the more central ingredient to confidence was “validation” from self and others. This validation could come from positive or successful experience “trust(ing) your gut” and “pick(ing) your battles”, or from “build(ing) trust” with families where there have been challenges. Additionally, the ability to use “mediation” and be “objective” when necessary, were identified. We did not locate literature in the area of intuitive practice from life and work experience as needs for foster parent resource workers. However, participants in the present study identified these issues. 5.6. Self awareness Being aware of self and others was a common issue represented by responses within this concept. The need for “respect for individuality”
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was noted, as was having “tact” when addressing issues with families and other professionals. Workers were needed to have a “child centered” awareness of needs and difficulties as well as be “culturally aware and adept”. The practice of “self reflection” was seen as a means to develop this awareness. There was considerable overlap between this concept and the literature on self-awareness and interpersonal sensitivity. Both participants and the existing literature attended to the need for care when interacting, based on awareness of self (Mallon, 2011; O'Brien, 2012) and awareness of other, so that positive outcomes were more likely (Mullins, 2011). Cultural competence was also identified as a need for resource workers (Howe, 2010). 5.7. Right kind of personality There were many responses within this concept organized around the topic of personality. Workers need to “be human”, “caring” as well as having the “flexibility” to address problems in a reasonable way. Their sense of humanity would find expression in the qualities of being “personable” as well as having “patience” and a “sense of humor”. They need to be people of “good judgment” who are also “good listener(s)” and display “diplomacy” in their dealings. Participants also noted that workers need “gentleness” as well as a quiet “confidence”, “organized” and “responsible” conduct, particularly in emotionally charged situations. Workers need abilities as well as talent in the areas of “emotional intelligence”, “engagement skills”, and “communication skills”. Workers also display “compassion”, “empathy”, “honesty”, and “integrity”. Finally, there was a need for “creativity” to find solutions to difficult problems. There was limited literature on the personality characteristics needed by resource workers, but considerable literature concerning the importance and ingredients for a positive working relationship with foster families. Similar ingredients to forming a healthy relationship for working purposes are reflected in the traits of individuals who come to that relationship. In terms of what the resource worker can bring, such as caring and flexibility as well as gentleness and confidence, clarity and accountability, have been reported in the literature (Gerring et al., 2008; Koren-Karie et al., 2013; Leeson, 2010; Randle et al., 2012) as has been the ability to be directive (Castellanos-Brown & Lee, 2010; Moss, 2009). 6. Conclusion There were many similarities between the needs of foster parent resource workers in the present study and the issues identified in the existing literature. Areas where similarities exist centered on selfawareness, clear communication with supportive listening, understanding of government systems including relevant policies and regulations, clarity of various team members' roles, and the value of good working relationships with foster parents. Despite their particular role and functions in their agencies, it appears that the needs of resource workers, those who work most closely with foster families in child welfare agencies, are similar in many ways to the needs of child protection staff in general. It is important to note, however, that there were some differences between the existing literature and the needs of foster parent resource workers in the present study. These differences reflect ways in which the needs of resource workers have particular relevance to their work and distinguish the demands of the role from those of child welfare workers in general. These differences also suggest ways to improve conditions for these workers and to promote stability in their efforts to recruit, retain, support and monitor foster parents. Differences evident by presence in the literature but not by participants in the study included distance service delivery and attention to professionalization in foster care. Needs identified by participants, but not apparent in the existing
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literature, included dealing with conflict as well as the importance of self-care and intuition for their practice. Study participants did not refer to the distance delivery of service by resource workers to foster parents that was apparent in the literature. One possible interpretation of this difference is the geographic location of the present study. While the existing literature draws from communities of varying sizes and locations, including proximity to major urban centers, participants in the present study all resided within a large metropolitan area. The cost savings of distance delivery would likely be more pronounced in areas where travel was costly, whereas within a metropolitan area travel avoidance because of cost was not justifiable. On the issue of professionalization, there was no reference by resource workers in the present study. However, there is a literature on the topic and differing opinions about what professionalization would look like and mean for the foster parents and agencies. There are two possibilities we suggest that can account this difference. The first possibility is that the specialization of foster care, based on foster children's needs and foster parents' experience, already distinguished between different types of foster parents. Those with more specialization (e.g. treatment foster care of children with sever disabilities) may have already been viewed with greater credibility and assigned that status, based on responsibility and demands of foster parents. The second possibility is that resource workers or foster parents in these jurisdictions may not have seen “professionalization” as desirable. Agencies may have found the potential financial and political costs of an organized workforce to be too high, and foster parents may have found the startup costs and barriers beyond their means. It would be worthwhile to explore different stakeholders' perceptions of professionalization, as well as costs and benefits according to each, in future research including resource workers. There were two differences identified by the resource worker participants in the present study but not the existing literature. Resource workers recognized the topic of conflict. The expectation was not that conflict was to be avoided, but rather, it was expected but managed well. Resource workers saw their preventive work being done through forging a good relationship, with friendliness, clarity and accountability, that would put them in better stead to assist when challenges arose within the home or between foster parents and the agency. They did describe the need for “resolution” skills, and this notion could be expanded upon to include how to recognize conflicts, types of conflicts, the stakeholders involved, opportunities for give-and-take in solution development and implementation as well as management of the relationship following resolution. These are essential components that have not been attended well in the literature, but ones which resource workers have insight into from their experience. It is suggested that future research attend to the issue of conflict and its management, including the preventive and reactive as well as follow up aspects. Finally, there was recognition by resource workers that self care and intuition were important parts of their work. In terms of self care, workers knew what they could do to relax and manage their expectations and reactions, because they were teaching and modeling these for foster parents as part of their role. However, taking the time to use their knowledge and skills on themselves came in as a secondary priority and not only for themselves by themselves in their off hours, but for themselves during work hours within the context of the agency. The pressures to do more with less prioritized recruitment and retention, safety and support functions, understandably, as fundamental. Their needs for self care did not only occur when not at work and it is suggested that there may be benefit in exploring the possibilities for a self care regimen in the workplace for its potentially positive effects on productivity and judgment. In the age of accountability with a corresponding need to follow evidence informed practice, there is much less attention to the notion of intuition and that role it plays in judgment. Resource workers in the present study relied on their experience to assist with decisions that
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were not clear-cut or clearly outlined in guides or templates. There is a danger, we believe, in moving forward to greater specificity without a corresponding recognition of what is not known and how these unknowns can be represented through a combination of personal and professional experience as well as intuited based on the situation at hand. We are not suggesting complete freedom without accountability in decision-making for resource workers, but rather, that the concept of practice-informed evidence be considered as a means to respect the wisdom that experienced practitioners bring to their work. This too, can be systematically studied, and it would seem relevant to explore the idea of intuition, where and how it is expressed and what the outcomes are of these processes for resource workers. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of this research through a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. 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