Neoarchean arc–juvenile back-arc magmatism in eastern Dharwar Craton, India: Geochemical fingerprints from the basalts of Kadiri greenstone belt

Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

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Neoarchean arc–juvenile back-arc magmatism in eastern Dharwar Craton, India: Geochemical fingerprints from the basalts of Kadiri greenstone belt C. Manikyamba a,∗ , Sohini Ganguly a , M. Santosh b , Abhishek Saha a , Adrija Chatterjee a , Arubum C. Khelen a a b

National Geophysical Research Institute (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India School of Earth Science and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 30 June 2014 Received in revised form 24 November 2014 Accepted 10 December 2014 Available online 24 December 2014 Keywords: Kadiri greenstone belt Dharwar Craton Arc-back arc Slab derived fluids Sediment melting

a b s t r a c t The Neoarchean Kadiri greenstone belt (KGB) of eastern Dharwar Craton is dominated by metavolcanic rocks including basalts, andesites, dacites and rhyolites that have experienced lower amphibolite grade of metamorphism. The geochemical investigations of the basalts and basaltic andesites of KGB show 47–56 wt.% SiO2 and Mg# ranging from 38 to 64. The rocks display sub-alkaline tholeiitic to transitional affinity. Based on REEs, the KGB basalts are classified as two types. Type I basalts show flat to slightly enriched LREE patterns while type II basalts have relatively enriched LREE patterns. Both types of basalts exhibit negative Nb, Zr, Hf and Ti anomalies along with distinct enrichment in Th and U. Type II basalts are characterized by a greater magnitude of negative Nb anomaly (Nb/Nb* = 0.1–0.32) compared to type I (Nb/Nb* = 0.41–0.82) basalts. Prominent island arc signatures are evident in both the types in terms of their LILE, LREE enrichments and relative HFSE depletion. Ba/Th vs. Nb/Th relationships reflect a frontal arc setting for type I basalts whereas type II basalts correspond to a rear arc setting. Th/Nb, La/Nb and Ce/Yb ratios show a gradual increase from type I to type II basalts reflecting melting of sediments from the subducted slab and their increased addition in type II basalts. The Zr/Hf (31–43), Zr/Sm (11–32) and Nb/Th (1–9) ratios suggest a depleted to enriched mantle source with variable influx of subductionderived fluids and sediments. The flat to slightly enriched LREE patterns of type I basalts indicate a gradual progression from depleted MORB-type mantle melting in a fore-arc to slab-dehydration–mantle wedge metasomatism and fluid-fluxed melting in an arc regime within spinel peridotite compositional domain. Island arc signatures in type II basalts suggest their generation through melting of a subduction-modified MORB-type mantle within spinel to garnet peridotite stability field in a juvenile back-arc rift system that developed proximal to the intraoceanic arc. Variable input of subduction derived fluids and sediments in type I and type II basalts attests to across-arc geochemical variations. The subduction processes operating within arc–back arc system provided favourable pathways for the migration of gold-bearing fluids leading to economic mineralization in the northern (Hutti) and southern (Kolar) parts of this belt. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Archean greenstone belts of different cratons comprise a wide variety of volcanic and sedimentary rocks that record various tectonic imprints, evolutionary conditions, intrusive and extrusive magmatic episodes, various stages of metamorphism, metasomatism and mineralization (Weaver and Tarney, 1981; Pearce, 2014). The operation of plate tectonic processes during the Archean exists

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9490705999. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Manikyamba). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2014.12.003 0301-9268/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

as one of the most debatable aspect in Earth Science, although geological, geophysical, geochemical and geochronological data along with experimental studies have correlated Archean geodynamics with their modern counterparts (Benn et al., 2006; Hamilton, 1998; Condie, 2000; Furnes et al., 2014). The structural analysis and U–Pb zircon geochronological data of Neoarchean orogen of Dharwar Craton have documented the evolution of this craton in terms of crustal shortening, stretching and transtension associated with a lateral constrictional flow (LCF) which also accounts for the strong seismic reflectivity and lateral anisotropy of the Phanerozoic Tibetan Plateau (Chardon et al., 2011). These observations envisage similarities in structural evolution of Archean and Phanerozoic

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orogens (Chardon et al., 2011). The principle of uniformitarianism applied for Archean volcanic rocks suggests operation of Phanerozoic plate tectonic processes during Archean while plume–arc interaction, subduction of flat oceanic slab and ridge subduction in Archean geodynamic settings are representatives of hotter mantle conditions than present scenario conforming to selective uniformitarianism (Pearce, 2014). The geochemical characteristics of volcanic rocks from 4.4 to 3.8 Ga Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt of Quebec, Canada, fingerprint strong subduction signatures that are analogous to those obtained for the Phanerozoic Izu-Bonin Mariana fore arc basalts. These geochemical resemblances indicate a close analogy of intraoceanic subduction processes operative during Archean and Phanerozoic eras (Turner et al., 2014; Pearce, 2014). Studies by O’Neil et al. (2011) and Turner et al. (2014) invoke a subduction origin for the volcanic rocks of Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt which attests to the initiation of modern style subduction during Eoarchean and confirms that plate tectonic processes date back to the early evolutionary history of the Earth. The evolutionary aspects of the Earth during the Archean involve deeper mantle convection, distribution of heat within the mantle and the crust, nature of Archean sub-continental lithospheric mantle, formation, stabilization and preservation of continents (O’Neill and Wyman, 2006; Condie and Benn, 2006). A peak in continental crustal growth at 2.7 Ga, existence of hotter Archaean mantle, eruption of komatiites, occurrence of tonalite–trondjhemite–granodiorite (TTG) and adakites that are geochemically analogous to their Phanerozoic counterparts lend support to the operation of plate tectonics during Archean including both mantle plume and island arc processes. Convergent margins acting as magma factories through partial melting in the mantle wedge and subducted oceanic slab have represented important sites of crustal growth in both Precambrian and Phanerozoic times (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Rudnick, 1995; Tatsumi, 2005; Stern and Johnson, 2010; Xiao and Santosh, 2014; Santosh et al., 2015). Identification of lithologies characteristic of intraoceanic arc magmatism such as boninites, low-Ti tholeiites, picrites, adakites, high magnesian andesites, and Nb-enriched basalts from greenstone belts of different Archean Cratons and their Phanerozoic counterparts provide clues to understand convergent margin tectonics and crustal growth (Polat and Kerrich, 2006 and the references therein; Naqvi et al., 2006; Manikyamba et al., 2004a,b, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2012; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2011, 2012; Baitsch-Ghirardello et al., 2013). The lithological assemblages of the Neoarchean greenstone belts from different cratons of the world such as the Wabigoon, Abitibi, Birch–Uchi, Wawa greenstone belts of Superior Province of Canada; Barberton greenstone belt of Kaapvaal Craton; Belingwe greenstone belt of Zimbabwe Craton; Karelian, Sumozero–Kenozero and Vedlozero–Segozero greenstone belts of Baltic shield; Whundo greenstone belt of Pilbara Craton; Agnew–Wiluna greenstone belt of Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia; Isua and Ivisaartoq greenstone belts of Greenland; Wutaishan and Zunhua greenstone belts of China preserve distinct geological and geochemical signatures of Archean subduction processes (Kerrich et al., 1998; Shchipansky et al., 2004; Polat and Kerrich, 2006; Smithies et al., 2005; Hollings and Kerrich, 2000; Manikyamba et al., 2009; Zhai and Santosh, 2011; Furnes et al., 2014; de Joux et al., 2014; Manikyamba et al., 2014a). These studies have substantiated the operation of Phanerozoic type of plate tectonic processes during the Archean. Recent studies in southern India have revealed evidence for extensive crustal growth through arc magmatism during the Meso/Neoarchean times (e.g., Santosh et al., 2015). The Dharwar Craton in southern India consists of several volcanosedimentary greenstone sequences that range in age from 3.3–3.1 Ga, 2.9–2.7 Ga and 2.7–2.5 Ga (Manikyamba et al., 2009; Jayananda et al., 2013 and references therein; Manikyamba

et al., 2014a; Lancaster et al., 2014). These greenstone belts are characterized by komatiite–tholeiite association that has been interpreted to be the product of plume magmatism and plume–lithosphere interaction, whereas tholeiitic to calc–alkaline basalt–andesite–dacite–rhyolite (BADR) volcanic sequences along with boninites, Nb-enriched basalts, adakites, Mg-andesites, shoshonites, leucitites and arc basalts are considered to be the products of subduction–accretion processes (Anantha Iyer et al., 1980; Rajamani et al., 1985; Balakrishnan et al., 1990; Giritharan and Rajamani, 1998; Manikyamba et al., 2004a, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2012; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2011, 2012; Ram Mohan et al., 2013). In this paper, we describe the geochemical characteristics of basalts from the Kadiri greenstone belt (KGB) to evaluate their geodynamic setting and to understand the role of a mantle wedge and subducting slab in their genesis. Results of this research provide insights into the Neoarchean convergent margin processes in the eastern Dharwar Craton.

2. Geological setting The Dharwar Craton of southern India preserves excellent exposures of Archean greenstone belts that contain significant mineral deposits. On the basis of their lithotectonic assemblages, crustal thickness and grade of regional metamorphism the greenstone belts have been divided into western (WDC) and eastern (EDC) sectors with the intervening belt of Closepet granitoids (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Jayananda et al., 2000; Naqvi, 2005; Manikyamba et al., 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2012; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2011, 2012). Recent geological, geophysical and geochronological studies have indicated that the boundary between the WDC and EDC is a transitional zone extending from Gadag–Mandya shear zone (Sengupta and Roy, 2012) along the eastern margin of Chitradurga greenstone belt to Closepet granitoid (2.51 Ga). This zone contains a mixture of older (3.4–3.2 Ga) and younger (2.6–2.5 Ga) lithounits and has been demarcated as Central Dharwar Province (CDP) based on SHRIMP U–Pb and Nd isotopic data (Chardon et al., 2011; Dey et al., 2013; Peucat et al., 2013). The 2.51 Ga emplacement of Closepet granitoid represents a synkinematic intrusion into the CDP that experienced crustal reworking and remobilization during 2.56–2.51 Ga (Jayananda et al., 2013 and references therein). The western Dharwar Craton (WDC) is characterized by a >3.0 Ga basement of TTG associated with Sargur Group rocks (3.3–3.1 Ga), that are unconformably overlain by Dharwar Supergroup (2.9–2.6 Ga) comprising plumefed komatiite–tholeiite greenstone successions, bimodal volcanic rocks, tholeiitic–calc–alkaline BADR assemblages, conglomerates and sandstones (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987). The eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) contains remnants of the TTG (3.0 Ga) and is characterized by greenstone belts with tholeiitic to calc–alkaline bimodal volcanic assemblages and lesser komatiite–tholeiite sequences representing intraoceanic arc magmatism and accretion of plumederived oceanic plateaus (Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012). The greenstone belts of EDC are intruded by 2.55–2.52 Ga younger granitoids (Moyen et al., 2003; Chardon et al., 2011; Jayananda et al., 2013 and references therein). There are six major arcuate supracrustal terranes present from west to east in the Dharwar Craton: these are (1) Chitradurga of WDC, (2) Sandur occurring within Closepet granitoid complex and preserving lithological association of both WDC and EDC, (3) Hungund–Penakacherla–Ramagiri, (4) Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar, (5) Narayanpet–Gadwal–Veligallu and (6) Khammam–Nellore of EDC (Fig. 1A; Sreeramachandra Rao, 2001; Manikyamba et al., 2004b; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2011). The Kadiri greenstone belt (KGB) in the eastern Dharwar Craton (Fig. 1B) is located within south central part of the

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Table 1 Tectonostratigraphic elements of the Kadiri greenstone belt, eastern Dharwar Craton, India. Terrane bounding structure/thrust/unconformity

Major lithologies

Minor lithologies

Quartz porphyry

Banded iron formation

Volcanic/sedimentary structures

Intrusive units

Metamorphic grade

Ref.

Tectonic contact Younger granites Pink-grey granites

Intrusive contact Rhyolites Rhyodacite Granite dykes Talc-tremolite schist 1 Green schist

Quartz-chlorite schist Gradational contact Meta-Andesite Gabbroic/dolerite dyke Meta Basalts

Pillow

2 Amphibolite 1

Quartz–feldspar micro porphyry Amygdules Gradational contact Migmatitic and granitic gneiss

1

(1) Ramam and Murty (1997). (2) Kazmi and Kumar (1991)

Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar (HJKK) composite greenstone terrane, south of the Mesoproterozoic Cuddapah basin. This NW trending belt is linear, 75 km long and 2.5 km wide. The northern portion of the Kadiri greenstone belt is covered by Gulcheru quartzites of the Cuddapah basin (Kazmi and Kumar, 1991; Ramam and Murty, 1997). The southern part of the belt terminates within granitic gneiss. The salient tectonostratigraphic elements of the KGB are summarized in Table 1. Like other greenstone belts of the eastern Dharwar Craton, the Kadiri belt comprises migmatite basement gneisses, which are overlain by metabasalts and intermediate to felsic volcanic units (Kazmi and Kumar, 1991; Ramam and Murty, 1997). Thin units of banded iron formations (BIF) occur above the felsic volcanic rocks. One of the significant features of the Kadiri belt is the predominance of felsic volcanic rocks over metabasalts. These metabasalts occur as flows having a sharp contact with felsic volcanic rocks (Fig. 2A). At some places, the metabasalts are fragmented due to shearing. The felsic volcanic units are represented by dacite, rhyodacite and rhyolite including quartz porphyry and quartz feldspar porphyry. The felsic rocks have mafic xenoliths at some places (Fig. 2B). The felsic volcanic rocks of Chitradurga, Kolar, Kadiri and Hutti greenstone belts show crustal inheritance at ca. 2.6, 2.7, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1 and 3.3 Ga and εNdt data indicate derivation of the felsic volcanic rocks from juvenile sources or short-lived crustal sources with minor influence of older crust (Jayananda et al., 2013). Highly deformed pillow structures are present at some places. One of the most important rock types of Kadiri greenstone belt is volcanic agglomerate, which contains clasts of mafic, and felsic volcanic rocks and granites embedded in the felsic-intermediate lava (Fig. 2C). Earlier workers have described them as autoclastic breccias/conglomerate (Kazmi and Kumar, 1991; Ramam and Murty, 1997). The abundance of these volcanic agglomerates indicates distinct phases of explosive volcanic activity during the evolution of Kadiri greenstone belt. The lithologies of this belt are in tectonic contact with granodiorite/tonalite to the east and hornblende biotite granite to the west. The granitoids are part of the Peninsular Gneissic Complex and are considered to intrude the belt (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987). Based on metamorphic mineral assemblages

defined by oligoclase–chlorite–actinolite–hornblende association, the rocks of this belt are interpreted to have been experienced lower amphibolite grade metamorphism and the term ‘meta’ is implicit to the descriptions below (Manikyamba et al., 2009, 2014a). The metabasalts of Hutti greenstone belt have been dated at 2.66 Ga while the associated felsic rocks gave an age of 2.58 Ga (Anand and Balakrishnan, 2010; Sarma et al., 2008). The felsic volcanic rocks of Kolar greenstone belt yield a SIMS U–Pb age of 2.55 Ga and a similar age has been obtained for the rhyolites of Kadiri greenstone belt (Jayananda et al., 2013). Nd isotopic data for rhyolites of Kadiri greenstone belt yield a 2.89 Ga age. According to Jayananda et al. (2013) Kolar and Kadiri were parts of a single greenstone basin. Keeping in view of the above, as Kadiri forms part of Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar composite greenstone terrane, a Neoarchean age is assigned to this belt. Recent studies on the felsic volcanic rocks of both the sectors of Dharwar Craton have suggested ocean–ocean (EDC) and ocean–continent (WDC) subduction processes and subsequent arc–continent collision for the crustal evolution associated with the evolution of the Dharwar Craton (Manikyamba et al., 2014a,b,c). 3. Sampling and mineralogy The metabasalts of KGB occur stratigraphically below the felsic volcanic rocks that predominantly consist of rhyolites, andesites, dacites, high Mg-andesites and adakites (Manikyamba et al., 2014a). The studied metabasalts from KGB have been divided into two subgroups viz. type I and type II based on their contrasting rare earth element (REE) contents (discussed below). Both types of basalts are closely associated in the field. Unweathered samples of type I basalts were collected from active quarries and outcrops in and around Upparlapalli village (Fig. 1). Samples of type II basalts were collected from the southernmost tip of Kadiri belt at Kandukuru Cheruvu, on the way to Mallereddipalli-Kandukuru villages and Mallereddipalli and Vadlamaneru villages. Samples of type I and II basalts were collected at Pulakunta Cheruvu, both are spatially associated with each other (Fig. 1). The metabasalts

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Fig. 1. (A) Simplified geological map of southern Peninsular India showing the western (WDC) and eastern (EDC) Dharwar Craton, with the intervening belt of Closepet granites, the distribution of greenstone belts, and the study area (modified after Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008). WDC is Western Dharwar Craton. Cities are in open circles. Blr. Bangalore; Hyd. Hyderabad (B) Generalized geological map of Kadiri greenstone terrane (KGB; after Kazmi and Kumar, 1991) with sample locations. Available ages of greenstone belts given in the boxes from WDC and EDC are referred to Ravikant, 2010; Jayananda et al., 2013; Tushipokla and Jayananda, 2013; Rajamanickam et al., 2014. Fig. 2. (A) Field photograph showing the contact between mafic and felsic volcanic rock. (B) Field photograph showing the occurrence of mafic xenoliths within the felsic rock. (C) Field photograph showing the clasts of mafic (M), felsic (F) and Granite (Gr) within the matrix of intermediate composition present in volcanic agglomerate.

of KGB have been affected by lower amphibolite grade metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration processes. However, the studied samples were collected away from fractures and shear zones and are devoid of secondary quartz, carbonates and sulphides. After petrographic screening for preservation of igneous textures and minimal alteration, forty eight (48) least altered samples were selected for geochemical studies. The metabasalts are fine-grained, inequigranular with sparse phenocrysts of anhedral to subhedral clinopyroxenes (Fig. 3A–D) preserved in a groundmass of plagioclase and amphibole. Locally clinopyroxene is replaced by amphibole. Amphiboles are mostly tremolite and actinolite with rare hornblende. A primary intergranular igneous texture (Fig. 3A) is rarely preserved. Secondary opaques occur in the groundmass as accessory minerals.

4. Analytical techniques Rocks were powdered using an agate mortar. Major elements were determined on pressed pellets by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF; Phillips MAGIX PRO Model 2440) and trace elements including rare earth elements (REEs) and high field strength elements (HFSEs) were analyzed using inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometer (ICP-MS) (Perkin Elmer SCIEX ELAN DRC II) at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), India. For REEs, HFSEs, and other trace elements, powders were dissolved in reagent grade HF and HNO3 in Savillex screw top vessels and the analytical procedure is detailed in Manikyamba et al. (2012).

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Table 2 Major and trace element compositions of type I and type II basalts from the Kadiri greenstone belt. Type I basalts wt.%

Lak-262

Lak-244

Lak-255

Lak-256

SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO K2 O Na2 O P2 O5 LOI Total Mg#

47.01 0.88 13.02 14.4 0.22 7.19 13.3 1.79 0.21 0.1 1.87 99.99 50

Lak-248 49.46 0.94 14.62 12.7 0.19 6.91 11.14 2.22 0.2 0.1 1.62 100.10 52

Lak-246 49.51 0.94 14.71 12.81 0.21 7.04 11.43 1.87 0.18 0.1 1.01 99.81 52

49.91 0.97 15.11 11.63 0.18 7.29 10.99 2.14 0.16 0.1 1.66 100.14 56

50.29 0.86 12.44 14.68 0.21 7.52 10.9 1.55 0.36 0.09 1.32 100.22 51

50.47 1.02 13.93 12.2 0.18 6.69 12.82 1.76 0.36 0.1 0.87 100.40 52

Lak-251 50.64 0.97 14.99 11.17 0.2 7.14 11.35 2.25 0.18 0.1 0.98 99.97 56

Lak-238 50.79 1.03 13.89 13.54 0.17 6.2 10.75 1.46 0.16 0.1 2.22 100.31 48

Lak-254 51.23 0.97 15.44 10.65 0.16 6.18 10.91 2.59 0.19 0.1 1.22 99.64 54

ppm Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Cs Ba

156 40 71 7.05 154 0.07 46

188 64 126 4.97 171 0.08 109

197 72 163 5.11 174 0.09 128

212 70 143 9.60 150 0.17 76

207 59 108 3.76 150 0.04 120

105 75 58 21.66 226 0.89 92

236 68 150 7.84 185 0.17 101

203 69 145 5.70 188 0.08 101

203 70 127 8.41 148 0.13 79

Sc V Ta Nb Zr Hf Th U Y

32 229 0.35 2.96 38 1.09 0.47 0.18 19

53 382 0.44 4.02 55 1.62 0.55 2.76 29

55 392 0.40 4.08 77 2.00 0.71 25.03 28

62 431 0.41 4.48 85 2.21 0.62 0.26 30

48 376 0.36 3.79 60 1.76 0.67 0.21 25

71 489 0.15 5.38 52 1.45 3.73 0.18 30

56 395 0.54 4.48 60 1.68 0.62 0.37 27

57 406 0.34 4.44 84 2.31 0.69 0.31 29

58 407 0.56 4.55 56 1.59 0.60 10.42 30

La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu REE

3.87 9.38 1.38 6.46 1.92 0.62 2.43 0.43 2.90 0.64 1.75 0.30 1.89 0.30 34.28

5.62 13.97 2.12 10.05 3.11 0.93 3.76 0.68 4.43 1.02 2.65 0.42 2.73 0.44 51.92

7.02 16.00 2.41 10.66 3.06 1.05 3.88 0.69 4.46 1.02 2.65 0.43 2.87 0.45 56.64

5.63 14.38 2.20 10.47 3.19 1.16 4.04 0.71 4.65 1.06 2.77 0.44 2.98 0.46 54.13

5.08 13.16 2.04 9.67 2.88 1.14 3.54 0.66 4.16 0.95 2.57 0.39 2.66 0.41 49.29

6.68 16.95 1.92 11.89 3.35 1.30 4.62 0.80 4.61 0.99 3.22 0.54 2.92 0.45 60.21

5.91 15.14 2.26 10.28 3.06 0.98 3.74 0.67 4.33 0.98 2.54 0.40 2.62 0.40 53.32

7.01 16.91 2.46 11.12 3.21 1.27 4.07 0.73 4.70 1.04 2.76 0.45 2.87 0.44 59.05

6.48 15.71 2.36 10.55 3.15 1.14 3.98 0.71 4.77 1.07 2.82 0.46 2.89 0.45 56.53

Cu Zn Ga Pb Al2 O3 /TiO2 P/Nd Zr/Nb Th/Ce Nb/Nb* Hf/Hf* Ti/Ti* Ce/Ce* Zr/Hf Zr/Sm Nb/Ta Nb/Th (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N (La/Yb)N

42 74 12 0.15 14.80 73 13 0.05 0.69 0.08 0.97 0.99 35 20 8 6 1.26 1.06 1.42

262 124 21 0.42 15.55 47 14 0.04 0.66 0.05 0.65 0.99 34 18 9 7 1.13 1.14 1.43

286 111 22 0.35 15.65 44 19 0.04 0.49 0.06 0.65 0.95 38 25 10 6 1.44 1.12 1.70

199 119 23 0.57 15.58 45 19 0.04 0.76 0.06 0.64 1 38 27 11 7 1.10 1.12 1.31

120 110 20 1.25 14.47 44 16 0.05 0.72 0.06 0.64 1 34 21 10 6 1.10 1.10 1.32

132 140 26 8.86 13.66 40 10 0.22 0.76 0.04 0.62 1.16 36 16 36 1 1.25 1.31 1.59

154 146 21 0.55 15.45 46 13 0.04 0.72 0.05 0.68 1.02 36 20 8 7 1.21 1.18 1.57

166 136 22 0.62 13.49 42 19 0.04 0.57 0.06 0.68 1 37 26 13 6 1.37 1.18 1.70

219 116 23 0.40 15.92 45 12 0.04 0.64 0.05 0.65 0.99 35 18 8 8 1.29 1.14 1.56

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Table 2 (Continued ) Type I basalts wt.%

Lak-242

Lak-245

Lak-241

SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO K2 O Na2 O P2 O5 LOI Total Mg#

51.34 1 14.46 10.98 0.18 6.87 10.52 2.47 0.21 0.11 1.98 100.12 56

51.35 0.92 14.92 10.68 0.19 6.89 11.62 2.11 0.18 0.1 0.89 100.00 56

ppm Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Cs Ba

217 62 139 13.37 181 0.21 91

Sc V Ta Nb Zr Hf Th U Y La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu REE Cu Zn Ga Pb Al2 O3 /TiO2 P/Nd Zr/Nb Th/Ce Nb/Nb* Hf/Hf* Ti/Ti* Ce/Ce* Zr/Hf Zr/Sm Nb/Ta Nb/Th (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N (La/Yb)N

Lak-258

Lak-252

Lak-239

Lak-237

Lak-250

Lak-266

51.57 1.02 14.69 12.36 0.18 6.95 8.93 2.69 0.36 0.11 1 100.00 53

51.59 0.94 13.45 10.48 0.18 7.01 12.47 1.81 0.29 0.11 1.03 99.36 57

51.64 0.93 14.87 10.69 0.18 6.34 10.54 2.75 0.18 0.1 1.13 99.35 54

51.73 1.01 15.11 10.1 0.18 5.61 11.8 2.19 0.18 0.1 2.41 100.42 53

52.03 0.94 14.52 10.57 0.17 6.59 11.66 1.71 0.16 1 1.05 100.00 56

52.08 0.95 15.11 10.17 0.17 6.33 11.86 1.69 0.15 0.11 1.59 100.21 55

52.87 0.79 12.44 13.41 0.17 6.98 9.1 2 0.63 0.18 1.58 100.15 51

233 68 156 7.51 170 0.14 70

201 61 132 20.74 154 0.23 131

162 54 108 13.87 170 0.20 127

200 69 212 7.65 158 0.13 66

209 65 166 10.00 158 0.30 128

269 59 124 3.93 142 0.06 137

208 63 141 5.04 173 0.10 86

277 51 123 21.35 256 0.31 116

59 423 0.38 4.80 86 2.23 0.61 0.26 28

56 402 0.33 4.45 46 1.42 0.59 0.25 28

51 395 0.59 4.83 84 2.20 0.62 5.11 28

45 328 0.32 3.49 34 1.05 0.71 0.26 24

55 394 0.40 4.49 58 1.61 0.60 2.75 27

59 418 0.47 4.45 44 1.40 0.60 0.35 30

49 348 0.28 3.86 42 1.25 0.76 0.27 26

57 381 0.40 4.77 72 1.93 0.55 0.35 26

43 301 0.30 3.99 84 2.27 1.94 0.66 18

5.70 14.93 2.28 10.74 3.22 1.10 3.87 0.70 4.54 0.99 2.58 0.41 2.73 0.40 54.20

6.20 15.68 2.33 10.50 3.14 1.18 3.88 0.68 4.53 1.00 2.64 0.43 2.70 0.41 55.30

5.92 14.71 2.25 10.24 3.14 1.09 3.76 0.69 4.42 0.99 2.60 0.40 2.67 0.42 53.29

5.58 13.83 2.10 9.48 2.70 0.99 3.37 0.60 3.94 0.88 2.40 0.38 2.66 0.40 49.30

6.02 15.21 2.21 10.42 3.00 1.09 3.72 0.64 4.23 0.96 2.47 0.41 2.68 0.40 53.47

5.91 15.16 2.26 10.65 3.27 1.06 3.99 0.73 4.74 1.06 2.81 0.43 2.89 0.45 55.40

5.67 13.93 2.07 9.59 2.81 0.92 3.42 0.65 4.12 0.92 2.54 0.40 2.82 0.43 50.29

5.63 14.01 2.10 9.97 2.89 1.18 3.61 0.64 4.18 0.94 2.44 0.39 2.46 0.39 50.82

8.38 19.56 2.54 10.46 2.66 0.92 2.96 0.49 3.00 0.64 1.79 0.28 1.93 0.32 55.92

78 116 23 0.51 14.46 48 18 0.04 0.82 0.06 0.67 1.01 39 27 13 8 1.11 1.18 1.45

135 133 22 0.67 16.22 45 10 0.04 0.68 0.04 0.62 1.01 32 15 14 7 1.23 1.19 1.60

136 111 22 0.42 14.40 51 17 0.04 0.76 0.07 0.70 0.99 38 27 8 8 1.18 1.17 1.54

89 189 17 0.41 14.31 55 10 0.05 0.58 0.04 0.74 0.99 32 12 11 5 1.29 1.05 1.45

141 99 22 0.38 15.99 45 13 0.04 0.70 0.05 0.66 1.02 36 19 11 8 1.25 1.15 1.56

103 146 22 0.62 14.96 44 10 0.04 0.72 0.04 0.66 1.02 32 14 9 7 1.13 1.14 1.42

130 211 19 1.20 15.45 493 11 0.05 0.62 0.05 0.72 1 33 15 14 5 1.26 1.00 1.40

160 140 22 0.65 15.91 52 15 0.04 0.79 0.07 0.70 1 37 25 12 9 1.22 1.21 1.59

218 157 20 1.57 15.75 81 21 0.10 0.41 0.08 0.67 1.04 37 32 13 2 1.97 1.27 3.01

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

7

Table 2 (Continued ) Type I basalts wt.%

Lak-247

Lak-263

SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO K2 O Na2 O P2 O5 LOI Total Mg#

53.59 0.95 14.66 9.68 0.16 5.37 12.68 1.29 0.14 0.1 1.52 100.14 53

ppm Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Cs Ba Sc V Ta Nb Zr Hf Th U Y La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu REE Cu Zn Ga Pb Al2 O3 /TiO2 P/Nd Zr/Nb Th/Ce Nb/Nb* Hf/Hf* Ti/Ti* Ce/Ce* Zr/Hf Zr/Sm Nb/Ta Nb/Th (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N (La/Yb)N

Lak-249

Lak-253

Lak-243

Lak-260

54.59 0.58 12.54 9.21 0.16 8.35 7.75 2.2 2.81 0.31 1.76 100.26 64

54.86 1.03 14.81 9.82 0.18 5.41 9.65 2.14 0.16 0.1 1.48 99.64 52

54.95 1 15.11 9.36 0.17 4.74 10.61 1.82 0.16 0.11 0.91 98.94 50

56.03 0.73 14.88 9.05 0.14 6.12 6.7 3.88 1.13 0.23 1.89 100.78 58

56.9 0.63 11.22 9.73 0.16 7.13 8.9 2.64 0.45 0.3 1.32 99.38 59

185 51 118 5.70 152 0.09 76

216 62 120 4.10 146 0.08 82

225 82 160 3.94 183 0.07 229

129 45 71 3.03 106 0.04 61

194 66 137 6.07 169 0.10 146

209 52 113 20.14 192 0.29 102

50 352 0.29 3.70 40 1.29 0.71 0.25 26

51 370 0.39 3.92 39 1.18 0.71 0.23 26

60 434 0.38 4.78 86 2.24 0.58 0.24 28

36 263 0.33 3.11 36 1.04 0.51 0.18 19

50 383 0.76 4.47 57 1.59 0.53 0.25 30

43 316 0.50 3.23 60 1.65 0.61 0.23 23

6.24 14.84 2.24 10.08 2.92 1.06 3.58 0.66 4.34 0.95 2.63 0.40 2.76 0.43 53.14

5.63 13.97 2.08 9.66 2.96 1.03 3.53 0.66 4.26 0.94 2.57 0.38 2.70 0.39 50.75

5.72 14.93 2.24 10.39 3.21 1.09 3.95 0.73 4.55 1.03 2.70 0.43 2.73 0.42 54.14

4.24 10.42 1.55 7.17 2.09 0.76 2.56 0.47 2.97 0.66 1.76 0.29 1.84 0.28 37.04

5.68 14.83 2.26 10.56 3.10 1.22 3.88 0.70 4.64 1.04 2.78 0.44 2.86 0.44 54.42

4.20 10.20 1.67 7.76 2.37 0.86 2.97 0.56 3.68 0.80 2.23 0.36 2.47 0.40 40.53

133 121 19 1.07 15.43 47 11 0.05 0.53 0.04 0.70 0.97 31 14 13 5 1.34 1.07 1.57

168 130 20 1.10 21.62 152 10 0.05 0.64 0.04 0.43 1 33 13 10 6 1.19 1.08 1.45

239 109 24 0.46 14.38 45 18 0.04 0.81 0.07 0.69 1.02 39 27 13 8 1.12 1.20 1.46

118 73 14 0.16 15.11 73 12 0.05 0.67 0.07 1.03 1 35 17 9 6 1.27 1.15 1.60

138 122 21 0.41 20.38 103 13 0.04 0.77 0.05 0.50 1.01 36 18 6 8 1.15 1.12 1.38

193 124 18 1.20 17.81 183 19 0.06 0.70 0.09 0.56 0.94 36 25 6 5 1.11 0.99 1.18

8

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

Table 2 (Continued ) Type II basalts wt.%

Lak-13

Lak-271

Lak-128

Lak-103

Lak-124

SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO K2 O Na2 O P2 O5 LOI Total Mg#

48.17 0.91 12.72 15.37 0.18 6.27 12.24 2.11 0.32 0.17 2.13 100.59 45

48.18 0.82 15.21 14.62 0.18 7.98 8.58 1.86 0.59 0.17 1.52 99.71 52

49.97 0.83 13.77 14.12 0.17 6.12 10.93 2.27 0.23 0.15 0.91 99.47 46

50 0.94 13.15 16.34 0.25 5.16 9.57 2.21 0.9 0.21 1.95 100.68 39

50.77 0.92 14.44 14.62 0.17 4.99 10.65 1.89 0.22 0.18 1.13 99.98 41

ppm Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Cs Ba

178 90 114 20.30 435 0.81 140

598 59 259 26.53 541 0.23 401

362 62 232 8.95 381 0.12 73

420 65 291 47.06 432 0.48 427

Sc V Ta Nb Zr Hf Th U Y

38 291 0.09 3.82 65 1.77 2.74 0.42 29

31 213 0.24 3.09 89 2.34 4.73 1.00 20

30 210 0.96 2.63 66 1.79 1.90 0.38 26

La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu REE

17.87 41.39 4.64 26.09 5.68 1.96 6.72 0.96 4.74 0.95 2.97 0.46 2.55 0.37 117.34

11.58 27.88 3.78 16.15 3.76 1.22 3.91 0.59 3.48 0.73 1.94 0.28 1.94 0.30 77.56

Cu Zn Ga Pb Al2 O3 /TiO2 P/Nd Zr/Nb Th/Ce Nb/Nb* Hf/Hf* Ti/Ti* Ce/Ce* Zr/Hf Zr/Sm Nb/Ta Nb/Th (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N (La/Yb)N

69 140 26 9.24 13.98 31 17 0.07 0.18 0.01 0.35 1.11 37 11 43 1 1.97 2.18 4.87

64 93 19 0.52 16.59 44 25 0.07 0.20 0.03 0.51 1.03 38 24 13 1 1.93 1.67 4.14

Lak-105

Lak-129

Lak-16

50.87 0.96 12.66 15.27 0.2 5.97 9.67 2.85 0.35 0.18 1.23 100.21 44

50.91 0.95 14.12 13.74 0.16 5.74 10.81 1.95 0.15 0.19 0.95 99.67 46

51.01 0.96 13.91 16.15 0.16 4.89 8.42 2.79 0.19 0.2 1.45 100.13 38

307 56 164 51.17 422 0.54 484

342 67 319 9.08 389 0.08 145

377 67 270 3.83 395 0.07 104

383 65 215 7.98 471 0.08 289

34 246 0.64 5.15 54 1.60 2.48 0.65 24

33 238 0.23 2.93 76 2.03 2.23 0.58 22

28 229 0.47 3.02 72 1.97 1.94 0.38 23

29 226 0.27 2.72 71 1.95 1.94 0.41 25

32 254 0.31 2.96 76 2.04 2.07 0.58 25

19.43 42.67 6.07 25.03 5.42 1.76 5.44 0.80 4.41 0.91 2.36 0.34 2.38 0.36 117.36

18.92 42.12 5.74 23.17 5.10 1.60 5.15 0.75 4.17 0.87 2.21 0.34 2.23 0.34 112.70

10.52 31.80 4.10 18.08 4.44 1.40 4.58 0.69 3.88 0.81 2.07 0.31 2.13 0.31 85.09

10.70 23.51 3.75 16.61 4.23 1.38 4.42 0.70 3.98 0.82 2.19 0.30 2.16 0.33 75.06

17.05 43.70 5.85 24.37 5.32 1.67 5.37 0.77 4.37 0.82 2.33 0.33 2.26 0.33 114.49

17.20 43.77 5.92 24.49 5.37 1.69 5.39 0.78 4.36 0.90 2.38 0.35 2.27 0.35 115.21

33 167 20 12.39 13.99 40 10 0.06 0.22 0.01 0.41 0.96 37 12 3 1 2.24 1.89 5.68

92 112 20 11.19 15.70 37 26 0.05 0.13 0.02 0.43 0.99 34 11 8 2 2.32 1.91 5.90

104 129 19 0.82 13.19 47 24 0.06 0.32 0.02 0.51 1.19 37 17 13 1 1.48 1.78 3.43

72 101 19 0.25 14.86 54 26 0.08 0.21 0.03 0.52 0.91 37 17 6 2 1.58 1.69 3.43

132 22 0.60 14.86 39 26 0.04 0.17 0.02 0.42 1.06 36 13 10 1 2.01 1.98 5.24

128 132 20 0.60 14.49 39 26 0.05 0.16 0.02 0.42 1.06 37 14 10 1 2.00 1.96 5.25

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

9

Table 2 (Continued ) Type II basalts wt.%

Lak-10

Lak-14

Lak-11

Lak-275

Lak-106

Lak-268

Lak-130

Lak-162

Lak-274

SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO K2 O Na2 O P2 O5 LOI Total Mg#

51.09 0.92 12.61 13.94 0.16 6.9 10.39 1.75 0.83 0.19 1.85 100.63 50

51.19 1.14 12.39 15.75 0.17 5.49 9.67 1.77 0.33 0.22 1.32 99.44 41

51.64 0.92 13.51 13.47 0.19 6.62 8.89 2 1.07 0.15 1.78 100.24 50

51.79 0.74 12.44 14.24 0.19 8.33 8.56 1.42 1.02 0.15 1.07 99.95 54

51.84 0.88 13.54 14.48 0.2 5.19 9.36 2.57 0.25 0.16 1.15 99.62 42

51.91 0.94 14.52 12.65 0.17 6.6 9.62 2.22 0.2 0.1 1.72 100.65 51

52.11 0.88 12.39 14.02 0.16 6.59 10 2.14 0.35 0.16 1.19 99.99 48

52.21 0.93 13.24 12.84 0.17 5.96 10.93 2.35 0.88 0.21 0.91 100.63 48

52.39 0.78 12.44 13.44 0.18 7.63 9.3 1.92 0.6 0.18 1.02 99.88 53

ppm Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Cs Ba

161 72 68 81.80 541 1.46 179

345 76 245 19.51 473 0.20 200

326 54 183 101.97 364 0.74 301

463 55 177 48.40 394 0.55 341

390 68 244 7.64 405 0.09 143

310 37 113 6.56 423 0.27 166

189 87 102 37.01 435 0.85 174

247 87 106 18.36 574 0.28 432

556 55 262 21.67 562 0.20 188

Sc V Ta Nb Zr Hf Th U Y

36 277 0.12 4.12 93 2.24 2.16 0.41 29

35 280 0.31 4.65 110 2.88 3.10 0.81 35

29 232 0.33 4.00 81 2.21 2.09 0.56 23

32 206 0.23 2.89 79 2.06 4.11 0.79 21

25 226 0.22 2.88 67 1.88 1.81 0.52 20

23 142 0.25 2.78 78 1.95 3.89 0.68 20

39 283 0.17 3.82 91 2.22 5.78 0.34 29

46 330 0.14 5.28 119 2.74 9.43 0.80 32

31 214 0.24 3.07 87 2.34 4.72 0.87 23

La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu REE

18.79 42.41 4.62 26.22 5.49 1.97 6.68 0.97 4.79 0.95 3.03 0.46 2.55 0.38 119.31

24.48 56.70 7.86 32.84 7.17 1.96 7.46 1.07 5.88 1.20 3.08 0.48 3.02 0.45 153.64

13.06 31.23 4.42 18.81 4.46 1.47 4.61 0.70 3.97 0.83 2.15 0.31 2.16 0.33 88.49

18.65 42.55 5.55 21.88 4.92 1.51 4.70 0.67 3.80 0.79 2.01 0.29 2.03 0.32 109.68

11.49 30.02 4.14 17.53 4.10 1.31 4.21 0.65 3.47 0.72 1.91 0.28 1.86 0.28 81.95

23.53 43.97 6.41 24.87 4.85 1.36 4.74 0.64 3.36 0.68 1.80 0.27 1.66 0.26 118.38

16.01 39.50 4.32 24.45 5.35 1.84 6.51 0.92 4.66 0.94 3.00 0.46 2.56 0.38 110.90

31.63 66.54 7.07 37.91 7.24 2.29 8.39 1.08 5.24 1.06 3.44 0.53 2.93 0.45 175.81

25.85 52.27 7.36 28.64 5.59 1.59 5.30 0.73 3.85 0.81 2.14 0.31 2.16 0.34 136.93

Cu Zn Ga Pb Al2 O3 /TiO2 P/Nd Zr/Nb Th/Ce Nb/Nb* Hf/Hf* Ti/Ti* Ce/Ce* Zr/Hf Zr/Sm Nb/Ta Nb/Th (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N (La/Yb)N

259 125 25 7.07 13.71 34 23 0.05 0.18 0.02 0.36 1.12 42 17 35 2 2.14 2.17 5.11

256 125 24 0.58 10.87 32 24 0.05 0.16 0.01 0.37 1 38 15 15 1 2.14 2.04 5.62

62 113 19 3.08 14.68 38 20 0.07 0.27 0.03 0.48 1.01 37 18 12 2 1.83 1.77 4.20

52 140 18 1.14 16.81 32 27 0.10 0.13 0.02 0.36 1.03 38 16 13 1 2.37 1.91 6.37

54 121 19 1.34 15.39 43 23 0.06 0.24 0.03 0.50 1.07 36 16 13 2 1.75 1.87 4.29

33 65 13 0.21 15.45 19 28 0.09 0.08 0.02 0.47 0.88 40 16 11 1 3.04 2.36 9.81

126 134 25 6.62 14.08 31 24 0.15 0.22 0.02 0.35 1.16 41 17 23 1 1.87 2.11 4.34

118 150 26 11.69 14.24 26 23 0.14 0.13 0.01 0.28 1.09 43 16 37 1 2.73 2.37 7.48

26 151 18 1.21 15.95 30 28 0.09 0.09 0.01 0.34 0.93 37 16 13 1 2.89 2.03 8.29

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C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

Table 2 (Continued ) Type II basalts wt.%

Lak-276

Lak-17

Lak-18

SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO K2 O Na2 O P2 O5 LOI Total Mg#

52.67 0.73 12.11 13.4 0.17 7.79 9.42 1.61 0.7 0.15 1.47 100.22 54

53.24 0.95 13.25 11.91 0.18 5.49 10.95 1.2 1.3 0.18 0.87 99.52 48

53.38 0.79 12.66 13.34 0.16 5.8 10 2.18 0.38 0.15 0.87 99.71 47

ppm Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Cs Ba Sc V Ta Nb Zr Hf Th U Y

603 56 261 34.06 417 0.44 310 32 232 0.20 2.56 76 1.99 3.90 0.89 19

377 72 236 129.21 618 1.29 278 37 273 0.31 3.84 70 1.93 2.60 0.70 30

La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu REE

20.55 44.45 5.94 23.81 4.74 1.48 4.60 0.63 3.37 0.71 1.88 0.28 1.80 0.27 114.51

Cu Zn Ga Pb Al2 O3 /TiO2 P/Nd Zr/Nb Th/Ce Nb/Nb* Hf/Hf* Ti/Ti* Ce/Ce* Zr/Hf Zr/Sm Nb/Ta Nb/Th (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N (La/Yb)N

65 147 17 1.21 16.59 30 30 0.09 0.10 0.02 0.37 0.99 38 16 13 1 2.71 2.11 7.91

Lak-273

Lak-134

Lak-15

Lak-137

53.59 0.78 13.65 11.95 0.15 6.59 9.68 2.01 0.32 0.21 1.37 100.30 52

54.02 0.82 12.84 12.13 0.17 5.05 11.62 1.37 0.2 0.21 1.32 99.75 45

54.53 0.94 11.22 13.25 0.17 5.79 11.37 0.72 0.15 0.24 1.49 99.87 47

54.99 0.85 15.47 9.59 0.15 3.15 10.72 3.15 0.11 0.2 1.43 99.81 40

341 69 217 9.00 419 0.20 109 34 243 0.23 3.01 67 1.82 2.13 0.53 24

629 59 271 10.77 751 0.12 169 30 227 0.51 3.59 99 2.61 5.64 0.91 23

224 42 131 8.38 251 0.06 43 20 156 0.24 2.21 53 1.41 1.42 0.34 17

384 57 214 5.99 494 0.05 253 25 226 0.25 3.25 63 1.72 2.02 0.69 24

307 50 175 3.36 313 0.07 103 24 177 0.23 2.53 50 1.36 1.62 0.43 18

21.39 47.02 6.45 26.90 6.00 2.19 6.39 0.93 5.09 1.02 2.72 0.41 2.58 0.38 129.45

13.54 33.47 4.71 19.87 4.52 1.41 4.86 0.75 4.07 0.85 2.27 0.34 2.26 0.32 93.25

18.45 47.15 5.87 23.80 5.33 1.58 5.04 0.69 3.97 0.83 2.18 0.31 2.17 0.33 117.69

11.98 26.00 3.78 15.52 3.41 1.06 3.60 0.52 2.82 0.58 1.50 0.24 1.48 0.21 72.69

17.01 39.71 5.40 22.62 4.86 1.62 4.89 0.74 4.09 0.84 2.21 0.31 2.19 0.33 106.81

10.83 25.97 3.87 16.28 3.70 1.20 3.81 0.55 3.15 0.64 1.62 0.25 1.57 0.24 73.67

201 117 23 0.57 13.95 32 18 0.06 0.15 0.01 0.36 0.98 37 12 13 1 2.23 2.05 5.76

45 109 20 0.60 16.03 36 22 0.06 0.20 0.02 0.40 1.03 37 15 13 1 1.87 1.78 4.16

35 119 19 1.26 17.50 42 28 0.12 0.19 0.02 0.36 1.11 38 19 7 1 2.17 1.93 5.91

69 74 12 0.19 15.66 64 24 0.05 0.15 0.03 0.56 0.95 38 16 9 2 2.20 2.02 5.62

114 88 20 0.48 11.94 50 19 0.05 0.17 0.02 0.46 1.02 36 13 13 2 2.19 1.85 5.39

52 82 14 0.21 18.20 58 20 0.06 0.21 0.02 0.54 0.98 37 13 11 2 1.83 2.01 4.79

{Ce/Ce* = CeN /[(LaN )(PrN )]1/2 } and {Eu/Eu* = EuN /[(SmN )(GdN )]1/2 }. Normalization factors after Sun and McDonough (1989).

JB-2 and BHVO-1 were run as reference materials given their basaltic compositions. The relative standard deviations (RSD) for major elements is <3% and better than 5% for the majority of the trace elements. Precision and reproducibility for international

reference materials (Manikyamba et al., 2008) are provided as Supplementary Table (S1). Major and trace element (including REE) data for representative samples of the KGB are summarized in Table 2.

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

11

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs showing (A) the mineralogy and texture of type I basalts, (B) occurrence of clinopyroxene phenocryst in type I basalts along with secondary hornblende, (C) mineralogy and texture of type II basalts and (D) occurrence of clinopyroxene phenocryst in type II basalts.

5. Screening for alteration and element mobility Understanding the petrogenesis and geodynamic setting of Archean volcanic rocks requires the identification of primary geochemical signatures preserved in them (Polat et al., 2002 and references therein). Several previous studies have demonstrated that in Archean fine-grained volcanic rocks major elements like Al, Ti, Fe, P, high field strength elements, rare earth elements (REE; except Eu and Ce) and transition metals (Cr, Ni, Sc, V and Y) are relatively immobile during hydrothermal alteration and greenschist to amphibolite grade metamorphism (Humphris and Thompson, 1978; Dostal et al., 1980; Ludden et al., 1982; Murphy and Hynes, 1986; Jochum et al., 1991; Lafleche et al., 1992; Arndt, 1994; Manikyamba et al., 2009; Said et al., 2010). In addition, REE remain stable through amphibolite to granulite facies transition. It has been suggested that the mobility of trace elements is not only controlled by the degree or grade of metamorphism but the availability of a suitable fluid phase for element transfer also plays a vital role (Weaver and Tarney, 1981). The elevated concentrations of LILE, LREE and transuranium elements like Th and U in volcanic arc lavas are mainly ascribed to the release of aqueous fluids carrying these elements from the subducted slab into the mantle wedge (O’Neil et al., 2011; Pearce, 2014). Turner et al. (2014) have explicitly demonstrated the preservation of subduction signatures in the Earth’s oldest volcanic rocks from 4.4 to 3.8 Ga Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt of northern Quebec, Canada that have been thoroughly overprinted by amphibolite facies metamorphism. According to these authors, the geochemical characteristics of amphibolite facies lavas from Nuvvagittuq greenstone belt indicate distinct subduction signatures of LILE, LREE enrichment along with HFSE depletion.

Therefore, it is essential to consider both the influence of subduction components and metamorphic overprints while evaluating the geochemical features of Archean island arc lavas. In the present study, both groups of rocks show coherent Ce vs. Th, Nb, Zr and Yb variations (Fig. 4). Furthermore, the loss of ignition of the analyzed rocks is low, ranging from 0.3 to 2.4 wt.% and their chondrite normalized REE patterns are smooth and coherent with nil to small Ce and Eu anomalies (Table 2; Fig. 5). In general, Zr and Ce have been considered as important geochemical tools to assess the alteration effects in Archean metavolcanic rocks (Pearce and Peate, 1995; Polat et al., 2002). Polat et al. (2002) conducted studies on Ce anomalies and suggested that rocks having Ce/Ce* ratios lower than 0.9 and greater than 1.1 exhibit LREE mobility while those with 0.9–1.1 exhibit limited LREE mobility. Ce/Ce* ratios of KGB basalts range from 0.9 to 1.1 (except three samples having Ce/Ce* = 1.16 and 1.19) which indicate limited LREE mobility. Large et al. (2001) introduced an alteration box plot using the Ishikawa Alteration Index (AI) and the chlorite–carbonate–pyrite index (CCPI) to ascertain the effects of hydrothermal alteration in the volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits and associated mafic and felsic volcanic rocks. In this alteration box plot (Fig. S1) some of the KGB basalts are occupying the field of andesite/basalt of the least altered box while others are falling at the margin. The samples at the margin show an array consistent with hydrothermal trends accounting for chlorite–carbonate alteration. Zr has been considered as the most stable element that sustains higher grades of metamorphism and intense hydrothermal alteration (Ludden et al., 1982; Ghatak et al., 2011; Messo et al., 2012). Variations of Th, Nb, Y, La, Yb and Nd with respect to Zr for the Kadiri basalts exhibit consistent trends where type I basalts show distinct depletion in Th,

12

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23 3.0

10

A

D

type I basalts A type II basalts 2.7

Yb (ppm)

Th (ppm)

8

6

4

2.4

2.1

1.8

2

1.5

0 8

28

48

8

68

28

68

48

68

48

68

3.0

6

E

B 2.6

(La/Sm)N

5

Nb (ppm)

48

Ce (ppm)

Ce (ppm)

4

3

2

2.2

1.8

1.4

1

1.0 8

28

48

68

8

28

Ce (ppm)

Ce (ppm) 2.38

130

F

C 2.18 110

(Gd/Yb)N

Zr (ppm)

1.98 90

70

1.78 1.58 1.38

50 1.18 0.98

30 8

28

48

68

Ce (ppm)

8

28

Ce (ppm)

Fig. 4. Ce vs. selected trace elements and ratios showing variation trends of KGB basalts indicating two distinct populations for type I and type II.

La, and Nd relative to type II basalts (Fig. 6). The enrichment of Th and U in island arc volcanic rocks has been attributed to higher solubility of these elements in slab dehydrated fluids which infiltrate and metasomatize the mantle wedge (Bailey and Ragnarsdottir, 1994). 6. Results The metabasalts from the Kadiri greenstone belt (KGB) show sub-alkaline tholeiitic to transitional affinity on Zr vs. Y plot of Ross and Bedard (2009; Fig. 7A). These rocks are basaltic to basaltic andesite in composition with SiO2 varying from 47 to 56 wt.% and Mg# ranging from 38 to 64 (Table 2). In Nb/Y vs. Zr/TiO2 diagram (Winchester and Floyd, 1977;Fig. 7B) the data plot in the field of

andesite/basalt. The samples having SiO2 content ranging from 52 to 56 wt.% show basaltic andesite composition. However, the mineralogical composition, Mg#, Cr, Co, Ni contents and the rare earth element (REE) patterns of the basaltic andesites are coherent with the basalts. Plots of Ce vs. Th, Yb, Nb, Zr, and trace element ratios (La/Sm)N and (Gd/Yb)N depict two separate populations for these metabasalts (Fig. 4). Based on REE composition, the basaltic rocks can be subdivided into two types. Type I basalts have La = 3.87–8.38 ppm, Ce = 9.38–19.56 ppm, Nd = 6.46–11.89 ppm, REE = 34.28–60.21 ppm (Table 2) and display flat chondritenormalized LREE patterns (Fig. 5) marked by (La/Sm)N = 1.10–1.97, (Gd/Yb)N = 1.00–1.31 and (La/Yb)N = 1.31–3.01 (Table 2). In contrast, type II basalts are characterized by LREE

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1000 Lak-262 Lak-244 Lak-251 Lak-242

Lak-248 Lak-255 Lak-238 Lak-245

Lak-246 Lak-256 Lak-254 Lak-241

A

B

Rock /Prim itive M antle

Rock /Chondrite

13

100

10

B

100

10

type I basalts 1

1 La

Ce

Pr

Nd Sm Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm Yb

Th U Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Ti Gd Dy Y Ho Yb Lu V Sc

Lu 1000

1000 Lak-252 Lak-250 Lak-263 Lak-243

Lak-239 Lak-266 Lak-249 Lak-260

D

C Rock /Prim itive M antle

Rock /Chondrite

Lak-258 Lak-237 Lak-247 Lak-253

100

10

100

10

type I basalts 1

1 Ce

La

Pr

Nd Sm Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm Yb

Th U Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Ti Gd Dy Y Ho Yb Lu V Sc

Lu 1000

1000 Lak-271 Lak-124 Lak-16 Lak-11

Lak-128 Lak-105 Lak-10 Lak-275

F

E Rock /Prim itive M antle

Rock /Chondrite

Lak-13 Lak-103 Lak-129 Lak-14

100

10

100

10

type II basalts 1

1 La

Ce

Pr

Nd Sm Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm Yb

Lu

1000

1000 Lak-130 Lak-276 Lak-273 Lak-137

H

G Rock /Prim itive M antle

Lak-106 Lak-268 Lak-162 Lak-274 Lak-17 Lak-18 Lak-134 Lak-15 Avg. back-arc basalts (Ishizukka et al., 2009)

Rock /Chondrite

Th U Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Ti Gd Dy Y Ho Yb Lu V Sc

100

10

100

10

type II basalts 1

1 La

Ce

Pr

Nd Sm Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm

Yb

Lu

Th U Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Ti Gd Dy Y Ho Yb Lu V Sc

Fig. 5. Chondrite normalized REE (A, C, E and G), and primitive mantle normalized multi-element diagrams (B, D, F and H). Normalizing factors are from Sun and McDonough (1989).

14

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

Fig. 6. Zr vs. different trace element plots for Kadiri basalts reflecting marked depletion of Th, La and Nd in type I relative to type II basalts.

enrichment with La = 10.52–31.63 ppm, Ce = 23.51–66.54 ppm, Nd = 15.52–37.91 ppm, REE (75–175 ppm; Table 2), reflected in terms of (La/Sm)N = 1.48–3.04, (Gd/Yb)N = 1.67–2.37 and (La/Yb)N = 3.43–9.81 (Table 2). Incompatible trace element abundance for the KGB basalts shows selective enrichment of large ion lithophile elements (LILE; Rb, Ba and Sr) and relative depletion of high field strength elements (HFSE; Nb, Ta, P, Ti, Y and Yb). Primitive mantle-normalized multi-element patterns (Fig. 5) show negative anomalies of Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf and Ti for both type I and type II basalts with distinctive peaks at Th, U and La, which are similar to those described for island arc basalts (Sheraton et al., 1990; Zhao et al., 1995). Type I basalts have a higher abundance of U than type II basalts (Fig. 5).

7. Discussion 7.1. Subduction signatures and source characteristics of Kadiri basalts Island arc magmatism records a gradual progress of mantle melting with initial decompression melting of fertile lherzolitic mantle yielding fore-arc basalts to flux induced hydrous melting of depleted harzburgitic mantle producing boninites and enriched arc basalts. The processes of slab-dehydration and LILE-enriched, HFSE-depleted fluid flux result in metasomatism of the overlying mantle wedge. Accordingly, the relative enrichment of LILE and LREE with pronounced HFSE depletion in arc magmas has

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300

Zr/Y = 4.5

A

Calc-alkaline

250 Zr/Y = 4.5

Zr (ppm)

200 Transitional 150 100

1.3

Tholeiitic

50

type I basalts type II basalts

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Y (ppm) 5 B

Zr/ TiO 2 * 0.0001

Com/Pant

Phonolite

1 Rhyolite Trachyte

0.1

Rhyodacite/Dacite TrachyAnd Andesite

0.01

Bsn/Nph Andesite/Basalt Alk-Bas SubAlkaline Basalt

.001 0.01

0.1

1

10

Nb/Y Fig. 7. (A) Zr vs. Y plot showing the tholeiitic to transitional affinity of KGB basalts (after Ross and Bedard, 2009), (B) Nb/Y vs. Zr/TiO2 diagram (after Winchester and Floyd, 1977) in which the analyzed samples plot in the field of basalt/andesite.

been ascribed to partial melting of a metasomatized mantle wedge (McCulloch and Gamble, 1991; Pearce and Stern, 2006; Pearce et al., 2000; Pearce, 2008; Manikyamba et al., 2009). Therefore, the sub-arc mantle wedge and fluids/melts derived from dehydrated subducted slab, sediments overlying the slab are potential contributors to arc magma sources and their influence on subduction zone magmatism can be identified using distinct geochemical fingerprints preserved in the volcanic rocks (Perfit et al., 1980; Tatsumi et al., 1986; Hawkesworth et al., 1993; Pearce and Peate, 1995; Maruyama et al., 2009). Type I basalts of KGB show depleted to slightly enriched LREE patterns and lower magnitude of negative anomalies at Nb, Zr, Hf and Ti (Fig. 5), whereas type II basalts exhibit pronounced negative Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Ti anomalies and uniformly enriched LREE patterns (Fig. 5). Both types I and II display relative depletion of HFSE with respect to LILE and LREE manifested in terms of high LILE/HFSE, LREE/HFSE ratios and negative Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf and Ti anomalies which are diagnostic features of subduction zone magmatic processes in intraoceanic arc environments (Pearce, 2008; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012; Dey et al., 2013). However, the arc signatures are more prominent in type II basalts and the higher abundances of Rb (3.4–129 ppm), Sr (251–751 ppm) and Zr (50–119 ppm) compared with type I (Rb: 3.03–22 ppm; Sr: 105–256 ppm and Zr: 34–86 ppm) may reflect contribution from subducted sediments. Mantle normalized spider diagrams for the basalts (Fig. 5) exhibit distinct

15

peaks at U, Th and La enrichment relative to other LREE. Nb/Nb* and Hf/Hf* progressively decrease with increasing (La/Sm)N for type I basalts compared to type II that show a gradual increase in the magnitude of negative Hf anomaly within a limited range of (La/Sm)N . In type II basalts (La/Sm)N is increasing at lower P/Nd* and Ti/Ti* ratios that in turn corroborates depletion of HFSE with LREE enrichment (Fig. 6). Type II basalts show relatively greater magnitude of negative Nb anomaly (Nb/Nb* = 0.1–0.32) compared to type I (Nb/Nb* = 0.41–0.82) and this difference in the magnitude of Nb anomalies is consistent with their LILE and LREE contents. Though the magnitude of negative Nb, Ti and Hf anomalies vary from type I to type II basalts, the original arc signatures are preserved in both the types (Figs. 5 and 8). Negative Zr–Hf anomalies observed in arc basalts have been suggested as primary magmatic features resulting from (1) amphibole fractionation, (2) partial melting in the majorite garnet field or (3) interaction between MORB and subduction related melts. In case of Kadiri basalts, an interaction between a depleted MORB-like mantle wedge and slab-dehydrated LILE enriched-HFSE depleted fluid is most viable to account for the negative Zr–Hf anomalies. Zr/Hf and Zr/Sm ratios for type I (31–39, and 12–32 respectively) and type II basalts (34–43 and 11–24 respectively) compared with primitive mantle values of 36 and 25 reflect derivation of their parent magma from a depleted to enriched mantle source. Trace element abundances suggest that the basalts have uniformly enriched Th and U over Nb–Ta. Unusual enrichment of U in island arc magmas has been attributed to the influx of metasomatic fluids into mantle wedge and higher solubility of U in slab-dehydrated fluids (Bailey and Ragnarsdottir, 1994). Metasomatic fluids are generated during dehydration of subducted slab and decarbonation of amphibolite facies minerals in the slab. Due to higher solubility, uranium will be released from the subducted slab and dissolved into the fluid phase with increasing pressure and temperature. These metasomatic fluids serve as the most viable transporters of U into the overlying sub-arc mantle wedge. Nb depletion relative to Th is manifested in terms of Nb/Th: 1–9 for type I basalts and Nb/Th: 1–2 for type II basalts. This suggests source enrichment by hydrous metasomatism of the mantle wedge and varying degrees of influx of metasomatic fluids (Munker et al., 2004; Manikyamba et al., 2009). The type II basalts have Nb contents of 2.2–5.3 ppm with Zr/Nb: 10–30, compared to N-MORB (Nb: 2.3 ppm and Zr/Nb: 32). Zr/Nb ratios in Archean arc basalts are mostly within the range of recent MORB thereby reflecting on the depleted nature of Archean upper mantle (Wyman et al., 1999; Polat and Kerrich, 2002; Hollings and Kerrich, 2004, 2006; Wyman and Kerrich, 2009). The type I basalts of KGB, having Nb contents ranging from 2.9 to 5.4 ppm and Zr/Nb ratios varying between 9.6 and 21.2, are consistent with the primitive arcs (Zr/Nb: 9–87). This is indicative of variable enrichment of a depleted mantle wedge in an arc environment in contrast with that of average N-MORB (Zr/Nb: 11–39; Sun and McDonough, 1989; Pearce and Peate, 1995). This interpretation is supported in Fig. 9 where most of the data plot within the MORB-OIB array (Fig. 9) and an enriched mantle source is interpreted for their generation. Therefore, hydrous metasomatism of depleted mantle wedge by slab-dehydrated fluids and minor input of slab-derived subducted sediments are inferred to be the likely source enrichment processes for the KGB basalts. 7.2. Across arc variations and mantle melting conditions of Kadiri basalts The geochemical characteristics of arc basalts are influenced by influx of subduction derived fluids and melting of sediments overlying the slab (Hawkesworth et al., 1997; Manikyamba et al., 2004a). Examples of arcs with a fluid dominant slab component include the New Britain (Woodhead and Johnson, 1993), South Sandwich

16

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0.10

1.2

A

C 0.08

type I basalts type II basalts

0.8

Hf/Hf*

Nb/Nb*

0.06

0.04

0.4 0.02

0.00

0.0 0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

2.8

3.2

0.8

3.6

1.2

1.6

(La/Sm)N

2.4

2.8

3.2

3.6

1.1

560

B

490

D

1.0 0.9

420

0.8

Ti/Ti*

350

P/Nd

2.0

(La/Sm)N

280 210

0.7 0.6 0.5

140

0.4

70

0.3 0.2

0 0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

2.8

3.2

3.6

(La/Sm)N

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

2.8

3.2

3.6

(La/Sm)N

Fig. 8. (La/Sm)N vs. (A) Nb/Nb*; (B) P/Nd; (C) Hf/Hf* and (D) Ti/Ti* showing characteristic HFSE depletion and systematic enrichment of LREE/HFSE for type I and type II basalts of KGB.

100

Zr/Yb

Average N-MORB

MORB OIB -array

10

Average N-MORB type I basalts type II basalts

1 0.1

1.0

10.0

Nb/Yb Fig. 9. Zr/Yb vs. Nb/Yb (modified from Macdonald et al., 2000) plot indicating an average N-MORB composition of KGB basalts.

Islands, Izu–Bonin–Mariana (Hawkesworth et al., 1993; Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1994), and the Kurile and Kamchatka arcs (Ishikawa and Tera, 1997; Churikova et al., 2001). Compositional variations in the Izu–Bonin–Mariana arc have been attributed to modification of depleted mantle wedge by fertile slab fluids at the volcanic front, and residual slab fluids modifying fertile mantle in the back arc (Hochstaedter et al., 2001). The Indonesian Sunda–Banda arc (Wheller et al., 1987; Stolz et al., 1990; Vroon et al., 1993, 1995, 2001; Zaw et al., 2014) and sectors of the Lesser Antilles (Macdonald et al., 2000) are characterized by a pronounced signature derived from subducted sediments. The across arc geochemical variations in the Banda arc are explained in terms of (i) modification of MORB

source by subduction derived fluids in the frontal arc, and (ii) back arc magmatism by lower degrees of melting of the mantle wedge that has been modified by siliceous melts from slab sediments (Hoogewerff et al., 1997; Elburg et al., 2002). Type I basalts plot in arc basalt fields of Pilbara Craton of Western Australia and Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada whereas type II basalts occupy the fields of Wawa greenstone belt of Superior Province, Canada, Shandong Province, China, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia, and Baltic Shield (with two outliers; Pharaoh et al., 1987; Ohta et al., 1997; Hollings and Kerrich, 2000; Polat and Kerrich, 2001; Ishizukaa et al., 2009; ˜ et al., 2008; Said and Kerrich, 2009; Wang et al., Ordónez-Calderón 2013; Fig. 10A; Table 2). These observations suggest that both types of basalts from KGB are analogous to those from other Neoarchean greenstone belts of the world. In comparison with Phanerozoic intraoceanic arc basalts, type I basalts plot within the low Ce–Yb field of basalts from the Lesser Antilles, South Sandwich islands and New Britain (Fig. 10B). On this Ce–Yb plot (Fig. 10B) type II basalts of KGB overlap the fields defined by basalts from the Andes, Aeolian Islands, Aleutians and Philippines. Type II basalts have a relatively higher Ce content than type I basalts which may reflect a contribution from subducted sediment. These features indicate that similar types of convergent margin processes were operative during the Archean times including the Kadiri greenstone belt of eastern Dharwar Craton, India (Fig. 10). This observation is consistent with the higher contents of Rb, Sr, Zr and Th in type II basalts which substantiate the role of subducted sediments in their genesis. Distinct Th enrichment relative to Nb, can be ascribed to two possibilities (i) addition of subducted sedimentary component in the melt phase to the sub-arc mantle (Elliot et al., 1997) and (ii) contribution from older crustal material. Lower Th/Nb ratios (0.08–0.69) in type

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120 type I basalts Kadiri greenstone belt, type II basalts Eastern Dharwar Craton

A

B 100

100

Aeolian Is.

Wawa greenstone belt Shandong Province, China

Philippines

80 Baltic shield

60

Ce (ppm)

80

Ce (ppm)

17

Abitibi greenstone belt

Andes CVZ

60

Grenada

40

Andes SVZ

20

New Britain Marianas

Birch-Uchi greenstone belt

40

Yilgarn Craton

Pilbara Craton

20

Ivisaartoq greenstone belt

0 0

1

2

N. Lesser Antilles S. Sandwich Is. Tonga-Kermadec

0 0

6

5

4

3

Aleutians

1

2

3

4

5

6

Yb (ppm)

Yb (ppm) 500

C 400

Ba/Th

300 200 100 Frontal arc

Rear-arc

0 4

8

12

Nb/Th Fig. 10. Ce vs. Yb plot showing a comparison of Kadiri basalts with (A) island arc basalts from Archean greenstone belts of other cratons and (B) Phanerozoic island arcs. (C) Ba/Th vs. Nb/Th for KGB basalts indicating the frontal arc setting for most of the type I basalts and a rear arc affinity for the type II basalts of KGB. Fields for frontal and rear arcs from Elburg et al. (2002).

I compared to type II basalts (0.48–1.79; Table 2) may reflect variable input of sediment melts in type II basalts. Elburg et al. (2002) identified across arc variation with an increase in the U/Pb, Zr/Y, Ce/Yb, Th/U, Th/Ce, Ba/Nb, La/Nb, Th/Nb, Th/Zr, Ba/La ratios and decrease in Ba/Th, Pb/Ce and Sr/Nd ratios from the fore arc to back arc in Pantar Strait volcanoes of the Sunda arc. The back-arc (type II) basalts are marked by higher Th/Nb (0.3–1.8), La/Nb (3.3–8.5) and Ce/Yb (11–25) than the arc basalts (type I; Th/Nb: 0.1–0.2, La/Nb: 1.2–2.1; Ce/Yb: 4–10), that may reflect variable sediment contribution from arc to back-arc and attest to across arc geochemical variations. Though Ba is a mobile element, it serves as a useful geochemical proxy to understand the input from subducted sediments during arc magmatism. Ba/Th and Nb/Th ratios have been used by many workers to distinguish the frontal and rear arc fields. Type II basalts with lower Nb/Th ratios distinctly fall in the rear arc field and reflect contributions from subducted sediments whereas type I basalts occupy the field of frontal arc (Fig. 10C). Rear arc magmas showing signatures of subducted sediments have been reported from Pantar Strait volcanoes, Indonesia (Elburg et al., 2002). The geochemical variations described for type I and type II basalts are

similar to the basalts of the Izu–Bonin–Mariana arc, where these variations have been ascribed to enrichment of a depleted sub-arc mantle wedge by slab fluids within the frontal arc region. The residual slab fluids and contribution of subducted sediments modified the composition of the mantle in the back arc region (Ewart et al., 1998; Hochstaedter et al., 2001; Hergt and Woodhead, 2007). The type I basalts reflect a gradual transition from depleted, subductionunmodified to subduction-metasomatized mantle melts and are compositionally analogous to basalts generated in fore-arc and arc environments. The subduction-related signature increases from type I to type II basalts attesting to an increasing contribution from slab-derived fluids/sediments. The prominent arc signatures in back-arc type II basalts may be attributed to a juvenile backarc system that, due to proximity to arc environment, experienced considerable influx of subduction-derived fluids and sediments. Distinct REE compositions for type I and type II basalts provide constraints on mantle melting processes. The type I basalts of KGB have (La/Sm)N = 1.10–1.97, (Gd/Yb)N = 1.00–1.31 and (La/Yb)N = 1.31–3.01 and display flat chondrite-normalized LREE patterns (Fig. 5), suggesting a relatively higher degree of partial

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

200

A 150

100

50 MORB Arc

BAB

0 0

50

100

150

200

250

200

250

Zr (ppm) 400

B 300

200

MORB 100

BAB Arc 0 0

50

100

150

Zr (ppm) 60

C 50 40

Ti/V

7.3. Geodynamic setting Most of the type II basalts resemble Andean and Philippines arc basalts (Fig. 10B), thereby showing the signatures of subducted sediments/continental crust. However, both basalt types occupy the fields of arc and back arc on Ti/Zr, Ti/Sc and Ti/V vs. Zr plots (Gamble et al., 1994;Fig. 11), reflecting an intraoceanic tectonic setting for the generation of these rock types. Type I basalts plot in the field of arc basalts, while type II basalts characteristically belong to the field of back arc basin basalts. Back-arc basin basalts (BABBs) are generated by decompression melting and erupt along spreading centres in a manner almost indistinguishable from that of N-MORB, albeit with a mild incompatible element enrichment (Gribble et al., 1996; Langmuir et al., 2006, Manikyamba et al., 2009). Geochemical differences between the two have been established from recent paired arcs and back-arcs of the SW Pacific, where BABBs plot on variation diagrams between Primitive Island arc basalts (IAB) and N-MORB (Woodhead and Johnson, 1993; Gamble et al., 1994). The evolution of magma sources for arc and back-arc basin basalts and the geochemical relations among them place important constraints on the melting history and geodynamic conditions. In mature arc systems, the melts generated in an arc setting are characterized by LILE enrichment and HFSE depletion, whereas the BAB magmas are much similar to MORB with minor or negligible LILE enrichments and HFSE depletions. A prominent spatial separation between arc and back arc is maintained in terms of magma sources and melting regimes. In contrast to this, for juvenile arc systems, the nascent back arc rift develops in close proximity to the fore arc. The backarc basin basalts have arc signatures (LILE–LREE enrichments, HFSE depletion) derived by interaction between MORB-like mantle in the extensional back-arc setting and subduction components from the nearby arc regime (Stern et al., 1990; Gribble et al., 1996; Pearce and Stern, 2006). The genesis of LILE-LREE enriched, HFSE depleted BABB is primarily attributed to flux-induced melting in

type I basalts type II basalts

Ti/Zr

melting at shallower depth consistent with spinel peridotitic mantle. The type II basalts are characterized by distinct LREE/HREE fractionation trends manifested in terms of (La/Sm)N = 1.48–3.04, (Gd/Yb)N = 1.67–2.37 and (La/Yb)N = 3.43–9.81, that corroborate lower degree of partial melting of a mantle source extending from shallower (above garnet stability field at <90 km) to greater depth (within garnet stability field at >90 km) corresponding to the compositional domain of spinel and garnet peridotite (Hirschmann and Stolper, 1996). Hollings and Kerrich (2004) invoked a twostage mantle melting and melt extraction model to explain the geochemical characteristics of tholeiitic arc basalts from the Neoarchean Pickle Crow assemblage, Ontario, Canada, where the LREE-enriched, HFSE depleted basalts inherited the geochemical signatures of subduction input and represent the products of first stage melting. After first stage melt extraction, the LREE-depleted, HFSE-enriched basalts were derived through second stage melting of a residual mantle depleted in LILE and LREE. However, the geochemical variations of type I and type II basalts of KGB cannot be attributed to this two-stage model. These two types of basalts can be distinguished by flat and enriched LREE patterns respectively, but both show depleted HFSE patterns that are not consistent with the two-stage mantle melting. Therefore, variable degrees of mantle melting and gradual transition in melting regimes varying from garnet to spinel peridotite could be the most viable explanation for the mantle melting processes and resultant geochemical systematics of the type I and type II basalts of KGB. Mg# varying between 38 and 64 (Table 2) in conjunction with Co and Ni contents ranging from 40 to 87 ppm and 58 to 319 ppm respectively reflect an evolved nature of KGB basalts. The absence of negative Eu anomalies indicates no plagioclase separation during fractionation of the parent melt.

Ti/Sc

18

30

MORB

20 10

BAB Arc

0 0

50

100

150

200

250

Zr (ppm) Fig. 11. Plots of (A) Ti/Zr, (B) Ti/Sc and (C) Ti/V vs. Zr, after Gribble et al. (1996) showing an ‘arc’ setting for the type I basalts and a ‘back arc’ setting for type II basalts of KGB.

nascent back-arc systems controlled by hydrous fluxing and infiltration of slab-dehydrated fluids into MORB-like mantle (Stolper and Newman, 1994; Gribble et al., 1996). Two models have been proposed to explain the arc-like compositions of juvenile BAB magmas: (i) mixing between MORB-like and arc-like mantle and (ii) metasomatism of MORB-like mantle by subduction components, where in both the cases, the back-arc rift develops proximal to the arc environment (Stern et al., 1990). Therefore, the prominent arc affinity of the LREE enriched type II basalts of KGB is attributed to (i) development of juvenile back-arc rift close to a subduction zone (ii) upwelling of MORB-like mantle (iii) followed by its metasomatism through influx of hydrous fluids and sediments derived from subduction (iv) flux-induced melting in the compositional domain of garnet peridotite. The trace element geochemistry of KGB basalts preserve an across-arc geochemical gradation reflected in the fore-arc to arclike characteristics of type I basalts and back-arc like characteristics of type II basalts that in turn suggests a paired arc–nascent back arc setting for the KGB. Thus, types I and II basalts are interpreted

C. Manikyamba et al. / Precambrian Research 258 (2015) 1–23

19

Fig. 12. A cartoon illustration showing the generation of type I and type II basalts of KGB in an arc–back arc setting. See text for discussion.

Table 3 Characteristics lithounits indicative of tectonic setting in the Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar composite greenstone terrane. Greenstone belt

Lithounits

Tectonic setting

Mineralization

References

Hutti Jonnagiri Kadiri Kolar

Depleted and enriched basalts, Mg-andesites Arc basalts, high Mg-basalts Arc basalts, NEB, adakites Komatiites, high Mg-basalts, P-picrites, arc tholeiites

Plume-arc interaction Plume-arc interaction Island arc magmatism Plume-arc accretion

Abundant gold mineralization Moderate gold mineralization Disseminated gold mineralization Abundant gold mineralization

1, 2, 3 4 5 6, 7, 8

NEB: Nb-enriched basalts; P-picrites: plume picrites; (1) Manikyamba et al. (2009); (2) Pal and Mishra (2002); (3) Giritharan and Rajamani (1998); (4) Sakthi Saravanan et al. (2009); (5) Ramam and Murty (1997); (6) Anantha Iyer et al. (1980); (7) Balakrishnan et al. (1990); (8) Rajamani et al. (1985).

as intraoceanic arc basalts that reflect distinct spectrum of REE compositions arising from (i) relatively higher degree melting of a depleted to metasomatized mantle wedge (spinel peridotite composition) in forearc and arc settings (Ewart et al., 1998; Hergt and Woodhead, 2007) producing type I basalts with flat to slightly enriched LREE patterns and (ii) lower degree melting of subductionmetasomatized MORB-like mantle (spinel to garnet peridotite composition) in a nascent back-arc setting giving rise to type II basalts with LREE enriched patterns. The geochemical characteristics of the type I and type II KGB basalts generated in an arc–back arc tectonic setting are similar to arc basalts from Neoarchean greenstone belts of Canada, Australia, China and Baltic Shield (Fig. 10A), Proterozoic arc tholeiites of Grenville Province (Sethuraman and Moore, 1973) eastern Ontario, Cenozoic tholeiitic-series volcanic rocks from Mariana arc (Bloomer, 1987). Thus, the evidence for Neoarchean intraoceanic arc magmatism preserved in the KGB lend support to the concept that processes operative in the Cenozoic arc systems also occurred during the Precambrian (Polat et al., 2005; Polat and Kerrich, 2006 and references therein). Among the Neoarchean greenstone belts of eastern Dharwar Craton, paired arc–back arc setting with distinct signatures of across arc geochemical signatures has been documented from the Hutti, Gadwal and Jonnagiri (Manikyamba et al., 2009; Khanna, 2013; Manikyamba et al., 2014b) which are similar with arc–back-arc system of Tonga–Kermadec–Lau and Izu–Bonin–Mariana of Indonesia, Bransfield Strait of Antarctica, Coriolis Trough and Northern Basin of the New Hebrides (Stern et al., 1990; Gribble et al., 1996; Ewart et al., 1998). A schematic illustration depicting the generation of types I and II basalts of KGB is shown in Fig. 12 where type I basalts are considered to have been generated by melting of variably enriched mantle in an arc–fore arc setting. The type II basalts were produced within a back arc rift setting where the MORB type mantle was metasomatized by slab derived fluids and sediments. The subduction signatures increased from type I to type II basalts indicating

variable input of subduction components and the across arc variation (Fig. 12). 7.4. Implications on gold mineralization The metabasalts of Neoarchaean Kadiri greenstone belt together with their geochemical counterparts from Kolar, Hutti, Ramagiri, Penakacherla and Gadwal greenstone belts of Dharwar Craton record evidence for intraoceanic arc–back arc magmatism forming a part of 2.6–2.4 Ga global tectono-magmatic events of crustal growth and accretion along convergent plate margins (Manikyamba et al., 2004a,b, 2005, 2009; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012). World-class gold deposits in various regions on the globe are spatially and temporally associated with terrane accretion and crustal growth or lithosphere destruction that preserve distinct signatures of magmatic, metamorphic and hydrothermal events (e.g., Groves et al., 1998; Goldfarb et al., 2014; Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Khomich et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2013). Tectono-magmatic processes operating in arc–back arc system release fluids and provide fundamental generic controls on orogenic gold metallogeny (Muntean et al., 2011; Hronsky et al., 2012). The greenstone belts of Yilgarn and Pilbara Cratons of Australia (Kent and Hagemann, 1996), Zimbabwe Craton (MacLachlan and Helmstaedt, 1995), Abitibi and Superior Province of Canada (Kerrich, 1994; Kerrich and Cassidy, 1994); Kaapval Craton of South Africa (Foster and Piper, 1993) and Hattu and Kuhmo greenstone belts of Karelian Province, Finland (Groves et al., 2005;) account for orogenic gold mineralization consistent with subduction–accretion processes (Groves et al., 1998). In the Dharwar Craton of southern India, gold deposits occur mostly along the six arcuate shear zones passing through late Archaean greenstone belts (∼2.7 Ga). Among these, the Penakacherla schist belt of Ramagiri–Hungund greenstone terrane comprises syn-orogenic, shear zone hosted gold mineralization which provide valuable

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information on Archaean subduction processes, metamorphic control and role of hydrothermal fluids (Manikyamba et al., 2004b). The Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar composite greenstone terrane of eastern Dharwar Craton record distinct gold mineralization along with characteristic lithounits reflecting on mantle plume and island arc processes (Table 3). Lithounits representing the subduction processes are selectively preserved in these greenstone belts in which Hutti and Kolar have abundant gold mineralization. The Kadiri greenstone belt characterized by subduction controlled arc-back tectonic setting has rare/disseminated gold mineralization. The Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar composite greenstone terrane thus provides an excellent example of Neoarchean arc–back arc magmatism, plume–arc accretion, crustal growth and gold mineralization in the eastern Dharwar Craton. 8. Conclusions • The Kadiri greenstone belt, situated at the south central part of the Hutti–Jonnagiri–Kadiri–Kolar composite greenstone terrane of eastern Dharwar Craton, contains a variety of mafic and felsic volcanic rocks which are suggested to be generated during different stages of intraoceanic subduction process. • The metabasalts of this belt are products of arc–back arc magmatism and are characterized by LILE and LREE enrichment, relative HFSE depletion and higher LILE/HFSE, LREE/HFSE ratios. REE compositions discriminate these basalts into type I and type II basalts with distinct forearc and back arc tectonic affinities. • Fluids derived from dehydrated subducted slab and minor melting of slab sediments account for the metasomatic enrichment of the mantle source. • Trace element characteristics reflect a progressive increase in fluid controlled metasomatism and variable sediment contribution from arc to back arc regime. • The REE chemistry of the KGB basalts attests to a gradual transition in the melting depth varying from spinel to garnet stability field in an arc–back arc regime. • A coupled arc–back arc system characterized by the interaction between MORB-like and arc-like mantle in a nascent back-arc setting that developed close to a fore arc is inferred for KGB. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Prof. Mrinal K. Sen, former Director, NGRI for his kind encouragement and permission to publish this work. We thank Acting Director, NGRI for his kind support. We are grateful to Dr. H.M. Rajesh, Associate Editor, Precambrian Research for the editorial handling and constructive comments that improved the quality of the manuscript. The authors thank two anonymous reviewers for their critical comments and thoughtful suggestions. The research work has been carried out from the funds of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to National Geophysical Research Institute through the projects of India Deep Earth Exploration Programme (INDEX), MLP 6201-28 (CM) and Department of Science and Technology (ESS/16/314/2006). This study also contributes to the Talent Award to M. Santosh under the 1000 Plan from the Chinese Government. Dr. Tarun Khanna and Mr. K. Raju are thanked for their help during the field work. We thank Drs. M. Satyanarayanan, S. Sawanth, K.S.V. Subramanyam and A.K. Krishna for their help in generating the geochemical data. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres. 2014.12.003.

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