New dating of rapid vertical deformation of Santa Tecla Fault scarps (Mt. Etna volcano, Sicily) by lichenometry method

Accepted Manuscript New dating of rapid vertical deformation of Santa Tecla Fault (Mt. Etna volcano, Sicily) scarps by lichenometry method G. De Guidi, D. Cataldo, A.G. Piro, F. Carnemolla, F. Brighenti PII:

S1040-6182(19)30179-X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.07.031

Reference:

JQI 7959

To appear in:

Quaternary International

Received Date: 28 February 2019 Revised Date:

18 July 2019

Accepted Date: 25 July 2019

Please cite this article as: De Guidi, G., Cataldo, D., Piro, A.G., Carnemolla, F., Brighenti, F., New dating of rapid vertical deformation of Santa Tecla Fault (Mt. Etna volcano, Sicily) scarps by lichenometry method, Quaternary International (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.07.031. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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New dating of rapid vertical deformation of Santa Tecla Fault (Mt. Etna volcano, Sicily) scarps by Lichenometry method.

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Key words: coseismic exhumation, free-face fault plane, lichenometry,

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Names: De Guidi G.1 2, Cataldo D.1, Piro A.G. 1, Carnemolla F. 1 2, Brighenti F. 1 2

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Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche Geologiche e Ambientali Università di Catania

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CRUST - Interuniversity Center for 3D Seismotectonic with territorial applications

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1 - Abstract The eastern slope of Mt. Etna is characterised by shallow seismicity originating from normal-oblique faulting, Timpe Fault System, related to WNW-ESE regional extension. Recent research has demonstrated that in the fault population of Mt. Etna’s eastern flank the minimum earthquake magnitude that will have a ground rupture effect is ca. 2.5. This system is characterised by high frequency seismic activity, due to thinned seismogenic crustal layer. This characteristic, together with the high density of the fault segments, does not always for identification of the segments responsible for the earthquake. The earthquakes, affecting the medium-lower eastern flank, have been historically reconstructed by macroseismic analysis and reported in a macroseismic database, and in recent decades by instrumental seismic registration, which provide the seismological parameters capable of evaluating focal mechanism, hypocentre and relative algorithms related to geometric parameters which control the growth of fault segments. In this paper, we present a methodology to evaluate the age of the rapid exhumation of the free-face fault plane of the NNW-SSE oriented normal fault segment named S. Tecla (Timpe Fault System). It consists of the measurement of the thalli species (Lichenometry method) in order to evaluate the parameters which characterise their growth. The seismic history of the S. Tecla Fault indicates eight certain events from 1865 – 2005 with 3.4 ÷ 4.7 Magnitude (De Guidi el al., 2012 and reference therein). We found evidence of two different recent rapid vertical deformation events at the base of the S. Tecla fault escarpment, the oldest 20 m long and 0.25 m in height, and the youngest with a 0.02 m high nude surface exposed. We have observed that there are thalli of Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ehrh. Ex Ach.) Hale, colonizing part of the nude surface on the escarpment. The results highlight that the oldest thalli was dated at 43.7 years old, showing that rapid vertical deformation generated the surface where the thalli, after 4 years, took root. The displacement of this surface could be related to the seismic events occurring on 3rd August 1973 (3.8 M) in S. M. Ammalati area probably accompanied by intense post seismic deformation. The second and last event could be attributable to a 3.1 M seismic event occurring on 25th September 2014 (ISIDe, 2016).

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2 - Introduction

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The eastern slope of Mt. Etna is characterised by shallow seismicity originating from normal-oblique faulting, related to WNW-ESE regional extension (Fig. 1) (Monaco et al., 1997; Monaco and Tortorici, 2000). Structural analysis of different fault segments in eastern Sicily and geodetic measurements, allowed the determination of the mean direction of extension (~N115°E) and an opening velocity of 3.6 ÷ 0.6 mm/yr (Monaco et al., 1997; Monaco and Tortorici, 2000; D’Agostino and Selvaggi, 2004; Catalano et al., 2008). Several interpretations of the unstable eastern flank of Mt. Etna suggest a simple gravitycontrolled mechanism enhanced by magmatic intrusions (Borgia et al., 1992; Rasà et al., 1996; Rust and Neri, 1996; Froger et al., 2001; Tibaldi and Groppelli, 2002; Neri et al., 2007; Palano et al., 2008). As an alternative some Authors indicate various triggering factors or interaction between them accountable for the slow sliding of the eastern and south-eastern flank of the volcano (Branca et al., 2014; De Guidi et al., 2018). Branca et al., (2014), highlights that the sliding-related subsidence, clearly involving the north eastern sector of Etna, has only recently affected (last 6-7 ka) the southeastern sector counteracting the effects of volcano-tectonic uplift. The reconstruction of Etnean extensional active tectonic structures on the eastern flank and of related earthquakes, allowed De Guidi et al. (2012) to calculate that the fault population on Mt. Etna’s eastern flank follows a scaling law the of which magnitude is usually two-orders lower than worldwide fault populations (Wells and Coppersmith, 1994); in particular the minimum earthquake magnitude to have ground rupture effect is ca. 2.5. This system is characterised by high frequency seismic activity, because the of thinned seismogenic crustal layer. Thus, the earthquake hypocenters are located between 0.5 and 2 km (De Guidi et al., 2012). The magnitude of these events is generally modest, around 4.6 M, but historical and scientific evidence indicates that earthquakes of greater magnitude have occurred in the past, causing extensive damage as well as modifications of the morphology, such as: vertical movements along fault planes, open fractures, reactivation to existing fractures, landslide phenomena in the vicinity of the escarpments, deviation or capture upstream of existing and falling water courses in the area affected by the event itself. Earthquakes affecting the medium-lower eastern flank has been historically reconstructed by macroseismic analysis (Azzaro et al., 2000; 2002; 2006; 2009; 2014; 2015) and reported in “Macroseismic Database and Etnean Earthquakes Database from 1633 to 2013”. In recent decades instrumental seismic registration has provided the seismological parameters cable of evaluating the physical parameters such as magnitudes, focal mechanisms, hypocentre and relative algorithms related to geometric parameters which control the growths of fault segments (Gudmundsson et al., 2013). In this paper, we apply the lichenometry method to evaluate the age of the rapid vertical exhumation of the free-face fault plane of the NNW-SSE oriented Linera normal fault segment (Monaco et al., 2010) later named S. Tecla by De Guidi et al. (2012), belonging to the Timpe Fault system (Monaco et al., 2010) (Fig. 1). The lichenometry method is a tool based on: i) an exact and precise knowledge of the thalli species in order to recognize the parameters characterizing its growth; ii) a precise and detailed observation of the thalli in order to avoid the measurement of the melting of two or more thalli.

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Fig. 1 - Morpho-structural map of eastern slope of Mt. Etna affected by the Timpe fault system that is normal-oblique faulting related to WNW-ESE regional extension A). The inset shows the active tectonic map of southwest Calabria and eastern Sicily, affected by a seismogenic normal fault system developed in response to the WNW-ESE oriented extensional dynamic. The green dotted line represents the study area reported in detail on the right side B); a red line with label represents the traces of geological sections reported in Fig. 3; the red triangle is the point along the Santa Tecla fault where the samples were taken (modified from Monaco et al., 2010; Gudmundsson et al., 2013 and De Guidi et al., 2018).

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3. - S. Tecla fault

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The S. Tecla Fault (Gudmundsson et al., 2013) trending NNW-SSE, covers a large area with a scarp height that reaches 190 m a.s.l. (Satori et al., 1991) (Fig. 2). It extends for 5 km and reaches 2.5 Km offshore (Barreca et al., 2018; Monaco et al., 1997). The master fault offsets a 200-0 kyr volcanic sequence, from the bottom to the top: Timpe volcanics (200-100 ka), Ellittico volcanics (60-15 ka), and Mongibello volcanics (15-0 ka). Under this sequence, at about 200 meters in depth, lies the sedimentary substratum represented by grey-blue clays (Early-Middle Pleistocene) (Fig. 3) (Monaco et al., 2010; Corsaro et al., 2002). The historical seismicity is characterized by eight events since 1865 until 2005 (De Guidi et al., 2012 and reference therein), with magnitude ranging between 3,4 and 4,7. From the morphology of the cumulative escarpments, the kinematic indicators show a prevalent dip-slip motion on the N160°Estriking S. Tecla Fault. Oblique slickensides with pitches ranging between 30° and 50° and associated minor Riedel fracture, however, indicate a right-lateral component of slip (Monaco et al., 1997). Very important evidence for recent rapid vertical deformation at the base of the fault scarp has been found: a nude surface exposed, for a length of 20 meters and with a 0,25 m height of rapid vertical deformation (co-seismic slip or simply slip if interpreted as a potential coseismic slip event; Gudmundsson et al., 2013) (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 - Drone view of the S. Tecla Fault escarpment; in the center of the picture the 25 cm ribbon is recognizable. On the left, location of Casa Giuffrida and Pozzo Grande, the camera indicates where the photo was taken.

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Fig. 3 – Schematic geological profile of S. Tecla Fault; A) W-E oriented trace transversely to the fault plane; B) NW-S oriented trace longitudinally to the fault plain. For the trace see Fig.1

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4. - Lichenometry: material and methods

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Lichens are sessile organisms, that consist of symbiosis between a fungus (mycobiont) and an alga (photobiont); the relationship is so close and intimate that one could not live without the other. Lichens do not interact with the substrate where they grow, in fact, they don’t have root their nourishment comes from the surface atmosphere/lichen, because this surface is free of screens and it can be permeability to substances in the air. The algal part directly supports the symbiosis by chlorophyll photosynthesis, instead the fungus supplies water and mineral salts to the lichenic thallus. Lichens can colonize a surface in two ways: one agametic and one gametic. The lichenic thallus can fragment into microscopic portions named isidia or soredia, through which it moves to other surfaces were it produces clones of parent thalli. Otherwise, it produces spores (apothecia) in certain specialized structure. If they interact with suitable algae, they produce a new thallus. The first way (asexual reproduction) and the second way (sexual reproduction) represent a long process over time, that can happen also in a time frame of a decade from the generating event, causing the development of the thallus primordium, named propagule, whose growth rate is strongly influenced by microclimatic factors (water supply, solar radiation, hard o mild temperature and the other factors) and the species. The main environmental parameters that affect lichenic growth are light and humidity, since they can limit or increase photosynthetic performance. In fact, low temperatures or protracted drying reduce cellular respiration activity (Grime, 1979). Particularly in the examined site, light and humidity both support lichenic growth, although we have taken into account that for every living organism, many environmental factors can control the environmental response. However, we have hypothesized that other environmental factors cannot alter the results and introduce significant deviations, since the growth of lichen is very slow and limited in time. In particular, the examined sites of Casa Giuffrida and the fault surface, are exposed to the East. The lichenometry method (Beschel, 1960; Gregory, 1976; Innes, 1981, 1985; Cook-Talbot, 1991; Bull, 1996, 2003; Armstrong & Bradwell, 2010, 2011; Trenbirth, 2010; Joshi 2012) is a tool based on: an exact and precise knowledge of the thalli species in order to recognize the parameters characterizing its growth, a precise and detailed observation of the thalli in order to avoid measurement of the melting of two or more thalli, and to focus the measurement only on circular thalli (Beschel, 1950). The aim of this method is to obtain lichenometric age, using the larger single lichen of a species, one that is older and whose growth is favoured by positive conditions (mainly weather environmental), followed by the (lower) age of the exposed surface (Innes, 1981, 1985; Cook-Talbot, 1991). There are different lichenometric methods for studying lichens and the age of the surface exposed to their colonization (Bradwell, 2009):

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The largest lichen (LL) is the “traditional approach” proposed by Beschel (1950), in which only the largest lichen of a one species growing on an entire surface is considered in order to obtain, to derive a lichenometric age. The largest lichen is older and grows in these well environmental conditions, the minimum age of the surface exposed can be determined; The largest 5 lichens (5LL) was developed in the 1970s as a modification of the LL approach, because more information provided by the 5 largest lichens studied on a surface can be obtained; The fixed-area largest lichen (FALL) approach has been used by Bull and co-workers, to obtain the age and the event history of diachronous surfaces. This approach measures the single largest thallus of one species within a unit sample area, considering a normal distribution of the thallus size and that the average size is directly proportional to age of the surface; The size-frequency approach (SF) is used to identify multiple populations or anomalous, inherited or pre-existing, thalli growing on a single surface (Benedict 1967; 1988) and the

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operator records the long axis of all thalli of a single species growing within a representative sub-sample of the surface. For best results, sample sizes of 1000 or more lichens are recommended (Benedict, 2009) and it is considered as a relative and absolute dating technique. The lichen cover approach (LC) is based on the assumption that the percentage of a rock surface covered by a single species of lichen will increase with time, so this technique allows determination of the age of the surface exposed.

The lichenometrich growth rate is calculated by ratio between age and the diameter (1) (Innes, 1981, 1985).

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4.1. - Lichenometry in S. Tecla fault

4.2. - Weather and biotic conditions

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In order to evaluate if the lower part of S. Tecla segment fault represents a rapid exhumation and/or slip of displacement associated with earthquake rupture, and then evaluate the lower age of its disinterment, we have applied the lichenometry method. Firstly we reconstructed the weather of the study area in order to verify if the climate conditions has been uniform in recent decades. We analysed biota condition along the entire slip and identified all species of lichens to consider the best method to model the processes. Finally we chose useful lichen thalli samples in order to apply the method for determining the lower age of exhumation.

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The local weather was studied through data from Acireale weather station number 122 (Regione Siciliana Osservatorio delle Acque), that are recorded on the Bagnouls and Gaussen climograph (Fig. 4). In this area, the temperatures range between 9 - 13°C in January – April, 17 - 25°C in May – August and 11 - 22°C in September – December. The average temperature is around 16,7°C (Fig. 4). Taking into account the annual averages of precipitation and temperatures, this area is classified as a bioclimatic belt of the lower Mediterranean, in particular by a sub-humid lower ombroclimate (S. Rivas-Martinez, 2008; Brullo et al., 2009). Since the winter temperature range does not reach 0°C, as is evident from the climograph, and moreover, since we have observed that the average temperature is about 17°C (it is straightforward that) the lichens can grow almost continuously, under appropriate humidity conditions (Palmqvist et al., 2000; Grime, 1979).

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Fig. 4 - Acireale climograph for the temperatures rate and rainfalls sampled (Bagnouls and Gaussen, 1957; Zampino et al., 1997).

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We have observed that the upper part of the wall is covered by moss, higher vegetation and different lichen, while the lower part appears devoid of vegetation cover. Moreover, in order not to damage the blade of the lawnmower, that farmers use to cut the grass, they do not use it near walls or vertical surfaces (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5 – On the left, transept realised along the S. Tecla fault scarp; the lower part, bounded by white wire, represents the slips. On the right, close-up of the slip at the base of the S. Tecla fault escarpment; the upper part, it covered by moss.

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4.3. Lichen species

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During the analysis, we identified 25 taxa (Tab. 1) on the stripped surface, which are largely crustose, typically pioneer species on nude surfaces in a dry environment with direct solar irradiation. We have found the presence of crustose and small lichens compared to all other of the entire wall studied (Fig. 5).

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Growth forms

Aspicilia caesiocinerea (Malbr.) Arnold

Crustose

Aspicilia contorta ssp. hoffmanniana S. Ekman & Fröberg

Crustose

Aspicilia intermutans (Nyl.) Arnold

Crustuse

Caloplaca interna Poelt & Nimis

Crustose

Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm.

Fruticose

Cladonia rangiformis Hoffm.

Fruticose

Collema ryssoleum (Tuck.) A. Schneider

Cyanolichen Foliose, Broad lobed

Collema tenax (Sw.) Ach.

Cyanolichen Foliose, Broad lobed

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Species name

Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) W.Mann

Foliose, Umbilicate

Diploschistes scruposus (Schreb.) Norman

Crustose

Lecanora albescens (Hoffm.) Branth & Rostr.

Crustose

Lecidella asema (Nyl.) Knoph & Hertel

Crustose Leprose

Leprocaulon quisquiliare (Leers) M. Choisy Pertusaria pertusa v. rupestris (DC.) Dalla Torre & Sarnth. Protoparmeliopsis muralis (Schreb.) M.Choisy

Toninia sp.

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Rinodina teichophila (Nyl.) Arnold

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Lepraria sp.

Fruticose Crustose

Crustose Placodiomorph Crustose Squamulose Crustose

Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ach.) Hale

Foliose, Broad lobed

Xanthoparmelia loxodes (Nyl.) O.Blanco, A.Crespo, Elix, D.Hawksw. & Lumbsch

Foliose, Broad lobed

Xanthoparmelia pulla (Ach.) O.Blanco, A.Crespo, Elix, D.Hawksw. & Lumbsch

Foliose, Broad lobed

Xanthoparmelia tinctina (Maheu & A. Gillet) Hale

Foliose, Broad lobed

Xanthoria calcicola Oksner

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Verrucaria nigrescens Pers.

Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th.Fr.

Foliose, Broad lobed

Tab.1 – 25 taxa founded on stripped surface (Gregory, 1976; Armstrong & Bradwell, 2011).

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4.4. - Methodology of Sampling and measurement of chosen lichen tallies

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To start our lichenometric study, along the east escarpment we, have chosen the lichen thalli samples of Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ach.) Hale (Fig. 6). Due to the low number of well-developed lichens, which are not sufficient to apply the largest 5 lichens (5LL) method, our decision was to apply the lichenometric method proposed by Bradwell (2009) called Largest Lichen (LL).

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Fig. 6 - Crustose lichen thalli sample Xanthoparmelia conspersa. These lichens are characterized by a broad-lobed thallus called leafy thallus, they have an almost circular shape, and are not strictly adherent to the substrate.

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The LL method has been applied to the 2 best and largest selected samples, recognized on two buildings near the fault, in order to evaluate the growth-rates of the lichens. The first building, Casa Giuffrida, was built in 1876, and was the county seat, but currently it is used as storehouse. The second structure, Pozzo Grande, was built in 1915 to irrigate the gardens nearby (Fig. 7). In particular we have taken the best samples and measured them. Subsequently, the same method was applied to the sampled thalli of the same species recognized on the slipped S. Tecla fault. In order to measure the size of lichens we have chosen two methods: - Aerophotogrammetric survey by drone on the roof of Casa Giuffrida; - Direct measurement by caliper on Pozzo Grande and on Santa Tecla fault.

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Fig. 7 - Casa Giuffrida (1876), on the left, and Pozzo Grande (1915), on the right, near the S. Tecla Fault

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An aerophogrammetric survey was carried out using a DJI Phantom 4 (12 MPx camera with three-axis stabilization gimbal). The flight project was realized through Pix4D Capture v.4.4.1. The flight project consists of a grid mission (36 x 21 meters) (Fig. 8) with a picture overlap of 90%, camera angle of 90°

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(zenithal view) and a flight altitude of 10 m from the ground with a Ground Sample Distance (GSD) = 0.44 cm/px, collecting 180 images for 10 minutes of flight (Fig. 8). To have a reference measurement we put 6 referred scale bars on the roof in order to scale the model. Pictures were processed by Agisoft Photoscan v.1.4.0 software based on Structure for Motion approach (SfM) and Multi View Stereo (MVS) that incorporates features of Computer Vision into classical 3D photogrammetry, generating high density colored point clouds from high resolution images. (Harwin and Lucieer, 2012; James and Robson, 2012; Westoby et al., 2012; Fonstad et al., 2013; Johnson et al., 2014; James et al., 2017; Zaragoza et al., 2017). The outcomes are a 3D Model, Dense 3D Point Clouds, DEM, orthophotos and an orthomosaic (Fig. 8). In order to measure the size of lichens we used orthomosaic of the Casa Giuffrida roof, with a resolution of 1,51 mm/pix. We analyzed the orthomosaic through QGIS v.2.18.26, and selected 103 lichens of different shapes, measuring moreover only the circular ones with a reliable diameter. There were only 18 circular lichens and of which we selected the largest.

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Fig. 8 – A) Screen of Flight Project on Pix4d Capture; B) Screen of Flight Information on Pix4D Capture: type of drone, date, time, type of mission, WGS84 coordinates of location, dimensions of investigated area, frontal (90%) and side overlap (81%), inclination of the camera with respect to the horizontal plane, altitude of flight, number of pictures, path covered by the drone, duration of the flight; C) 3D Point Cloud Model and D) Orthomosaic of Casa Giuffrida.

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Direct measurement was applied in the second site because it was not possible to carry out a flight due to the presence of anthropic construction, which are obstacles for the flight. The lichens were measured by caliper and photos were taken for all the samples. After, they were reviewed in the laboratory in order to measure the lichenometric size with high accuracy, using an image processing software (Corel Draw) (Fig. 9).

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Fig. 9 – Large Lichen of three sites: Casa Giuffrida, Pozzo Grande and Santa Tecla Fault. A) Largest Lichen (ID 12) of Casa Giuffrida, Diameter = 18,34 cm. B) Lichen (ID 7) of Casa Giuffrida, Diameter = 16,26 cm. C) Lichen of Casa Giuffrida (ID 4), Diameter = 17,10 cm. D) Lichen from Pozzo Grande (ID 9), Diameter = 13,39 cm. E) Lichen from Pozzo Grande (ID 3), Diameter = 12,81 cm. F) Lichen from Pozzo Grande, Diameter = 12,26 cm. G) Lichen from S. Tecla Fault, Diameter = 5,1 cm. H) Lichen from S. Tecla Fault, Diameter = 5,64 cm. I) Lichen from S. Tecla Fault, Diameter = 3,37 cm. Lichens A), B) and C) were measured through QGIS; D), E), F), G), H) and I) were measured by calipers (Red Lines). Considering A, B, C; the pictures are reprojected on a plane so the errors ascribable to the tiles are negligible.

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Applying equation (1), we have obtained the growth rate for the thalli selected on the two sample sites (Tab. 2) moreover, we calculated the age of the single lichen from the growth rate and obtained an average of the Pozzo Grande and Casa Giuffrida growth ranges (Tab. 2). The results obtained by the formula:





(1)

have been reported in the diagram (Fig. 10) that connects the size of all lichens sampled and the age of the surface exhumation obtained by equation (1).

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LICHENS

POZZO GRANDE

S. TECLA FAULT

LICHEN AGE

Age [y] 13.1 15.5 16.4 16.5 21.2 22.5 24.6 26.1 29.8 39.5 43.7

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Applying the LL method, dividing the largest dimension of the lichens (18.34 and 13.39 cm respectively), recognised in both anthropic buildings, by age of the constructions (142 and 101 yr respectively), the growth rates (0.129 cm/yr for Casa Giuffrida and 0.132 cm/yr for Pozzo Grande) have been obtained (Tab. 2). Finally the method was applied to the lichens belonging to the slip fault surface, obtaining an age of the largest lichen of 43.7 yr. It is possible to observe a gap in the range between 39 and 77 years. In the Pozzo Grande data (Fig. 10), characterised by the absence of lichens, probably due to birds feeding, “building material” for nests, removed surfaces, or extreme weather events. Therefore, the largest sample is very old and has survived due to favorable conditions.

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Diameter [cm] Age [y] Diameter [cm] Age [y] Diameter [cm] 4.64 36 3.76 28 1.69 5.16 40 4.66 34 2 5.56 43 5.23 39 2.11 5.63 44 10.34 77 2.13 6.63 51 10.55 78 2.74 6.68 52 10.65 79 2.9 6.69 52 11.06 82 3.17 7.42 57 11.7 87 3.37 8.01 62 12.26 91 3.84 9.17 71 12.81 95 5.1 9.79 76 13.39 99 5.64 11.47 89 11.70 91 12.97 100 14.06 109 16.26 126 17.10 132 18.34 142 Tab. 2 - The crustose lichen thalli sample sizes measured in the three sites analyzed.

LICHEN AGE

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Lichen Diameter [cm]

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Substratum Age [y] 282

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Fig. 10 - Relation between lichen sizes (vertical scale) and the substratum ages (horizontal scale) for the three analyzed sites.

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5. Discussion and conclusion

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From literature, lichenometric methods were applied on moraine boulders or rockfall blocks to determinate age of glacier retreats (Rabatel et al., 2008; Garibotti and Villaba, 2009; Hunghes, 2010), to calculate rockwall retreat rates (Sass, 2010), and to date debris flow deposits triggered during the later part of the Little Ice Age (Jonasson et al., 1991). Only Smirnova and Nikonov (1990), Bull and Brandon (1998), Bull (1996; 2003) and Joshi et al. (2012) applied this method to indirectly date seismic events indirectly. In this paper, we have also applied the lichenometric approach to date seismic events, but in a direct way, where we analyzed the rapid vertical-exhumed slip of the S. Tecla Fault. To obtain the age of the surface, the lichen sizes - magnitude versus time graph has been reconstructed (Fig. 10); considering a time gap up of 10 years from the slip exhumation until the first lichen grown on the surface and ± 10 yr accuracy of dating due to environmental conditions variations (Bull, 2003), it is possible to indicate that the lower age of exhumation could be 53.7 ± 10 yr (1962.3 ± 10) matching the seismic event occurring on 3rd August 1973 (3.8 M) (Azzaro et al., 2000). Generally, it is well known that the lichen growth rate is between 0,5 and 5 mm/yr, moreover during the initial phase of life (propagules), growth rate is at its highest because it corresponds to maximum cellular turnover (Armstrong, 1974; Hill D.J. 2002; Armstrong & Bradwell, 2011). Therefore, to improve the accuracy of dating by lichenometry we have monitored the slipped surface. In August 2018, we recognized very small propagules (1.7 ÷ 1.8 mm) on a minor surface of the Santa Tecla fault, carved in 2013 by researcher of University of Chieti (personal communication) (Fig. 11).

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Fig. 11 – First propagules of lichens grown on the surface carved by researchers of University of Chieti in 2013.

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Considering this observation, we can attribute the root of propagules to 2017, constraining the time gap from slip exhumation until the first visible lichen on the surface. At only 4 years, considerably reducing the ordinary 10 yr gap suggested in literature. This implies that the estimation of the minimum age of exhumation is 43.67 + 4 ± 10 yrs (1968.33 ± 10) that better matching the seismic events occurring on 3rd August 1973 (Mm 3.8) (Azzaro et al, 2000) (Fig. 12).

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Fig. 12 - Relation between seismic events (red stars) attributable to S. Tecla Fault, from 1952 to 2014, and lichen diameter measured on the fault plane (green dots), versus temporal range (years). Age of oldest lichen with its error bar (black arrow) is represented on the graph.

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According to De Guidi et al. (2012), the geometry of an exhumed free face validate the above achievement as the slip displacements (0.26 m), correspond to the effect induced by a (3rd August 1973) 3.8 magnitude earthquake (Fig. 12 and Fig. 13). In fact, the epicenter of this earthquake has been assigned in the Catalogo Macrosismico dei Terremoti Etnei dal 1633 al 2013 to the S. Tecla Fault segment. Furthermore, we suppose that a further recent small coseismic deformation could be attributable to this fault segment, as about 0.02 m nude slip surface, outcropping at the base of free face, has been recognised (Fig. 13). The rupture magnitude regressions vs. displacement of Etnean faults (Fig. 13) allow us to assign the 25th September 2014 magnitude 3.1 seismic events (ISIDe, 2016) to this morphological marker.

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Fig. 13 – On the left evidence of the last slip exhumation in the free face at the base of the S. Tecla Fault escarpment. On the right of rupture magnitude regressions vs. displacement of S. Tecla fault segment (De Guidi et al, 2012 modified)

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In conclusion, we associate the 0,25 m exhumed surface to the event of 3rd August 1973 and the 0,02 m ribbon (Fig. 13) to the event of 25th September 2014, according to our lichenometric dating. Considering the time that the lichens need to establish themselves on a new surface, we cannot say that the slipped surface is completely ascribable to a coseismic event but rather it includes coseismic and aseismic displacement. It clearly appears considering the 26th December 2018 seismic events on Etna, as during the following months the entire eastern flank of Mt. Etna was affected by very important eastward deformation that caused a very large number of ground fractures (Monaco et al., 2019), confirming usable method for the 0,25 m slipped surface as a coseismic and postseismic deformation. In conclusion, the lichenometrc dating of co-seismic deformation represents a reliable method useful improving the information regarding the age of coseismic slips. It represents an important tool the quality of which is marked by cost effectiveness and case of use. In the future, it is necessary to lead research on the storage of environmental and physiological data, which affect lichen growth parameters, in order to obtain precise dating.

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Fig. 14 – Eastern slope of Mt. Etna; black line represents the main fault system: Trecastagni Fault (TCF), Nizzeti Fault (NZF), Fiandaca Fault (FF), Santa Venerina Fault (SVF), Guardia Fault (GF), San Leonardello Fault (SLF), Pozzillo Fault (PF); S. Tecla Fault is represented by the green line; red stars mark the two seismic events that are linked with the free face studied in the S. Tecla Fault.

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