New research in the methods and applications of sclerochronology

    New research in the methods and applications of sclerochronology Paul G. Butler, Bernd R. Sch¨one PII: DOI: Reference:

S0031-0182(16)30568-5 doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.11.013 PALAEO 8048

To appear in:

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

Received date: Accepted date:

11 October 2016 7 November 2016

Please cite this article as: Butler, Paul G., Sch¨ one, Bernd R., New research in the methods and applications of sclerochronology, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.11.013

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT New research in the methods and applications of sclerochronology Paul G. Butlera and Bernd R. Schöneb a

School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, LL59 5AB Menai Bridge, Anglesey, Wales, UK

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Department of Applied and Analytical Paleontology and INCREMENTS Research Group, Earth System Science Research Center, Institute of Geosciences, University of Mainz, Johann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 21, 55128 Mainz, Germany


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Because the instrumental record is short and does not extend to periods before the initiation of significant human impacts, full understanding of the processes and dynamics involved in the modern phase of very rapid global change depends on the interpretation of high resolution and precisely dated proxy archives. The identification of very long-lived species of bivalve mollusc in the extratropical marine environment has been a crucial recent advance. These molluscs form patterns of periodic (usually annual) banding in their shells that are synchronous within populations, so that long (centennial and millennial) stacked chronologies can be built by crossdating from live collected to fossil shells. The variable growth rates and precisely dated geochemical data from the shell material provide long term real world data that can in principle be used to constrain climate models and to define long baselines for environmental monitoring. However, the signals in these data usually result from the complex interaction of multiple influences, and the deconvolution and understanding of these influences is a major target of the scientific field of sclerochronology.

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This special issue presents some of the latest research into the sclerochronology of mollusc shells. It includes contributions to our understanding of shell growth, including the identification of endogenous (non-environmental) growth rhythms that persist throughout ontogeny, and analysis in two papers of variability through ontogeny in the season of growth and the implications of such variability for temperature reconstruction. One paper presents a new network of bivalve chronologies for UK waters, with a 200-year seawater temperature reconstruction. Three papers cover trace element geochemistry, including a novel approach to sampling for LA-ICP-MS that enables giant clam shells to be sampled at daily resolution, an attempt to identify an independent temperature proxy for coastal waters using limpet shells, and a detailed study of the drivers of variability in Sr/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios. One study looks at shell microstructure as a temperature proxy, finding a coherent temperature response in the shape of the prisms.

1. Introduction and Background As the complexity and resolution of global climate models increases, it is becoming more and more important to identify real world data that can be used to constrain model projections (Phipps et al., 2013). The ability of models to simulate the future development of the Earth’s climate system under conditions of strong greenhouse forcing is limited by the length of instrumental records which started only about 150 years ago (Jones et al., 2001) and therefore do not record climate variability before anthropogenic greenhouse forcing became significant. Proxy-based records of conditions before the instrumental period are important tools for constraining model projections of equilibrium processes (which may take many centuries) and for understanding modern climate variability in the context of the natural background (Cubasch et al., 2013).

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Particularly in the context of decadal and centennial scale model projections (the decadal scale, as the characteristic timescale of human perception, being of greatest concern to policymakers), it is also important to maximise the resolution of the proxy record, so that year-on-year and seasonal variability can be constrained. For this reason, the identification, development and interpretation of annually banded archives is a priority area for research. Up until quite recently, most such high resolution archives recorded conditions in the terrestrial environment, and the northern hemisphere in particular is well catered for with an array of tree-ring, ice core and speleothem records providing exhaustive global coverage.

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However, the climate system is closely coupled, with the marine and terrestrial systems influencing each other on many different temporal and spatial scales, and a complete picture of the dynamics of past climate variability requires the use of terrestrial and marine proxies dated with equal accuracy and precision (e.g., Black et al., 2014). While corals have provided extensive annually resolved archives for the shallow-water, tropical marine realm (Knutson et al., 1972; Weber et al., 1975; Cobb et al., 2003; Cobb et al., 2013), marine archives with the required resolution have been more difficult to identify in the extratropical latitudes, and it is only relatively recently that the bivalve shell has begun to realise its potential as a proxy archive for the extratropical northern hemisphere (e.g., Jones et al., 1989; Weidman et al., 1994; Strom et al., 2004; Reynolds et al., 2013).

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Sclerochronology (Hudson et al., 1976), the study of periodically layered archives (including mollusc shells, corals and fish otoliths), is a rapidly growing field (Figure 1) with multiple applications based on morphology, crystallography and geochemistry (for journal special issues covering many aspects of the topic see Schöne and Surge, 2005; Gröcke and Gillikin, 2008; Oschmann, 2009; Wanamaker et al., 2011; Schöne and Gillikin, 2013). The periodic (usually annual) banding in these archives allows for precise and accurate dating of each increment as long as the date of at least one increment has been determined independently. The shells of long-lived bivalve molluscs are particularly valuable in this respect because they grow synchronously within populations, in some cases for decades or even hundreds of years. This allows fossil shells to be precisely dated by comparing their banding patterns with those in overlapping shells whose dates are already known (e.g., Marchitto et al., 2000; Butler et al., 2009a), a process known as crossdating after the identical method used in treering research (Douglass, 1941). In this way, absolutely dated and annually resolved time series of shell material can be constructed which can extend back in time by decades (Jones et al., 1989; Schöne, 2003; Butler et al., 2009a), centuries (Witbaard et al., 1997; Strom et al., 2004; Marchitto et al., 2000; Butler et al., 2009b), a millennium (Holland et al., 2014) or even longer (Butler et al., 2013). Many of these chronologies make use of the shells of long-lived species, in particular the ocean quahog, Arctica islandica, whose longevity of up to 500 years (Ropes and Murawski, 1983; Schöne et al., 2005; Scourse et al., 2006; Butler et al., 2013) is comparable with many tree species. However, several other bivalve species have been used to construct stacked chronologies, including the dog cockle Glycymeris glycymeris (Reynolds et al., 2013; Brocas et al., 2013) and the Pacific geoduck Panopea abrupta (Strom et al., 2004; Black et al., 2009). A bivalve chronology by itself is only of academic interest. The most important function of the chronology is to define a stratigraphy, a time-line for the proxy data that are contained within the carbonate shell material. If bivalve sclerochronology is to reach its full potential as a recorder of past climates and environments and as a data assimilation tool for climate modellers, it is necessary to develop techniques that will help researchers to understand the meaning of these proxies in the context of the wider environment. This process will include (a) detailed investigation of the

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biochemical and metabolic processes that determine the configuration of the proxy in the shell; (b) improved measurement techniques to enable geochemical properties to be measured at higher resolutions and smaller concentrations; and (c) in situ field studies and laboratory tank experiments that relate the temporal variability of the ambient environment to the spatial variability of the proxy in the shell. The ultimate goal of such studies is the development of a forward model of shell growth, along the lines of those developed for tree rings (Vaganov et al., 2011; Tolwinski-Ward et al., 2011) and which in principle will incorporate nonlinearities and better quantify uncertainties, thus improving the performance of the shell-based proxies for paleoclimate data assimilation (Widmann et al., 2010). At the same time, sclerochronologists need to make use of sophisticated statistical methods that allow the climate signal to be identified in regional networks of bivalve chronologies and in multiproxy networks of marine and terrestrial proxies (Black et al., 2009; Black et al., 2014; Wilson et al., 2016).

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3. ARAMACC, the dedicated session at EGU 2015, and the contents of this special issue

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The field of bivalve mollusc sclerochronology received a welcome endorsement in 2013 with the award of a €3.1 million grant by the EU to fund a Mare Curie Initial Training Network, ARAMACC (“Annually Resolved Archives of Marine Climate Change”). ARAMACC hosted a successful session of oral and poster presentations at EGU 2015, organised largely by the ITN students, which attracted a good selection of submissions devoted to recent advances in the field. Some of the research presented at the EGU session is included in this special issue of PPP; other contributions have subsequently been solicited.

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The ARAMACC project is based on the integration of the key disciplines that are connected with the field of bivalve sclerochronology, including the biological drivers of shell growth, the detailed analysis of the relation between the geochemical and crystallographic properties of the shell and the ambient environment (Zhao et al., 2016 – this issue; Milano et al., 2016c – this issue), the use of bivalve chronologies to constrain climate models, and the application of sclerochronology in the commercial and regulatory sectors (Steinhardt et al., 2016). These projects are being carried out in parallel with the development of a network of multicentennial chronologies for the northeast Atlantic Ocean. This special issue highlights the wide range of techniques and applications currently under development in the field of sclerochronology. Reflecting the origin of this proposal in the ARAMACC project, most of the research described here involves bivalve mollusc shells, while one paper discusses trace elements in limpets. 3.1 Shell growth and the application of sclerochronology to climate reconstruction The key to the use of molluscan sclerochronology as an environmental archive for recent decades and centuries is the ability to identify common growth patterns within populations. Not only does this feature provide prima facie evidence that the shells are recording a common environmental signal, but it also, through crossdating and replication, guarantees the absolute dating that enables shell geochemistry and microstructural properties to be robustly calibrated to instrumental measurements (Briffa, 1995). However, even after the main ontogenetic growth trend has been statistically removed, it is not always easy to distinguish between the environmental signal and other, endogenous, drivers of growth. In addition, the shell proxies are deposited only during the growing season, meaning that any environmental signal in the shell is time-constrained and often biased by interannual variation in the rate of growth, so it is necessary to establish the growing season and growth variability independently (Schöne, 2008). The first three papers covered in this

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Román-González et al. (2016 - this issue) address the important issue of the identification and detrending of endogenous growth cycles. While the ontogenetic growth trend is well known and is often modelled using a negative exponential function or a spline of appropriate flexibility, other, more subtle features, can act to mask the environmental signal even after the main ontogenetic trend has been removed. Román-González et al. (2016 - this issue) demonstrate endogeneous growth rhythms of about nine years in the Antarctic bivalve Yoldia eightsi, and of five and 6.6 years in Laternula elliptica, which the authors hypothesize may be related to the periodic reallocation of energetic resources between somatic growth and gametogenesis. Because both of these species are common in the West Antarctic Peninsula, one of the fastest warming areas on the planet, this is an important result that will enable the purely environmental signal in the shell growth to be more clearly distinguished.

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The interpretation of geochemical signals in the shell is also very sensitive to the season of growth, and this is not necessarily consistent even in individuals of the same species. While it is normally assumed that bivalves grow during the same season throughout ontogeny, stable oxygen isotope analysis of increments in Stimpson’s hard clam (Mercenaria stimpsoni), a northwest Pacific bivalve (Kubota et al., 2016 - this issue) suggest that growth takes place between spring and autumn in juvenile animals and only during the summer months after the clam has reached maturity at about ten years. While the shell appears to record maximum summer temperatures consistently, the lowest recorded temperature varies from year to year, suggesting that the cue for the winter growth break is something other than temperature; the authors suggest that the cue is related to food availability.

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Vihtakari et al. (2016 - this issue) investigate seasonally varying rates of shell growth using the stable oxygen isotope signal in the shell of two bivalves (Serripes groenlandicus and Ciliatocardium ciliatum) from Arctic waters. With shells grown at oceanographic moorings in two fjordic sites and continuous measurements of temperature and salinity at the same sites, the authors used a dynamic time warping method (Sakoe and Chiba, 1978; Hladil et al., 2010), aligning stable oxygen isotope measurements from the shells with the instrumental measurements, to model intra annual shell growth. Most growth in these species appears to take place during the summer months (May to October), likely initiated by food availability. Growth then slows when food is no longer available. A period of very slow growth during the winter coincides with formation of the characteristic growth bands that separate the wider increments. The authors conclude that seawater temperature is at least partly driving growth at times when food supply is not limiting. Because it reflects a common growth pattern within a population, the chronology index can be assumed to be reflecting an environmental signal, so it can be frustrating when it shows weak or absent correlations with instrumental measurements or climate indices. Reynolds et al. (2016 - this issue) tackle this problem by applying Principle Components Analysis to a spatial network of eight chronologies (Glycymeris glycymeris and Arctica islandica) from western UK waters and identifying the common signals in all the chronologies and in screened subsets of the chronologies. Although the individual chronologies are very variable in the degree to which they reflect the four target climate indicators (Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, northeast Atlantic sea surface temperature, Central England air temperature and the North Atlantic Oscillation), Reynolds et al (2016 - this issue) are able to establish a strong enough common signal in the network to reconstruct regional sea surface temperatures for the past 200 years. 3.2 Trace element geochemistry

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Trace elements in shell carbonates have been notoriously recalcitrant environmental proxies, with strong ontogenetic and physiological effects and other nonlinearities frustrating most attempts to use them systematically (Schöne, 2008). Three of the papers presented here propose fresh approaches to trace element analysis. For example, improved sampling techniques offer opportunities to study trace element variability at extremely high resolutions. With relatively large shells (the giant clam, Tridacna spp.) and a very sophisticated approach to sampling for LA-ICPMS analysis, Warter et al (2016 - this issue) have been able to measure elemental ratios (Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, B/Ca and Ba/Ca) in Miocene and modern clams with daily resolution, showing (at least for the Miocene shells) clear periodicity in all the ratios over the spring/neap tidal cycle. It remains uncertain what environmental factors are responsible for this elemental periodicity, although light regimes and/or changes in growth rates are thought to be possible drivers.

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In coastal areas, significant variability (related to variable freshwater input) in the stable oxygen isotope ratio in seawater makes it an unreliable proxy for seawater temperatures. This is notably applicable to archaeological studies; shells collected from middens contain valuable information about the environmental conditions when the sites were settled, but uncertainty about the freshwater effect makes them much more difficult to work with. The identification of a reliable independent temperature proxy is a key target, and Graniero et al (2016 - this issue) directly address this, working on Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, Li/Ca, Li/Mg and Sr/Li ratios in patelloid limpets (Patella vulgata and Nacella deaurata) from archaeological middens in Northumberland, UK and Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. However, this study raises more questions than it answers. While specifically ontogenetic influences were ruled out, it seems that trace elements in limpets are under strong physiological control.

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The relationship between shell trace element concentrations and environmental variables is undoubtedly complex, and this is evident in the work of Zhao et al (2016 - this issue) on the Asian freshwater clam Corbicula fluminea which looks in some detail at the response of the Sr/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios in the shells to varying conditions of water temperature and food supply. The authors find that Sr/Ca can function as a proxy for past water temperatures, but only if the Sr/Ca ratio in the water can be established independently, or can be assumed not to have changed in the past. Ba/Ca is thought to be more challenging because it appears to respond to rather a large number of environmental and physiological factors. 3.3 Shell microstructure and crystallography The use of variations in shell microstructure and crystallography has been less common as an approach to environmental monitoring (Nishida et al., 2012, Fitzer et al., 2014, Milano et al., 2016a) but more sophisticated measurement methods now allow more quantitative techniques to be adopted, an approach that has also been applied to archaeology (Milano et al., 2016b) In addition, variability in the microstructure can be seen as a record in some sense of variability in the shell formation process itself, so analysis of this aspect complements analysis of the biological processes of shell formation and elemental uptake. Milano et al (2016c - this issue) study the microstructure of shells of the common cockle Cerastoderma edule and find a coherent although nonlinear response to water temperature in the shape of the prisms. Acknowledgements We thank all the authors in this special issue for their excellent contributions, and for their patience while the SI was completed. We also thank the many reviewers of for their hard work and diligence and constructive advice. This special issue emerged from the EGU 2015 session “Annually Resolved Archives of Marine Climate Change” (CL1.4/OS1.12) which was convened by participants in the ARAMACC project (European Commission REA Grant Agreement No 604802).

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Schöne, B.R., Gillikin, D.P., 2013. Unraveling environmental histories from skeletal diaries — advances in sclerochronology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 373, 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.11.026

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Scourse, J.D., Richardson, C.A., Forsythe, G., Harris, I., Heinemeier, J., Fraser, N., Briffa, K.R., Jones, P., 2006. First cross-matched floating chronology from the marine fossil record: data from growth lines of the long-lived bivalve mollusc Arctica islandica. The Holocene 16, 967-974. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683606hl987rp

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Steinhardt, J., Butler, P.G., Carroll, M.L., Hartley, J., 2016. The application of long-lived bivalve sclerochronology in environmental baseline monitoring. Frontiers in Marine Science 3:176. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2016.00176

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Strom, A., Francis, R.C., Mantua, N.J., Miles, E.L., Peterson, D.L., 2004. North Pacific climate recorded in growth rings of geoduck clams: A new tool for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L06206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GL019440.

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Tolwinski-Ward, S.E., Evans, M.N., Hughes, M.K., Anchukaitis, K.J., 2011. An efficient forward model of the climate controls on interannual variation in tree-ring width. Climate Dynamics (2011) 36: 2419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0945-5

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Vaganov, E.A., Anchukaitis, K.J., Evans, M.N., 2011. How well understood are the processes that create dendroclimatic records? A mechanistic model of climatic control on conifer tree-ring growth dynamics. In: Hughes, K. H., Swetnam, T.W., Diaz, H.F., eds. Dendroclimatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer-Verlag. 37–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5725-0_3

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Vihtakari,M., Ambrose, W.G. Jr., Renaud, P.E., Locke, W.L. V, Carroll, M.L., Berge, J., Clarke, L.J., Cottier, F., Hop, H., 2016. A key to the past? Element ratios as environmental proxies in two Arctic bivalves. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (this issue) Wanamaker Jr., A.D., Hetzinger, S., Halfar, J., 2011. Reconstructing mid- to high-latitude marine climate and ocean variability using bivalves, coralline algae, and marine sediment cores from the Northern Hemisphere. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 302, 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.12.024 Warter V. & Müller W., 2016. Daily growth and tidal rhythms in Miocene and modern giant clams revealed via ultra-high resolution LA-ICPMS analysis – A novel methodological approach towards improved sclerochemistry. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (this issue). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.03.019 Weber, J. N., White, E. W. & Weber, P. H., 1975. Correlation of density banding in reef coral skeletons with environmental parameters: the basis for interpretations of chronological records preserved in the coralla of corals. Paleobiology 1, 137-149. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2400268 Weidman, C.R., Jones, G.A., Lohmann, K.C., 1994. The long-lived mollusc Arctica islandica: A new paleoceanographic tool for the reconstruction of bottom temperatures for the continental shelves of the northern North Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 99, 18305-18314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/94JC01882

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Widmann, M., Goosse, H., van der Schrier, G., Schnur, R., and Barkmeijer, J., 2010. Using data assimilation to study extratropical Northern Hemisphere climate over the last millennium. Clim. Past, 6, 627-644. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-627-2010.

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Wilson, R., Anchukaitis, K., Briffa, K.R., Büntgen, U., Cook, E., D'Arrigo, R., Davi, N., Esper, J., Frank, D., Gunnarson, B., Hegerl, G., Helama, S., Klesse, S., Krusic, P.J., Linderholm, H.W., Myglan, V., Osborn, T.J., Rydval, M., Schneider, L., Schurer, A., Wiles, G., Zhang, P., Zorita, E., 2016. Last millennium northern hemisphere summer temperatures from tree rings: part I: the long term context. Quaternary Science Reviews 154, 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.12.005 Witbaard, R., Duineveld, G.C.A., De Wilde, P.A.W.J., 1997. A long-term growth record derived from A. islandica (Mollusca, Bivalvia) from the Fladen ground (northern North Sea). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 77, 801–816. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0025315400036201

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Zhao L, Schöne B.R., Mertz-Kraus R., 2016. Controls on strontium and barium incorporation into freshwater bivalve shells (Corbicula fluminea). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (this issue). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.11.040

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Figure 1. Total numbers of publications since 1970 on the topics of sclerochronology (orange) and Arctica (or Cyprina) islandica. For comparison the growth in the total number of publications (in millions) is shown in black. Data retrieved from Web of Science October 7th 2016.

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Figure 1

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT New research in the methods and applications of sclerochronology

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HIGHLIGHTS An introduction to the eight papers that make up the Special Issue of PPP “New

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research in the methods and applications of sclerochronology”