- Email: [email protected]
Teck, Germany
HOMO Vol. 52/1, pp. 72–76 © 2001 Urban & Fischer Verlag http://www.urbanfischer.de/journals/homo
HOMO
Nicotine use in early Mediaeval Kirchheim/Teck, Germany S. BALABANOVA1, F. W. RÖSING2, G. BÜHLER1, S. HAUSER1, J. ROSENTHAL1 1 2
Sektion Pharmakotherapie, Universität Ulm, Poststelle Michelsberg, 89070 Ulm Institut für Humangenetik und Anthropologie, Universitätsklinikum, 89070 Ulm
Summary Human bone samples of 123 Alemans of the 5th to 7th c AD were investigated for nicotine. In 23 individuals nicotine was found at levels between 31 and 150 ng/g, and in 49 others nicotine was found in traces. The results indicate that in Germany plants of the genus Nicotiana should have been present, known and used, well before Columbus. The purposes behind this use might have been domestic/medical or ritual, or possibly even as a luxury as occurs today.
Introduction The Alemannic burial site «Im Rauner», in Kirchheim unter Teck, Land BadenWürttemberg, yielded one of the many village populations of the Merovingian period. The cemetery possibly contained 1000 tombs, but only 167 individuals from the 177 graves excavated in 1970 are preserved. They are the basis of a long series of anthropological analyses, so far covering anthropometry and social differentiation (BECKER 1985), tooth attrition and diet (SCHÜRMANN 1986), caries and tooth number (GRUNDGEIR 1987), Harris‘s lines (SPERL 1989), topological, i.e. two-dimensional skull traits (HUG 1990), epigenetic variants and family structure (HÖPPLER 1990), and arthritis and spondylitis (EHLERT 1996). Other works are in progress, covering tooth cement annulation, trace elements and historic demography. This series of works makes this unobtrusive group one of the best analysed ancient populations. Archaeologically, this site has been regarded to have occupied something like a central commercial position (CHRISTLEIN 1978). This assumption was based on one set of pendant scales found in a grave of an adult male. This picture has been corrected by anthropological studies: The reconstructed settlement size (25 inhabitants using the existing graves or 160 inhabitants using the reconstructed size of 1000 graves), the weak social differentiation and the normal high incidence of diseases and stress markers rather speak in favour of a normal rural character of the Merovingian era, for the site. Recently, nicotine was found in ancient human remains from numerous sites around the world (BALABANOVA 1997). Currently, the general conclusion seems to be acceptable that Columbus in fact only brought with him the idea of cigar and 0018-442X/01/52/01–72/$ 15.00/0
Nicotine use in early Mediaeval Kirchheim/Teck, Germany
73
pipe smoking to Europe, whereas Nicotiana and nicotine had long been known and used for various purposes and in various other application forms. One of the sites that has yielded evidence of nicotine use is located in Austria (BALABANOVA et al. 1995,1997). This suggested that possibly in central Europe, too, one of the Nicotiana plant species was present, known and used before 1492. To confirm this, the skeletons from Kirchheim were investigated.
Material and methods Bone samples of 123 individuals from the Reihengräberfeld of Kirchheim unter Teck, Land Baden-Württemberg, dated to about 450–700 AD and ranging from 0 to 79 years of diagnosed age were investigated for nicotine. Sex and age diagnoses were made according to the classic «recommendations», i.e. including the complex aging method by Nemeskéri for adults (FEREMBACH et al. 1979). In 27 cases the poor preservation of the skeletons prevented an age diagnosis. These individuals were determined as a separate subgroup. The samples were prepared as described in previous works (HAUSER 1996), in brief: after careful, repeated washing with distilled water and ethanol (1:1) the dried samples were pulverised at minus 180 °C using a steel ball. One gram was then dissolved in 0.9% saline, homogenized ultrasonically, and after an incubation of 24 h at room temperature centrifuged (3.000 g 10 min). The supernatants were used for the detection of nicotine. The nicotine concentrations were measured by a double antibody 125-I-radioimmunoassay. The antibody (rabbit) reacts with nicotine and its metabolites. Consequently, the concentrations measured represent the sum of nicotine and its metabolites. The standard curve covered the range of 10 to 15 000 ng/ml. The nicotine amounts were converted to ng/g. Concentrations between 10 and 30 ng/g were classified as «traces». In addition, the presence of nicotine was confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).
Results Nicotine concentrations ranging from 32 to 150 ng/g were found in 18 individuals of a diagnosed age. The results are summarized in the following table 1, subdivided according to age classes in decades. In 49 other cases nicotine was measured in traces only, i.e. below 30 ng/g. The GC/MS investigations confirmed the presence of the alkaloid in these cases.
Discussion The rather high number of Alemans found to have nicotine present in their bones should first be discussed with respect to possible contamination. In several past studies, cotinine was tested separately from nicotine. Cotinine is the main metabolite of nicotine, a transitional substance in the rapid physiological decomposition of this alien substance. If the nicotine in the bones resulted from modern smoking in the skeleton magazine, then there could be no metabolite. In the case of the
74
S. Balabanova et al.
Table 1: Nicotine concentrations (ng/g) in the human remains from Kirchheim. Group
n
Age
ng/g
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
2 2 2 4 2 3 3 5
0– 9 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 70–80 adults (20–80)
32.7– 58.8 31.8– 36.9 33.6– 35.4 33.0– 46.8 37.5–149.7 33.3– 55.2 31.8– 39.8 31.2– 44.4
skeletons from Kirchheim, exposure to smoking was negligible: following excavation this series was stored in six localities used for storage purposes only and with a smoking prohibition in each; an occasional and unnoticed offence could hardly have produced concentrations as found, and above all, not such a range of concentrations. Therefore it seems improbable that modern contamination played a role. The Alemans were a mixture of different Germanic tribes and underwent numerous other genetic influences (Alemans = all men, i.e. are welcome to join us for the next strife). Much in parallel to the ethnogenesis of the Germanics as a whole, the Alemans (and Francons) formed in close dependance on and vicinity to the late Roman empire. Alemannic history and culture are not well known. Most known facts are reconstructions inferred from excavations. Because of the adoption of the burial of bodies as opposed to incineration at the end of the 5th century, more of Alemannic life can be reconstructed, as weapons, tools, jewels, food and several utility articles were deposited in the tombs, but little or nothing is known of the social culture and, important in this context, of daily life. Nicotine is the primary alkaloid of the Nicotiana plants, family Solanaceae. Its phylogenetic purpose is protection from feeding animals. More than 80 species of nicotine-containing plants belong to the family Solanaceae. However, nicotine as a secondary alkaloid is present in some plants of other families such as e.g. Zynnia elegans, family Compositae, Erythroxylum coca, family Erythroxylacae or in the wild cherry tree, family Rosaceae (HEGENAUER 1964, 1973, FORTH 1996). More common food plants such as aubergines, potatoes, tomatoes etc. contain nicotine, but only in concentrations of 0.01 up to 1%. In body fluids of recent human nonsmokers, the alkaloid has been demonstrated, too, but only in very small amounts (DOMINO et al.1993). It is known that nicotine concentrations decrease ante and post mortem (BALABANOVA 1997). The fact that measurable nicotine concentrations were found in human remains centuries after death, suggests that plants with high amounts of the alkaloid were used. Only the Nicotiana plants contain nicotine amounts of up to 8%. Moreover, since the use of Nicotiana was wide-spread there must have been a purpose. Nutrition is the first possibility. If the nicotine amount found in these ancient humans was the result of a normal food use of plants with nicotine as secondary alkaloid more or all samples should have been nicotine positive. Moreover, investigations of latrines demonstrated numerous nutritive plants of the Alemans: different cereals,
Nicotine use in early Mediaeval Kirchheim/Teck, Germany
75
vegetables such as rapes, cabbage, cucumber and many fruit species, in addition to some plants which are unknown today – but no Nicotiana plants (RÖSCH 1992). Therefore it seems implausible that Nicotiana was a normal part of daily food. The next possiblity is that the Nicotiana plants were used as medical agents. Nicotine has several remedial effects which have long been known (BALABANOVA 1997). It was used as a tranquilizer, but also as a stimulant, depending on the situation. Nicotine has repellant effects on insects and bacteria, so Nicotiana leaves were applied to sores and gangrene. In general, the use of herbs for healing has a long tradition. In former times this was the main method used for alleviation of pains and illnesses. The best sources of knowledge about the use of such plants in Europe are the convent scripts. Thus, Hildegard von Bingen described in her «Liber scivias» the use of e.g. Prunus cerasus as a diuretic, against diarrhoea, Urtica dioca against skin diseases, nephrolithiasis, rheumatism or Sedum acre for hypertension, burns, healing of wounds, etc. (BOROS 1980, REGER 1984). Some of these plants contain nicotine although in small amounts. This might mean that nicotine was used for medicinal purposes. On the other hand, there are two arguments against medicinal use. Recently, in the skeletal groups from late antique Lenthia/Linz and from early Mediaeval Gars/Thunau Austria, the nicotine amount was differentiated according to pathologically altered bones. There was no significant or only a slight difference in nicotine occurrence or concentration between the disease groups. And Hildegard did not mention Nicotiana plants. This reduces the possibility of a true medical use of nicotine, but it still leaves open a domestic use (BALABANOVA et al 1995). The third possibility for Nicotiana use is religious. Ethnomedical studies have shown that the support of feelings and spirituality through herbs and drugs was wide-spread in pre-modern and early cultures. Through the constrictive reaction of nicotine on blood vessels cerebral function changes are induced, including the increase of mystic feelings. At present, however, this cannot be assessed further, as there is no information of Germanic daily religion. Finally there is the possibity that Nicotiana plants were used as a little daily luxury, just as in cigarette smoking today. The nicotine may have been consumed either by eating the plant or by inhaling the fumes.
References BALABANOVA S, SCHNEIDER H, TESCHLER-NICOLA M, SCHERER G (1995) Detection of nicotine in ancient European populations. J Paleopath 7: 43–50. BALABANOVA S, RÖSING FW, BÜHLER G, SCHOETZ W, SCHERER G, ROSENTHAL J (1997) Nicotine and cotinine in prehistoric and recent bones from Africa and Europe and the origin of these alkaloids. Homo 48: 72–77. BALABANOVA S (1997) Die Geschichte der Tabakpflanze vor Columbus außerhalb Amerikas sowie das Rauchen im Spiegel der Zeiten. Innovations-Verlags-Gesellschaft mbH, Seeheim. BECKER I (1985) Zur Konstitution der frühgeschichtlichen Bevölkerung von Kirchheim unter Teck. Diplomarbeit Biologie, Universität Ulm. BOROS G (1980) Heil-und Teepflanzen. 3.Aufl., Ulmer, Stuttgart, 9–10, 31, 39, 93. CHRISTLEIN R (1978) Die Alamannen. Archäologie eines lebendigen Volkes. Theiss, Stuttgart. DOMINO EF, HORNBACH E, DEMANA T (1993) The nicotine content of common vegetables. New Eng Med J 329: 437.
76
S. Balabanova et al.
EHLERT A (1996) Degenerative Gelenksveränderungen an den menschlichen Skelettfunden aus dem alemannischen Gräberfeld von Kirchheim unter Teck. Dissertation Medizin Universität Ulm. FEREMBACH D, SCHWIDETZKY I, STLOUKAL M (1979) Empfehlungen für die Alters- und Geschlechtsdiagnose am Skelett. Homo 30: (1)–(32). FORTH W Hrg (19967) Allgemeine und spezielle Pharmakologie und Toxikologie. Spektrum, Heidelberg. GRUNDGEIR W (1987) Soziale und geographische Differenzierungsmuster von Ernährung und Lebensweise in prähistorischen Zeiten, untersucht am Beispiel der extrem hohen Kariesfrequenz der Alemannen von Kirchheim/Teck. Lehramtsarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. HAUSER S (1996) Untersuchung der alemannischen Bevölkerung aus Kirchheim unter Teck auf Nicotin. Med Diss Ulm. HUG G (1990) Zur Topologie des Schädels der Alemannen von Kirchheim unter Teck. Diplomarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. HÖPPLER G (1990) Epigenetische Varianten und Familienstruktur bei den merowingerzeitlichen Alemannen von Kirchheim/Teck. Diplomarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. HEGENAUER R (1963–1973) Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. Vol 3 (1964), 511, 579; Vol 6 (1973), 99, 410, 411. Birkhäuser, Basel. REGER KH (1984) Die natürlichen Kräuterrezepte und Heilverfahren der Hl. Hildegard von Bingen. Goldmann, Frankfurt. RÖSCH M (1992) Nahrungspflanzen aus der Latrine 10 in Freiburg, Gauchstrasse. In: Landesdenkmal Baden-Württemberg (Hrg) Stadtluft, Hirsebrei und Bettelmönch, 487–489. SCHÜRMANN R (1986) Soziale Differenzierung nach frühgeschichtlichen Ernährungsmustern am Beispiel von Zahnabrasionen in merowingerzeitlichen Bevölkerungen. Diplomarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. SPERL J (1989) Analyse der Harris-Linien an den Skeletten des alemannischen Reihengräberfeldes von Kirchheim unter Teck. Dissertation Medizin Universität Ulm.
Correspondence address: Priv.-Doz. Dr. SVETLANA BALABANOVA, Sektion Pharmakotherapie, Universität Ulm, Poststelle Michelsberg, 89070 Ulm (Germany) e-mail [email protected] Received 19 Oct 1999, accepted 17 Feb 2000, resubmitted 21 Aug 2000
HOMO
Nicotine use in early Mediaeval Kirchheim/Teck, Germany S. BALABANOVA1, F. W. RÖSING2, G. BÜHLER1, S. HAUSER1, J. ROSENTHAL1 1 2
Sektion Pharmakotherapie, Universität Ulm, Poststelle Michelsberg, 89070 Ulm Institut für Humangenetik und Anthropologie, Universitätsklinikum, 89070 Ulm
Summary Human bone samples of 123 Alemans of the 5th to 7th c AD were investigated for nicotine. In 23 individuals nicotine was found at levels between 31 and 150 ng/g, and in 49 others nicotine was found in traces. The results indicate that in Germany plants of the genus Nicotiana should have been present, known and used, well before Columbus. The purposes behind this use might have been domestic/medical or ritual, or possibly even as a luxury as occurs today.
Introduction The Alemannic burial site «Im Rauner», in Kirchheim unter Teck, Land BadenWürttemberg, yielded one of the many village populations of the Merovingian period. The cemetery possibly contained 1000 tombs, but only 167 individuals from the 177 graves excavated in 1970 are preserved. They are the basis of a long series of anthropological analyses, so far covering anthropometry and social differentiation (BECKER 1985), tooth attrition and diet (SCHÜRMANN 1986), caries and tooth number (GRUNDGEIR 1987), Harris‘s lines (SPERL 1989), topological, i.e. two-dimensional skull traits (HUG 1990), epigenetic variants and family structure (HÖPPLER 1990), and arthritis and spondylitis (EHLERT 1996). Other works are in progress, covering tooth cement annulation, trace elements and historic demography. This series of works makes this unobtrusive group one of the best analysed ancient populations. Archaeologically, this site has been regarded to have occupied something like a central commercial position (CHRISTLEIN 1978). This assumption was based on one set of pendant scales found in a grave of an adult male. This picture has been corrected by anthropological studies: The reconstructed settlement size (25 inhabitants using the existing graves or 160 inhabitants using the reconstructed size of 1000 graves), the weak social differentiation and the normal high incidence of diseases and stress markers rather speak in favour of a normal rural character of the Merovingian era, for the site. Recently, nicotine was found in ancient human remains from numerous sites around the world (BALABANOVA 1997). Currently, the general conclusion seems to be acceptable that Columbus in fact only brought with him the idea of cigar and 0018-442X/01/52/01–72/$ 15.00/0
Nicotine use in early Mediaeval Kirchheim/Teck, Germany
73
pipe smoking to Europe, whereas Nicotiana and nicotine had long been known and used for various purposes and in various other application forms. One of the sites that has yielded evidence of nicotine use is located in Austria (BALABANOVA et al. 1995,1997). This suggested that possibly in central Europe, too, one of the Nicotiana plant species was present, known and used before 1492. To confirm this, the skeletons from Kirchheim were investigated.
Material and methods Bone samples of 123 individuals from the Reihengräberfeld of Kirchheim unter Teck, Land Baden-Württemberg, dated to about 450–700 AD and ranging from 0 to 79 years of diagnosed age were investigated for nicotine. Sex and age diagnoses were made according to the classic «recommendations», i.e. including the complex aging method by Nemeskéri for adults (FEREMBACH et al. 1979). In 27 cases the poor preservation of the skeletons prevented an age diagnosis. These individuals were determined as a separate subgroup. The samples were prepared as described in previous works (HAUSER 1996), in brief: after careful, repeated washing with distilled water and ethanol (1:1) the dried samples were pulverised at minus 180 °C using a steel ball. One gram was then dissolved in 0.9% saline, homogenized ultrasonically, and after an incubation of 24 h at room temperature centrifuged (3.000 g 10 min). The supernatants were used for the detection of nicotine. The nicotine concentrations were measured by a double antibody 125-I-radioimmunoassay. The antibody (rabbit) reacts with nicotine and its metabolites. Consequently, the concentrations measured represent the sum of nicotine and its metabolites. The standard curve covered the range of 10 to 15 000 ng/ml. The nicotine amounts were converted to ng/g. Concentrations between 10 and 30 ng/g were classified as «traces». In addition, the presence of nicotine was confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).
Results Nicotine concentrations ranging from 32 to 150 ng/g were found in 18 individuals of a diagnosed age. The results are summarized in the following table 1, subdivided according to age classes in decades. In 49 other cases nicotine was measured in traces only, i.e. below 30 ng/g. The GC/MS investigations confirmed the presence of the alkaloid in these cases.
Discussion The rather high number of Alemans found to have nicotine present in their bones should first be discussed with respect to possible contamination. In several past studies, cotinine was tested separately from nicotine. Cotinine is the main metabolite of nicotine, a transitional substance in the rapid physiological decomposition of this alien substance. If the nicotine in the bones resulted from modern smoking in the skeleton magazine, then there could be no metabolite. In the case of the
74
S. Balabanova et al.
Table 1: Nicotine concentrations (ng/g) in the human remains from Kirchheim. Group
n
Age
ng/g
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
2 2 2 4 2 3 3 5
0– 9 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 70–80 adults (20–80)
32.7– 58.8 31.8– 36.9 33.6– 35.4 33.0– 46.8 37.5–149.7 33.3– 55.2 31.8– 39.8 31.2– 44.4
skeletons from Kirchheim, exposure to smoking was negligible: following excavation this series was stored in six localities used for storage purposes only and with a smoking prohibition in each; an occasional and unnoticed offence could hardly have produced concentrations as found, and above all, not such a range of concentrations. Therefore it seems improbable that modern contamination played a role. The Alemans were a mixture of different Germanic tribes and underwent numerous other genetic influences (Alemans = all men, i.e. are welcome to join us for the next strife). Much in parallel to the ethnogenesis of the Germanics as a whole, the Alemans (and Francons) formed in close dependance on and vicinity to the late Roman empire. Alemannic history and culture are not well known. Most known facts are reconstructions inferred from excavations. Because of the adoption of the burial of bodies as opposed to incineration at the end of the 5th century, more of Alemannic life can be reconstructed, as weapons, tools, jewels, food and several utility articles were deposited in the tombs, but little or nothing is known of the social culture and, important in this context, of daily life. Nicotine is the primary alkaloid of the Nicotiana plants, family Solanaceae. Its phylogenetic purpose is protection from feeding animals. More than 80 species of nicotine-containing plants belong to the family Solanaceae. However, nicotine as a secondary alkaloid is present in some plants of other families such as e.g. Zynnia elegans, family Compositae, Erythroxylum coca, family Erythroxylacae or in the wild cherry tree, family Rosaceae (HEGENAUER 1964, 1973, FORTH 1996). More common food plants such as aubergines, potatoes, tomatoes etc. contain nicotine, but only in concentrations of 0.01 up to 1%. In body fluids of recent human nonsmokers, the alkaloid has been demonstrated, too, but only in very small amounts (DOMINO et al.1993). It is known that nicotine concentrations decrease ante and post mortem (BALABANOVA 1997). The fact that measurable nicotine concentrations were found in human remains centuries after death, suggests that plants with high amounts of the alkaloid were used. Only the Nicotiana plants contain nicotine amounts of up to 8%. Moreover, since the use of Nicotiana was wide-spread there must have been a purpose. Nutrition is the first possibility. If the nicotine amount found in these ancient humans was the result of a normal food use of plants with nicotine as secondary alkaloid more or all samples should have been nicotine positive. Moreover, investigations of latrines demonstrated numerous nutritive plants of the Alemans: different cereals,
Nicotine use in early Mediaeval Kirchheim/Teck, Germany
75
vegetables such as rapes, cabbage, cucumber and many fruit species, in addition to some plants which are unknown today – but no Nicotiana plants (RÖSCH 1992). Therefore it seems implausible that Nicotiana was a normal part of daily food. The next possiblity is that the Nicotiana plants were used as medical agents. Nicotine has several remedial effects which have long been known (BALABANOVA 1997). It was used as a tranquilizer, but also as a stimulant, depending on the situation. Nicotine has repellant effects on insects and bacteria, so Nicotiana leaves were applied to sores and gangrene. In general, the use of herbs for healing has a long tradition. In former times this was the main method used for alleviation of pains and illnesses. The best sources of knowledge about the use of such plants in Europe are the convent scripts. Thus, Hildegard von Bingen described in her «Liber scivias» the use of e.g. Prunus cerasus as a diuretic, against diarrhoea, Urtica dioca against skin diseases, nephrolithiasis, rheumatism or Sedum acre for hypertension, burns, healing of wounds, etc. (BOROS 1980, REGER 1984). Some of these plants contain nicotine although in small amounts. This might mean that nicotine was used for medicinal purposes. On the other hand, there are two arguments against medicinal use. Recently, in the skeletal groups from late antique Lenthia/Linz and from early Mediaeval Gars/Thunau Austria, the nicotine amount was differentiated according to pathologically altered bones. There was no significant or only a slight difference in nicotine occurrence or concentration between the disease groups. And Hildegard did not mention Nicotiana plants. This reduces the possibility of a true medical use of nicotine, but it still leaves open a domestic use (BALABANOVA et al 1995). The third possibility for Nicotiana use is religious. Ethnomedical studies have shown that the support of feelings and spirituality through herbs and drugs was wide-spread in pre-modern and early cultures. Through the constrictive reaction of nicotine on blood vessels cerebral function changes are induced, including the increase of mystic feelings. At present, however, this cannot be assessed further, as there is no information of Germanic daily religion. Finally there is the possibity that Nicotiana plants were used as a little daily luxury, just as in cigarette smoking today. The nicotine may have been consumed either by eating the plant or by inhaling the fumes.
References BALABANOVA S, SCHNEIDER H, TESCHLER-NICOLA M, SCHERER G (1995) Detection of nicotine in ancient European populations. J Paleopath 7: 43–50. BALABANOVA S, RÖSING FW, BÜHLER G, SCHOETZ W, SCHERER G, ROSENTHAL J (1997) Nicotine and cotinine in prehistoric and recent bones from Africa and Europe and the origin of these alkaloids. Homo 48: 72–77. BALABANOVA S (1997) Die Geschichte der Tabakpflanze vor Columbus außerhalb Amerikas sowie das Rauchen im Spiegel der Zeiten. Innovations-Verlags-Gesellschaft mbH, Seeheim. BECKER I (1985) Zur Konstitution der frühgeschichtlichen Bevölkerung von Kirchheim unter Teck. Diplomarbeit Biologie, Universität Ulm. BOROS G (1980) Heil-und Teepflanzen. 3.Aufl., Ulmer, Stuttgart, 9–10, 31, 39, 93. CHRISTLEIN R (1978) Die Alamannen. Archäologie eines lebendigen Volkes. Theiss, Stuttgart. DOMINO EF, HORNBACH E, DEMANA T (1993) The nicotine content of common vegetables. New Eng Med J 329: 437.
76
S. Balabanova et al.
EHLERT A (1996) Degenerative Gelenksveränderungen an den menschlichen Skelettfunden aus dem alemannischen Gräberfeld von Kirchheim unter Teck. Dissertation Medizin Universität Ulm. FEREMBACH D, SCHWIDETZKY I, STLOUKAL M (1979) Empfehlungen für die Alters- und Geschlechtsdiagnose am Skelett. Homo 30: (1)–(32). FORTH W Hrg (19967) Allgemeine und spezielle Pharmakologie und Toxikologie. Spektrum, Heidelberg. GRUNDGEIR W (1987) Soziale und geographische Differenzierungsmuster von Ernährung und Lebensweise in prähistorischen Zeiten, untersucht am Beispiel der extrem hohen Kariesfrequenz der Alemannen von Kirchheim/Teck. Lehramtsarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. HAUSER S (1996) Untersuchung der alemannischen Bevölkerung aus Kirchheim unter Teck auf Nicotin. Med Diss Ulm. HUG G (1990) Zur Topologie des Schädels der Alemannen von Kirchheim unter Teck. Diplomarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. HÖPPLER G (1990) Epigenetische Varianten und Familienstruktur bei den merowingerzeitlichen Alemannen von Kirchheim/Teck. Diplomarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. HEGENAUER R (1963–1973) Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. Vol 3 (1964), 511, 579; Vol 6 (1973), 99, 410, 411. Birkhäuser, Basel. REGER KH (1984) Die natürlichen Kräuterrezepte und Heilverfahren der Hl. Hildegard von Bingen. Goldmann, Frankfurt. RÖSCH M (1992) Nahrungspflanzen aus der Latrine 10 in Freiburg, Gauchstrasse. In: Landesdenkmal Baden-Württemberg (Hrg) Stadtluft, Hirsebrei und Bettelmönch, 487–489. SCHÜRMANN R (1986) Soziale Differenzierung nach frühgeschichtlichen Ernährungsmustern am Beispiel von Zahnabrasionen in merowingerzeitlichen Bevölkerungen. Diplomarbeit Biologie Universität Ulm. SPERL J (1989) Analyse der Harris-Linien an den Skeletten des alemannischen Reihengräberfeldes von Kirchheim unter Teck. Dissertation Medizin Universität Ulm.
Correspondence address: Priv.-Doz. Dr. SVETLANA BALABANOVA, Sektion Pharmakotherapie, Universität Ulm, Poststelle Michelsberg, 89070 Ulm (Germany) e-mail [email protected] Received 19 Oct 1999, accepted 17 Feb 2000, resubmitted 21 Aug 2000