C60-modified glassy carbon electrode as a highly sensitive non-enzymatic glucose electrochemical sensor

Accepted Manuscript Ni(II) 1D-coordination polymer/C60-modified glassy carbon electrode as a highly sensitive non-enzymatic glucose electrochemical sensor

Leila Shahhoseini, Rahim Mohammadi, Bahram Ghanbari, Saeed Shahrokhian PII: DOI: Reference:

S0169-4332(19)30271-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.01.240 APSUSC 41639

To appear in:

Applied Surface Science

Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

13 November 2018 18 January 2019 25 January 2019

Please cite this article as: L. Shahhoseini, R. Mohammadi, B. Ghanbari, et al., Ni(II) 1D-coordination polymer/C60-modified glassy carbon electrode as a highly sensitive non-enzymatic glucose electrochemical sensor, Applied Surface Science, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.01.240

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ni(II) 1D-Coordination Polymer/C60-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode as a Highly Sensitive Non-Enzymatic Glucose Electrochemical Sensor

Leila Shahhoseini, Rahim Mohammadi, Bahram Ghanbari*, Saeed Shahrokhian

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Department of Chemistry, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, PO Box 11155- 3516

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*correspondence author [email protected]

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Abstract

A new non-enzymatic sensor for glucose is prepared by using of Ni(II)-one dimensional

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coordination polymer (Ni(II)-Cp) and C60. The Ni(II)-Cp prepared by slow diffusion and

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evaporation of two solution layers of NiCl2 and diaza-macrocycle bearing two pyridine side arms

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(as the reported tecton) in DMF. The Ni(II)-Cp was characterized by powder x-ray diffraction (PXRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) as well

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as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). C60 as modified was added to Ni(II)-Cp for

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improving the electrical and chemical stability of the composite. The newly assembled Ni(II)Cp/C60 also coated on glassy carbon electrode (GC) to employ as a novel electrochemical sensor

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for the detection of glucose. The Ni(II)-Cp/C60/GC electrode exhibited a high sensitivity as 614 A mM−1 cm−2, low detection limit of 4.3 M as well as a typical response time of 5-10 s. Furthermore, the sensor demonstrated notable stability, keeping its activity after 30 days of storage at the ambient conditions.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Keywords: Non-Enzymatic, Electrochemical sensor, Electrooxidation, Glucose, Coordination polymer.

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1. Introduction

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Around the world, the glucose determination is a significant research subject in various

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applicable areas, namely medical applications, food industry and biotechnology [1–5]. For example, determination of the blood glucose is one of the well-known clinical analyses that

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people need to perform several times in their lifetime to check for diabetic diseases, the biggest

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global threats, wherein the concentration of blood glucose may grows up to much higher or lower than normal ranges (4 to 8 mM) [6]. Several techniques have been employed to determine

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glucose in a trustworthy way, namely electrochemical methods[7], HPLC [8], optical methods

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[9] and fluorescent spectroscopy [10,11]. Meanwhile, the electrochemical methods have drawn great interest due to their selective, sensitive, cost-effective, wide linear range, rapid, easy

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operable and reliable methodologies[12,13].

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Basically, electrochemical glucose biosensors can be classified into two categories, viz. enzymatic glucose sensors and non-enzymatic sensors. Enzymatic electrochemical glucose (EG)

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sensing has been executed by immobilizing enzyme, i.e. glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) or glucose oxidase (GOx), on an electrode surface [14]. However, several factors prevent further application of the enzymatic electrochemical biosensors, leading researchers to develop nonenzymatic glucose (NEG) sensors. Some of these factors are poor chemical and thermal stability, high price of the enzyme, the activity of the enzyme on the interference, sensitivity to pH of the medium, humidity and temperature of the electrode surface [15].

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In the past few years, several non-enzymatic glucose (NEG) sensors bearing noble metals (Pd, Pt, and Au) were constructed although some of them suffer from some drawbacks, namely low abundance in earth together with high cost, and easy deactivation. Recently, many NEG and EG sensors were reported by employing non-noble metal compounds e.g. Co, Cu, Ni, Co3O4, NiO,

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WO3, TiO2, CdO/CuO, MnO2, Fe2O3, Mn3O4, and ZnO [16,17]. Among them, nickel-based

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compounds were established as more efficient candidates as NEG and EG sensors, owing to their

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significant redox behavior (Ni2+/Ni3+), remarkable stability and sensitivity, non-toxicity, biocompatibility as well as low cost [13,18–24].

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Due to abovementioned advantages for the non-enzymatic based sensors for the nickel-based

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compounds, several other applications for this category of materials in various electrocatalysis fields, namely electrochemical hydrogen evolution, formic acid oxidation, water splitting, etc.,

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could be considered [25–29].

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Coordination polymers (CPs) are interesting class of hybrid materials, enjoying from their infinite crystalline lattices composed of inorganic entities (metal ions and/or clusters) and

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organic ligand linkers, interconnecting through coordination interactions in one, two and three

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directions [30,31]. CPs have represented great promising applications in the field of ion exchange [32], gas storage [33,34], chemical sensor [35–38], catalysis[39], bio[40], nonlinear

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optics [41], luminescence [42] and nanomedicine [43]. Furthermore, some applications of CPs as electrochemical sensors and energy storage [44], corrosion inhibition and electrocatalysis [45] are quite new. In an electrochemical sensor, CPs can be applied in two ways, viz. complex CPs composites as a support to intensify or to regulate the shape and size of the other electroactive particles [46–51] and single-phase CPs for sensing the chemical species, owing to the presence of metal complex in their molecular structure [52,53]. There are several reports for both types of

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the abovementioned electrochemical sensors in the literature in recent years, including MOFs for sensing of glucose [54,55], catechol [56,57], 2,4-dichlorophenol[38], bisphenol A [58], anticancer drug [59], nitrite[60,61], heavy metal ions [62–64], MOF and complex MOF composites for reduction of H2O2 [65–68], L-cysteine (CYS)[69], hydrazine[47,70,71], and

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methanol [72,73]. However, in many cases employing single-phase MOFs are flawed because of

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poor electrical conductivity as well as weak mechanical stability. In order to overcome these

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likely disadvantages, practically MOFs have been incorporated with carbon based materials e.g. fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNT), MWCNT, graphene, the other forms of the carbon materials

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[56,57,74–78].

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Among all these carbon nanomaterials, fullerene C60 received considerable attentions due to the

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exceptional three dimensional structure alongside fascinating electrochemical properties, widerange of light absorption within the UV–vis region, photo-thermal effect, low reduction

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potentials and strong electron acceptor properties, the capability to accommodate metal atom(s),

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persistent triplet state, the production of singlet oxygen and having both of electrophilic and nucleophilic characteristic as an electron acceptor entity [79]. These unique properties inspired

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the researchers to investigate on development of new composite materials as electrical mediators

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in biosensor devices [80–83].

Bis-substituted diaza-macrocycles, bearing pyridine side arms are typical crown ether ligands with N donors, established as eligible candidates to construct novel one dimensional coordination architectures, specially a series of one-dimensional CPs have been reported over the course of the past ten years [84]. Inspired by our recent work [85], Ni(II)-CP was synthesized within a series of 1D CPs (Structure determination by X-ray crystallography) by using diaza-macrocycles, bearing pyridine side arms

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT via an incredible easy method at room temperature without using of solvothermal, ultrasonic and mechano-chemical methods. Our preliminary observations revealed that Ni(II)-CP enjoyed from excellent electrochemical properties in terms of glucose sensing, capable to act as a nonenzymatic glucose sensor for its crystalline layered structure. These observations encourage us to

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develop a novel modified glassy carbon electrode employing Ni(II)-CP/C60 composite for non-

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enzymatic detection of glucose. Hereby, the electrochemical as well as the morphological

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properties of Ni(II)-CP and Ni(II)-CP/C60 composites will also be investigated.

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2. Experimental

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2.1. Instrumentation

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Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) images of the samples were recorded on

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a MIRA III TESCAN, Czech, using an accelerating voltage of 15 kV to study the product morphology, with attached camera. A Philips-CM300 transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

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apparatus operated at 200 kV was also used to study the structure of Ni-CP/C60. The infrared spectra were run by a FT-IR ABB Bomem MB-100 spectrophotometer by employing KBr disks

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in the range of 400-4000 cm-1. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) patterns were determined on

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X’Pert PRO MPD diffractometer. Electrochemical measurements were also executed by an Autolab PGSTAT101 at ambient temperature, applying a conventional three-electrode setup, including a bare or modified GCE (3 mm diameter) as the working electrode, a platinum wire as the counter electrode and an Ag/AgCl reference electrode. 0.1 M NaOH was also applied as the supporting electrolyte solution.

2.2. Chemicals 5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT C60 (98%) was obtained from Bucky USA. NiCl2.6H2O, NaOH, glucose, ascorbic acid and dopamine were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Dimethylformamide (DMF) was obtained from Merck. All of the reagents were of analytical grade and used as without further purification. The Ni(II)-CP was synthesized based on our previous report [85].

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Deionized water was employed in preparation of all solutions. Human plasma samples provided

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from the Iranian Blood Transfusion Organization. Methanol (2% v/v) was introduced to the

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plasma sample and vortexed during 5 min. Then, the protein contents were separated by

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2.3. Electrode preparation and modification

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centrifuging of the plasma sample at 10,000 rpm after methanol treatment for 10 min.

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A glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was carefully polished with Al2O3 powder prior to the

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following procedures: rinsing thoroughly with DI water, sonicating in 50% ethanol/water, rerinsed with DI water, electrochemically scanning in phosphate buffer and electrolyte (NaOH 0.1

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mM), washing with DI water and finally drying in an oven at 60 C. Simultaneously, 1.0 mg

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Ni(II)-CP were dispersed into 1.0 mL DMF to afford 1.0 mg mL-1 suspension (with sonication), whereby 6.0 L of the suspension was dropped on the polished GCE surface in two steps and

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dried at 60 C. Finally, 3.0 L of 0.5% C60 (wt%) in DMF was cast onto the surface of the modified electrode, prior to drying at 60 C.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Morphology and structural studies

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT X-ray crystal structure of Ni(II)-CP demonstrates one dimensional linear coordination polymer

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(Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. The X-ray crystal structure of Ni(II)-CP [85]; The 1D infinite ribbon-like chain along c axis and

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the coordination geometry around Ni(II) cation.

Ni(II)-CP crystallized in monoclinic system with P21/n space group. The space group indicated a

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primitive monoclinic crystalline structure. 1D infinite rod-shaped chain and ribbons like structure along c

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axis were also showed in Fig. 1. Each Ni(II) center linked by two aza crown macrocycle ligands, bearing two methyl pyridines sides that act as a doubly bridged tecton [85].

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Moreover, Ni(II)-CP was characterized by low angle XRD and EDX technique. Fig. 2A shows the similarity between simulated and experiment pattern of Ni(II)-CP crystals. Furthermore, the local EDX mapping (Fig. 2B) of the Ni(II)-CP indicated the existence of Ni, C, N and O, as the building block elements in the crystal structure.

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as-synthesized simulated

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(2 0 2) (2 1 2)

(2 1 1) (1 4 2)

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(0 0 3)

(1 2 2)

(0 4 1) (1 1 2)

ClK

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2( ) O

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(1 2 -1) (0 2 2) (1 3 0)

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(1 1 0) (1 0 -1) (1 0 1) (0 0 1) (0 1 2)

(0 1 1)

NiL OK

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ClK

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NiK NiK

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keV 10

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Fig. 2. (A) low angle XRD patterns of Ni(II)-CP: (up) the as-synthesized and (down) the simulated

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pattern; (B) EDX spectrum of the Ni(II)-CP sample.

Fig. 3 displays the FT-IR spectra of Ni(II)-CP, wherein the bands at 2822 to 2921 cm-1 were

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attributed to the stretching modes of C(sp3)–H bond and the high-energy band at 3063 cm-1 was

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assigned to the stretching mode for C(sp2)-H. Besides, the stretching vibration mode of C–O bond was found in 1357 cm-1, while the corresponding stretching vibrations of aromatic C=C

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bond was observed at 1606 cm-1.

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Wavenumber (cm )

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Fig. 3. FT-IR spectra of Ni(II)-CP.

Fig. 4 show the SEM and TEM image of Ni(II)-CP and Ni(II)-CP/C60 samples. The morphology of

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the Ni(II)-CP was inspected by using SEM, shown in Fig. 4A and B.

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F

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C60 C

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C60

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Fig. 4. SEM images of samples; (A and B) Ni(II)-CP, (C and D) Ni(II)-CP/C60, TEM images of Ni(II)CP/C60 (E-H).

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Representing very similar morphologies, SEM images elucidate interesting plate crystalline

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structure for both Ni(II)-CP and Ni(II)-CP/C60, meaning that Ni(II)-CP has been impregnated by C60. These structures can be justified due to the linear polymeric nature of Ni(II)-CP. Fig. 4 also

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shows the SEM images of Ni(II)-CP/C60 composite (C and D). Comparing the Ni(II)-CP (Fig. 4A and B) with the Ni(II)-CP /C60 (Fig. 4C and D) surface also unveils growing of new spherical nanostructures on the surface of the crystal sheets, indicating that Ni(II)-CP and C60 were successfully immobilized on the electrode surface. TEM images of Ni(II)-CP /C60 were shown in Fig. 4 E-H. Evidently, TEM images represented nearly uniform distribution of C60 on the surface of plate-like Ni(II)-CP material (Fig. 4G). Thus, this uniform distribution of C60 nanoparticles could provide abundant exposed surface alongside full use of electrochemically active materials 10

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and good chemical stability which are crucial for attaining an improved electrochemical performance for the final hybrid sensor. Furthermore, TEM images of Ni(II)-CP /C60 sample specifies it a nearly transparent feature in the presence of electron beam. The latter electron transparency observation establishes an ultrathin nature for the synthesized 1D coordination

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polymer.

3.2. Characterization of Ni(II)-CP/C60 /GCE by CV and EIS technique

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Prior to application of the new NEG sensor, the electrochemical behavior of the electrodes was

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studied by using CV. Practically, the glucose detection by employing a Ni-based sensor is optimized in low-strength alkaline solutions. Similarly, we applied 0.1 M NaOH solution as the

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electrolyte.

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Fig. 5A presents the CV response of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in 0.1 M NaOH solution at different scan rates. One pair redox peaks corresponding to the quasi-reversible behavior of Ni(II)/(III)

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was observed (anodic peak at +0.54 V and cathodic peak at +0.43V in 50 mVs-1).

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0.0000 -0.0001 -0.0002 -0.0003

0.00005 0.00000

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0.0001

-0.00005

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0.0002

y = 2E-06x + 1E-05 R² = 0.9946

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y = -1E-06x - 9E-06 R² = 0.9933

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E vs. Ag/AgCl (V)

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C

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(mVs )

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0.60 0.58 0.56

y = 0.0889x + 0.1059 R² = 0.9959

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y = 3E-05x - 8E-05 R² = 0.9959

Ep vs. Ag/AgCl (V)

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y = -2E-05x + 7E-05 R² = 0.9945 -0.0004

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-0.0002

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y = -0.0469x + 0.6692 R² = 0.994

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3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 -1 Log ((Vs ))

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1/2 -1 1/2  (mVs )

Fig.5. (A) Cyclic voltammograms of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE recorded at various scan rates in 0.1 M of

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NaOH, (B) The plot of peak current versus scan rate (υ), (C) The plot of peak current versus square root of scan rate (υ1/2). (D) The plot of Ep versus the logarithm of scan rate (υ)

In order to assess the nature of the electrode process occurring on the electrode surface, the influence of the scan rate on the oxidation and reduction peaks were studied using cyclic voltammetry, as seen in Fig. 5B, the peak current linearly increases with the scan rate in the 12

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT range 10-100 mV s−1, signifying on a surface-limited redox process. At the scan rates greater than 100 mV s−1, however, the peak currents showed a linear variation with the square root of scan rate (Fig. 5C), displaying a diffusion controlled process [86]. The electrochemical redox behavior of Ni(II) cation centers was observed to be combined with OH− in alkaline solutions,

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maybe due to the slow diffusion of OH− anion into the channel of Ni(II)-CP at high scan rates.

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Basically, for a reversible surface-limited reaction, the peak current has been determined by the

𝑛2 𝐹2 A

(1)

4𝑅𝑇

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𝐼𝑃 =

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following equation [86].

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Where, ν denotes on potential sweep rate, A signifies the surface area and other symbols have their usual meanings. The ΓNi(II) value was considered as 7.06 × 10−12 mol cm−2, which was

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compatible with previous results [87]. Employing eq. 1, the slope of the oxidation peak current

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versus scan rate is an indicative value for the concentration of the electroactive species adsorbed on the surface of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE

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Furthermore, based on Laviron’s theory [88], we can measure the rate of electron transfer

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reaction at the solution-electrode interface. In this course, the apparent charge transfer constant, ks, as well as the charge transfer coefficient α, for the surface-determined redox couple can be

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determined from CV experiments, employing the variation of anodic and cathodic peak potentials as a function of logarithm of the scan rate. The variations of peak potential versus logarithm of the scan rate (υ) were also found in Fig. 5D. As evident from this figure, two straight lines having slopes equal to −2.3RT/αnF for the cathodic peak and 2.3RT/(1−α)nF for the anodic peak were perceived for Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE at high scan rates. The dimensionless charge transfer coefficient (α) was also found to be 0.31, wherein the acceptable range for the

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT effective of electrochemical reactions lies between 0.3 and 0.7 for most of the electrochemical systems. Furthermore, the apparent heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant (ks) can be calculated by the following equation, wherein n denotes on the number of electrons: (2)

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𝛼(1 − 𝛼)𝑛𝐹∆𝐸𝑃⁄ 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑘𝑠 = 𝛼 log(1 − 𝛼) + (1 − 𝛼)𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛼 − log(𝑅𝑇⁄𝑛𝐹) − 2.303𝑅𝑇

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number of the electrons (n) in eq. 2 was assumed to be 1.

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The calculated average value of ks for Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE was found to be 1.33 s−1, where the

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Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a powerful technique to evaluate the kinetics

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of electrode reactions. EIS measurements were executed to achieve some valuable information about the kinetic of electro-oxidation of glucose. Fig. 6 shows the Nyquist plots of Ni(II)-

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CP/GCE and Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in 0.1 NaOH as the supporting electrolyte (A, B). The

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equivalent circuit of electrodes have been shown in inset of Fig. 6A. As can be seen, both of the electrodes show relatively high charge transfer resistance, attributed to the charge transfer

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resistance against Ni(II) and Ni(III) chemical species on the surface of the electrode. The

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intercept of the Nyquist plot at very high frequencies on the real axis (Z) is shown by Rs, which is lower for Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in comparison to Ni(II)-CP/GCE electrode, confirming good electrical conductivity of the composite electrode (Fig. 6B).

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Fig. 6. Nyquist plots for Ni(II)-C/GCE and Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in 0.1 M NaOH electrolyte in the (a) frequency range from 100 kHz to 10 MHz, (b) expanded view for the high frequency range, Nyquist plots of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in 0.1 M NaOH electrolyte in the presence of 1 mM glucose at various bias potentials (c) (ranging from OCP to 0.6 V), The circular dots correspond to the experimental data and the solid lines represent the fitted results and (d) at 0.7 V

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Nyquist plots of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE at various bias potentials ranging from OCP (~ 0 V) to 0.7 V in the presence of 1 mM glucose were displayed in Figs. 6C and 6D. By changing the potential form OCP value to higher values, the charge transfer resistance of redox active sites at the electrode surface, represented by the diameter of the semicircle, was decreased. This behavior

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can be observed by changing the potential to 0.45 V, whilst in the potential of 0.6 V a pseudo-

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inductive behavior is observable. As seen in Fig. 6C, the depressed semicircle at high

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frequencies is accompanied by a small arc in the fourth quadrant at low frequencies. The aforesaid inductive behavior at low frequencies is related to the relaxation phenomenon on the

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electrode surface and the regeneration of active Ni(III) sites upon desorption of the intermediates

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of glucose electro-oxidation and further adsorption of electroactive glucose on regenerated active sites, whereby the intermediates of glucose electro-oxidation act as poisoning species and

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occupying the active sites and hinder the catalytic activity of Ni(III) active sites. Finally, the

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capacitive loop was diminished by increasing the anodic potential to 0.7 V value and a semicircle with very low diameter was observed, meaning that the charge transfer resistance for the glucose

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electro-oxidation was decreased and glucose electro-oxidation intermediates removed from the

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electrode surface that leds to facilitated electron transfer at these high potentials [89,90]. These results were in good agreement with the previous results [53,91] implying good catalytic

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behavior of the prepared Ni(II)-CP/C60 mixture towards glucose electro-oxidation. It must be mentioned that Rct values and rate constant of electrocatalytic reaction have reciprocal relation with each other while it was observed that due to decreasing the Rct, the rate constant of the electrocatalytic reaction increased (by increasing the applied potential, the exchange current density increased, giving rise to decreasing of Rct values and finally leading to increasing the rate constant of catalytic reaction).

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3.3. Electrochemical oxidation of glucose at Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE Fig. 7 demonstrates the CVs obtained for bare GCE, Ni(II)-CP/GCE and Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in

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the absence and presence of 1 mM glucose in 0.1 M NaOH at the scan rate of 50 mV s−1. Fig. 7

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represents that no CV peaks are observed for the bare GCE in the presence and absence of

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glucose. Comparing the CV data for Ni(II)-CP/GCE with Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE points out the increasing of the electrical conductivity of the modifier film in the presence of C60 alongside the

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subsequent upsurge in the anodic peak current both in the absence and presence of glucose. Furthermore, in the course of addition of 1.0 mM glucose, a remarkable increase in the anodic

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current for Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE was observed with respect to the anodic peak current of the

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modified electrode. This observation was considered as an indicative of the excellent

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electrocatalytic activity of the Ni(II)-CP toward the glucose oxidation. Fig. 7b exhibits CVs of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in the presence of various concentrations of glucose

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at the scan rate of 50 mV s-1. Herein, the peak currents were slowly increased by increasing the

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glucose concentration, indicating that Ni(II)-CP/C60/GC could easily catalyze anodic oxidation of glucose under the corresponding concentration region. At high concentrations of glucose, all

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of the Ni(III) near the surface of the electrode can participate in the catalytic reaction, giving rise to remove the reduction peak due to the existence of sufficient supply of glucose to carry on the catalytic reaction with Ni(III) species.

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0.00008

f

(f) CP-Ni/C60/GC + G

0.00006

0.00002

I (A)

I (A)

0.1 mM G 0.5 mM G 1 mM G 2 mM G 3 mM G 5 mM G 0.1 mM NaOH

0.00010

d 0.00001

0.00004

e c

b a

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0.00002

-0.00001

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-0.00002

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0.00003

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0.00004

(a) GC (b) GC + G (c) CP-Ni/GC (d) CP-Ni/GC+G (e) CP-Ni/C60/GC

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0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65

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E vs. Ag/AgCl (V)

E vs. Ag/AgCl (V)

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Fig. 7. (A) The CV responses of bare GCE in the absence (a) and presence (b) of 1.0 mM glucose, CV responses of the Ni(II)-CP/GCE in the absence (c) and presence (d) of 1.0 mM glucose and CV responses

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of the Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in the absence (e) and presence (f) of 1.0 mM glucose; (B) CV responses of the

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Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in the presence of various concentrations of glucose (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 5 mM).

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(Scan rate: 50 mV s-1)

This is established that Ni(II)/Ni(III) redox couple on the surface of nickel-based electrodes are

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responsible for the electro-oxidation of glucose in an alkaline environment. The mechanism of

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the glucose electro-oxidation at the Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE has been described by the following reactions (I-III) [13,18,75,92,93]: Ni+2 + OH- → Ni(OH)2

(I)

Ni(OH)2 + OH- → NiO(OH) + e-

(II)

NiO(OH) + glucose → Ni(OH)2 + gluconolactone

(III)

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In the first step, Ni(OH)2 is oxidized to the catalytically active NiO(OH). Then, glucose involves in a hydrogen abstraction step at the surface of the electrode to produce a radical intermediate and to yield Ni(OH)2 again. In the end, the organic radical intermediate could be rapidly oxidized by the hydroxyl anion to give gluconolactone in the solution. Unlike Au and Pt, the surface of

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the Ni can instantaneously be oxidized to an oxyhydroxide state at a certain potential, rather than

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creating a hydrous pre-monolayer [17,94].

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3.5. Effect of scan rate

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Valuable data regarding the mechanism of the electrochemical process can generally be obtained from the potential scan rate studies. Thus, the effect of the potential scan rate on the electro-

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oxidation of glucose in the presence of Ni(II)-CP/C60 on the surface of GCE was investigated by

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CE

PT

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CV at different scan rates from 10.0 to 100.0 mV s−1 (Fig. 8A).

19

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0.00024

-1

10 mVs -1 20 mVs -1 30 mVs -1 40 mVs -1 50 mVs -1 60 mVs -1 70 mVs -1 80 mVs -1 90 mVs -1 100 mVs

0.00005

y = 3E-05x - 3E-05 R² = 0.9974

0.00012

0.00006

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I (A)

0.00010

0.00018

1/2 (mVs-1)1/2

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0.00015

B I (A)

0.00020

A

4

6

0.576

Ep vs. Ag/AgCl (V)

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0.00000

-0.00010

0.25

0.30

0.35

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0.45

0.55

10

C

0.568

0.560

0.552

0.60

0.544

Log ((mVs-1)) 1.2

1.6

2.0

M

E vs. Ag/AgCl (V)

0.50

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0.20

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-0.00005

y = 0.035x + 0.5072 R² = 0.9943

8

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Fig.8. (A) Cyclic voltammograms of Ni(II)-CP/C60 /GCE in the presence of 0.10 mM glucose in 0.1 M NaOH at a different scan rates, (B) the plot of oxidation peak current vs. potential scan rate, and (C) the

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plot of the variation of oxidation peak potential with logarithm of the scan rate

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As evident from Fig. 8, a good linear correlation is observed between the peak current intensity and the square root of the scan rate (1/2) (Fig. 8B) [43], representing a diffusion-controlled process [95] for the electro-oxidation of glucose on the surface of the fabricated modified electrode. The oxidation peak potential (Epa) was shifted to the positive values with increasing the scan rate (). Besides, a linear relationship between Epa and log  was also obtained, indicating that the oxidation of glucose was an irreversible electrode process [47] (Fig. 8C).  20

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 3.6. Chronoamperometric studies Basically, the applied potential is a significant factor effects on the sensitivity of the response of the electrochemical sensors. In this research, to investigate the effect of the working potential on the electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose at the Ni(II)-CP/C60 modified electrode, the

B

A

0.000014

0.55

i (A)

1000 M

0.000004

0.00010

0.000000

200

300

400

500

time s

500 M

i (A)

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0.000006 0.000004

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0.000002 0.000000 200

250

300

350

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300 M

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200 M

0.00002

0.00000 200

500

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600

800

1000

1200

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time s

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Time(s)

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y = 10.502x + 25.529 R² = 0.9953

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120 100

I (A)

80

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Current (A)

0.000010

30 M 10 M

0.000008

0.4 V 0.45 V 0.5 V 0.55 V 0.57 V 0.59 V 0.6 V

0.000012

50 M

0.00014

0.57 V

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0.000016

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amperometric responses towards ten consecutive injections of 30 M glucose were recorded at

60 40 20

y = 17.238x + 0.6712 R² = 0.9981

0 -20 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

C (mM)

different applied potentials varying from 0.40 to 0.60 V (shown in Fig. 9A). Fig. 9 (A) Amperometric responses of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE at different potentials in 0.1 M NaOH with 21

1600

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT injections of 30 M glucose in each step. (B) Amperometric responses at +0.57 V with increasing various concentrations of glucose for the Ni(II)-CP/C60 modified electrode. (C) The calibration curve obtained for Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE carbon electrode for the glucose detection

Fig. 9 indicates that the current response improved as the working potential increased up to the

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value of 0.57 V. However, applying potentials more than 0.57 V could produce some

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intermediates, capable to interact with the electroactive material on the electrode, giving rise to poison the active catalytic sites, which resulting in subsequent drastic reduction of catalytic

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current (and performance of the sensor) [96]. Thus, in the following amperometric measurements, a potential of 0.57 V was chosen as the working potential to inspect the linear

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range of response for the modified electrode by successive injection of glucose into a stirred 0.1

M

M NaOH solution (Fig. 9C). The Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE demonstrates two linear responses to glucose concentration as follow: The first response was recorded for 0.01–3 mM with the

ED

corresponding calibration equation of I(A) = 17.24x + 0.67, having the regression coefficient of

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(R² = 0.99), and the second linear response was for 3–11 mM with the corresponding calibration equation of I(A) =10.50x+25.52 with the regression coefficient of (R² = 0.995). The limit of

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3 (S/N = 3).

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detection using Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE was estimated as 4.3 M, based on a signal-to-noise ratio of

The sensitivity of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE for glucose detection was up to 614 A cm-2 mM-1. The introduction of C60 into the Ni(II)-CP matrix on the electrode has brought about a remarkable increase in the electron transfer rate between C60 and semiconductor Ni(II)-CP, thus giving rise to build up a synergistic to enhance electrocatalytic activity for the glucose oxidation. In order to acquire more information concerning the electrocatalytic process, chronoamperometry was hired to calculate the catalytic rate constant (kcat, cm3 mol-1 s-1). Fig. 22

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 10A (inset) represents the double potential step chronoamperograms for Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in the presence of glucose (5 mM).

-0.0003

0.00010

0

100

200

300

400

time (s)

150

100

0.00005

0.00000

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50

T

5 mM

0.0000

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I (A)

0.00015

y = 1416.8x -21 R² = 0.9944

0

100

t (s)

150

200

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50

1.50

1.52

1.54

1.56

1.58

1.60

t1/2 (s1/2)

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0

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Fig. 10. (A) The chronoamperograms of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in 0.1 M NaOH solution containing 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 mM glucose. Inset: double potential step chronoamperograms of 5 mM of glucose (applied

PT

potential steps: 0.57 V and 0.20 V), (B) plot of Icat/Ib versus t1/2 for 5 mM glucose

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The applied potential steps were as follow: 0.57 V (in first step) and 0.20 V (in second step). These values were selected based on the peak potential of the redox processes on the surface electrode in the presence of glucose. The charge value associated with the forward

AC

Current (A)

0.0003

B

200

CR

NaOH 0.1mM G 0.1 mM G 0.5 mM G 1 mM G 2 mM G 3 mM G 5 mM G 10 mM

0.0006

Icat / Id

A

0.00020

chronoamperometry was found greater than that observed the corresponding charge value for the backward chronoamperometry, attributed to the irreversible electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose at the surface of the modified electrode. Fig. 10A also illustrates that the current–time response of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE at different concentrations of glucose by setting the working electrode potential at 0.57 V. The catalytic rate constant (kcat) can also be calculated from chronoamperometry curves by using the following equation: 23

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 𝐼𝑐𝑎𝑡 ⁄𝐼 = √𝜋(𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑡 𝐶0 𝑡) 𝑑 where Icat and Id are the currents of the modified electrode in the presence and absence of glucose, respectively; C0 denotes on the bulk concentration of glucose (mol cm-3); and t signifies the elapsed time (s). Considering the slope of Icat/Id vs. t1/2 as shown in (Fig. 10B), the value of

IP

T

kcat for the electro-oxidation of glucose on the modified electrode was calculated as 1.4× 108 cm3

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mol-1 s-1.

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in the previous works were collected in Table 1.

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In summary, all of the analytical and kinetic parameters obtained in the present work and reports

Table 1. The comparison of the performance of the non-enzymatic Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE glucose sensor with some well-known nickel-based non-enzymatic glucose sensors

0.57

NiO-HAC/GCEa Ni-MOF/Ni/NiO/C 5% NiO@Ag NWsb NiO-MWCNTsc composites GC/MWCNT/NiO Porous Cu-NiO NiO-SWCNTd CuNi/KTO/ITO Ti/TiO2NTAe/Ni CuNiO-graphene/GCE PtNi/ERGOf/GCE Ni electrode NiCFPg Ni/NiO/NCSh

0.55 0.65 0.6 0.5

AC

CE

PT

Ni(II)-CP/C60

Detection limit (M) 4.3

Sensitivity (A mM−1 cm−2)

Linear range (mM)

Reference

614.29

This work

1 0.8 1.01 0.01-104 31 160 0.5 0.3 0.35 4 16 10 40 1 0.31

199.86 367.45 67.5 1696 122.1 436 171.8 907 661.5 200 225.7 20.42 420.4 219.2 87.88

0.01–3 3-11 0.01- 3.3 0.004-5.66 0–1.28 0.001–0.2 0.5-9.0 0.2–12 0.0005 - 5 0.001–0.9 0.001-0.5 0.1-1.7 0.05-6.9 Up to 35 0.01-2.5 0002-2.5 0.002-0.6 0.8-2.5

M

Detection potential(V)

ED

glucose sensors

0.6 0.4 0.5 0.55 0.5 0.6 -0.35 0.55 0.6 0.53

24

[19] [13] [97] [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [21] [106] [23]

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT a

e

b

f

HAC= heteroatom-enriched activatedcarbon NWs= NiO nanowires c MWCNT= multi-walled carbon nanotube d SWCNT= single-walled carbon nanotube

NTA= nantube arrays ERGO= electro chemically reduced graphene oxide g CFP= carbon nanofiber paste h NCS= nitrogen doped carbon spheres

All of the Ni-based glucose chemosensors indicated in Table 1 have their own advantages and

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limitations alongside their various shapes. Moreover, their detection limits are usually fairly low

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while their linear ranges are moderately narrow. Some studies, namely those involving nano

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materials, have achieved excellent results by increasing the active surface area. However, the

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sensor based on Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE presented in this work enjoys from some advantage as its relatively simple preparation method, relatively wide linear range and adequately low detection

AN

limit for routine checkup.

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3.7. The effect of interferences

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Since selectivity and sensitivity are two significant parameters in the detection of glucose in

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clinical and medical studies, the interference effect of some important electroactive substances as ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DP), and KCl in 3 to 7-fold excess on the response of Ni(II)-

CE

CP/C60/GCE with respect to 1 μM glucose, were investigated by the amperometric method. In

AC

the case of these experiments, negligible fluctuations on the current response of Ni(II)CP/C60/GCE was detected upon the injection of these interfering species. Hence, the Ni(II)CP/C60/GCE demonstrated a good selectivity for the determination of glucose (Fig. 11).

25

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

0.0000010 0.0000005

120

150

T

IP

30 M glucose

180

210

240

AN

US

time s

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0.0000015

200 Mascorbic acid

0.0000020

200 M KCl

100 M KCl

I (A)

0.0000025

100 M dopamine

100 M ascorbic acid

0.0000030

100 M glucose

0.0000035

Fig. 11. The interfering effect of ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA) and KCl on the signal of Ni(II)-

M

CP/C60/GCE after the addition of 30-100 μM glucose in 0.1 M NaOH at an applied potential of +0.57 V

ED

3.8. Real sample analysis

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The human blood plasma samples were obtained from the well-known health center and the samples were diluted up to 10 times by 0.1 M NaOH solution. Meanwhile, the standard addition

CE

technique was applied for the determination of glucose, where the current response at +0.57 V

AC

was recorded. The recovery of glucose was determined by the standard addition of pure glucose to the solutions containing the serum samples, whereby the corresponding results were given in Table 2.

Table 2. The experimental results for determination of glucose in human serum samples (n = 3)

sample 1 2

added (mM) 1.8 2.3

found (mM) 1.77 2.14 26

STDEV 0.058 0.4

recovery (%) 98.1 93.3

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The results, obtained by the proposed electrode, are clearly in good agreement with those obtained by the commercial monitor, denoting that our NEG sensor has potential application in

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3.9. The stability and reproducibility of Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE response

T

the analysis of glucose in real biological samples.

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The CVs for 50 μM glucose at Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE in 0.1 M NaOH were run for every 5 min to determine the reproducibility and stability of the prepared sensor. During this experiment, the

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oxidation peak of glucose indicated the same current value, representing a good stability for the

AN

modified electrode in terms of a typical standard deviation of 4.37% for 20 repeated measurements. Furthermore, to evaluate the reproducibility of the modified electrode, five

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different GC electrodes were modified with Ni(II)-CP/C60 and their response towards the electro-

ED

oxidation of 1 mM glucose was examined by 25 repeated measurements. The peak currents obtained for the 25 repeated measurements of five independent electrodes denoted on a relative

PT

standard deviation of 1.16%, confirming that the results were reproducible. Long-term stability

CE

of the sensor was also checked by assessing its measured current value in 0.1 M NaOH over a period of 30 days. The results showed a 7% loss in the current signal, signifying appropriate

AC

stability of the sensor for glucose detection.

4. Conclusions In this study, we presented the results of the electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose on Ni(II)CP/C60 glassy carbon modified electrode. Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE exhibited a series of remarkable sensing properties as high sensitivity, low detection limit, wide linear range as well as excellent

27

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT selectivity. The applicability of the Ni(II)-CP/C60/GCE sensor to detect glucose in the biological samples brought about satisfactory results, introducing the abovementioned 1D coordination as an appropriate sensor candidate for the glucose measurements in the real biological samples.

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Acknowledgement

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The authors are grateful to the financial supports from Sharif University of Technology.

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Graphical Abstract

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ni(II) 1D-Coordination Polymer/C60-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode as a Highly Sensitive Non-Enzymatic Glucose Electrochemical Sensor

Leila Shahhoseini, Rahim Mohammadi, Bahram Ghanbari*, Saeed Shahrokhian

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Department of Chemistry, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, PO Box 11155- 3516

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*correspondence author [email protected]

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Highlights

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 A new non-enzymatic sensor for glucose base on modified GCE  Novel Use of combination of Ni(II)- coordination polymer and fullerene(C60)  high sensitivity of 614 AmM−1cm−2  low detection limit 8.1 M

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