Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview

NUTRIENTS IN CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES—AN OVERVIEW

11

Sharvari Deshpande⁎, Shubhi Singh⁎, A. Panneerselvam†, V. Devi Rajeswari⁎ ⁎

Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Biosciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore, India †Department of Zoology, Thiruvalluvar University, Vellore, India

11.1 Introduction The purpose of this paper was to examine the knowledge of nutrient content of a variety of caffeinated beverages. Most general sources of caffeine were coffee (almost 50.8%) and tea (34.8%), followed by energy drinks (9.2%), carbonated drinks (4.7%), and chocolate milk (0.5%). Caffeine consumption is a major concern as caffeine overdose leads to many problems such as overweight, hypertension, dental problems, cardiovascular diseases, etc., and hence it is important to inform the consumers about the caffeine content in different beverages. The types of beverages (Fig.  11.1) we have considered in this chapter are: tea, coffee, soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, and chocolate drinks. The first beverage is tea, which is a well-known beverage and is consumed all around the world in different forms—dark tea, green tea, oolong tea, hot black tea, etc. All of these different forms contain different levels of caffeine. Along with caffeine different nutrients are presents in each of these beverages. Like in case of black and green tea, there are many distinctive polyphenols, gallic acid, quinic acid ester the ogallin, and many more nutrients like the aflavins and the arubigins, which are easily distinguished by different analytical techniques. Oolong tea contains monomeric polyphenols and aflavins. The next beverage which is mentioned in this paper is coffee, which has become a prominent drink all around the world. The caffeine content is the highest in coffee. This is slightly acidic and can have a stimulating effect on humans. Along with caffeine, other nutrient contents are also mentioned like vitamins B1, B2, B6, and B12, niacin, pantothenic acid, Caffeinated and cocoa based beverages. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815864-7.00011-8 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

367

368  Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview

Tea

Alcoholic drinks

Coffee

Beverages

Chocolate drinks

Soft drinks

Fig. 11.1  Types of beverages.

folic acid, and ascorbic acid, but they are heat-labile. The minerals found are potassium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, rubidium, zinc, copper, strontium, chrome, vanadium, barium, nickel, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, titanium, and cadmium. The two major proteins found are galactomannans and arabinogalactan, with carbohydrate residues which includes galactose, arabinose, mannose, and glucose. The amount in which they are present has been discussed in the paper in detail. Talking about soft drinks, they are typically nonalcoholic beverages, and also contain some caffeine. The consumption is shown to have increased in the course of time and these drinks have resulted in many health-related issues, when consumed in large amounts. In this paper we have mentioned many different types of soft drinks and the caffeine content present in it. Along with caffeine there are many other nutrient contents which are present and have a positive as well as some negative effects too. These nutrients include water. The quality of water used is very important. Hardness of water plays a major role here. Next one is sugars and sweeteners, like sucrose, trehalose, isomaltulose, and tagatose. The roles of each of these have been discussed in detail in the chapter. They contain various nutrients and some bioactive compounds too. These include fiber, sugars, organic acids, minerals, and vitamins, flavors, and antioxidants. Others are flavors and preservatives. The preservatives include sorbates, benzoic acid, and DMDC (dimethyl dicarbonate). The next beverage which we have considered is alcoholic beverage. Alcoholic beverages along with caffeine are known as caffeinated alcoholic beverages (CABs). Alcohol is always known to be harmful, when consumed excessively. But, when caffeine is mixed with alcoholic drinks, it becomes more

Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview   369

harmful and is known to have the detrimental effects on human psychology as well as physiology. As such no major nutrients are present in alcoholic drinks, but there are a few such as proteins, starch, fats (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, unsaturated), etc. The alcohol consumption and the nutrient uptake as well as the energy uptake are illustrated in Table 11.1. These data have been collected from different countries and then the consumption patterns were analyzed. The last one discussed here is chocolate drinks. These drinks are very much consumed by children. Many surveys have been conducted to study the consumption of these chocolate drinks among various groups of population. Along with caffeine different other nutrients were found

Table. 11.1  Summary of the Caffeine Database Values by Beverage Category Caffeine Content Beverage Category Coffee Caffeinated

Beverage Type/Description

Regular, brewed, non-specialty, brand not specified Regular, brewed, brand specified, including K cups, and other single-serve varieties Regular, instant, brand, or no brand specified Prepared from flavored mix, all varieties Specialty coffees, with additional ingredients (e.g., latte, mocha, cappuccino, Americano) Specialty coffee, espresso Ready-to-drink, bottled, or canned Decaffeinated All types including regular, brewed, specialty, brand or brand not specified, ready-to-drink, bottled, or canned Carbonated soft drinks Cola All types, caffeinated, regular or diet, including with added flavors (e.g., cherry cola), brand not specified All types, caffeinated, regular or diet, including with added flavors, brand specified Citrus All types, caffeinated, brand not specified All types, caffeinated, brand specified Other flavors All types, caffeinated, regular or diet, brand not specified All types, caffeinated, regular or diet, brand specified

(mg/Fluid Ounce)

(mg/8 Fluid Ounces)

11.9 9.4–20.6

95.2 75.2–164.8

9.4 6.0 7.9–15.8

75.2 48.0 63.2–126.4

46.7–62.8 4.1–20.0 0.25

373.6–502.4 32.8–160.0 2.0

3.0

24.0

3.0–5.8

24.0–46.4

4.6 4.6–5.9 2.4–3.4 1.9–6.9

36.8 36.8–47.2 19.2–27.2 17.2–55.2 Continued

370  Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview

Table. 11.1  Summary of the Caffeine Database Values by Beverage Category—cont’d Caffeine Content Beverage Category Tea Black Green White Powdered, instant Ready-to-drink, bottled Ready-to-drink, bottled Energy drinks/shots Drinks Shots Chocolate milk or chocolate beverages

Beverage Type/Description

(mg/Fluid Ounce)

(mg/8 Fluid Ounces)

All types brewed, caffeinated, brand or no brand specified All types brewed, caffeinated, brand or no brand specified All types brewed, caffeinated, brand or no brand specified All types, brand or no brand specified Caffeinated, regular or diet, brand not specified

5.9 3.1 1.9 1.4–5.9 2.0

47.2 24.8 15.2 11.2–47.2 16.0

Caffeinated, regular or diet, brand specified

0.625–8.1

5.0–40.8

Generic, brand not specified, diet or regular Brand specified, bottles or cans, diet or regular Generic, brand not specified Brand specified Including cocoa, bottled ready-to-drink or pre-prepared home, prepared from mix or syrup

10.0 3.4–20.5 60.0 40.0–69.0

80.0 27.2–164.0 480 320.0–552.0

like aluminum, barium, calcium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and zinc. The effects of each one of these are discussed in the main text. In a study conducted to determine the relationship between caffeine consumption and sleep quality in adults using a newly validated caffeine food frequency questionnaire (C-FFQ) the caffeine consumption remained stable across age groups while the source of caffeine varied. High caffeine consumption was found to be associated with dearth of sleep and the participants who reported poor sleep consumed caffeine significantly more than those who reported good sleep quality. The data suggested that lack of sleep or shorter sleep is associated with greater caffeine consumption and this consumption is greater in adults. Of those who drank caffeinated beverages, more than half reported consuming CSDs (63%), coffee (55%), and tea (53%). Significantly fewer caffeinated beverage consumers reported drinking chocolate

Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview   371

milk (14%) and energy drinks (4%) with less than 1% drinking energy shots (Mitchell et al., 2014).

11.2 Tea Tea is extracted from the leaves of the plant Camellia sinensis. It is a prominent beverage consumed around the world. Around 3 billion kilograms of tea are produced and devoured yearly. Of the tea production around the world 78% comprises dark tea, which is typically expended in the western nations, 20% of the tea produced is green tea, which is habitually consumed in Asian nations, and 2% is oolong tea which is produced by partial fermentation, primarily in Southern China (Yang and Landau, 2000). Currently, in the United States, the per capita utilization of tea is around 340 g, which produces around 35–40 L of the drink. India has the highest total consumption of tea (540,000 metric tons, 620 g per capita) and Ireland has the highest per capita utilization, at 3220 g. Hot black tea is most regularly consumed around the world. However, the beverage Iced tea represents 80% of tea utilization in the United States. The basic and the easiest approach to tea preparation demonstrates the use of tea bags and infusing these bags in hot water in a ratio of approximately 1 g leaf to 100 mL water, with changes done according to the desired taste. A conventional tea beverage approximately contains 2500–3500 ppm solids. Black and green tea beverages contain distinctive polyphenol constituents because of the changes that happen during production (Balentine et al., 1997). Green tea is most regularly utilized as a part of the Asian cuisine, particularly in Japan and China. Various reports of medical advantages related to green tea consumption have increased the familiarity with green tea in the United States. Various other ingredients such as sugar, lemon, herbs, fruit essence, and a range of complementary spices are generally added to tea beverages in order to enhance the flavor. Tea, as a beverage, contains phenolic acids, gallic acid, and its quinic acid ester theogallin that can be easily distinguished by high-­ performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The elements such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum are the transcendent minerals found in the ash (10%–15% w/w) portion of the water-soluble concentrates of tea. Tea beverage is a good source of fluoride providing the mineral at—1 mg/serving (Balentine et al., 1997). A study conducted to evaluate the bioaccessibility of lithium from black, Earl Grey, and green teas showed that the bioaccessible lithium contributed to 0.01%, 0.02%, and 0.03% of the recommended dietary allowances of lithium in black, Earl Grey, and green tea samples, respectively (Erdemir and Gucer, 2018).

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The addition of mint or pomegranate syrup is a common practice in the Mediterranean countries and has been shown to improve the savor of this beverage (Dhaouadi et al., 2016). The tea beverage development in the market can be associated with the health claims that have been made over the past years (Lin et al., 2015).

11.2.1 Green Tea Nutrients Green tea is produced by drying method, typically by dehydrating the fresh tea leaves. It contains a variety of polyphenolic mixes, namely, (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), 3 (−)-epigallocatechin (EGC), (−)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG), and (−)-epicatechin (EC). These mixes are usually known as catechins. An average tea drink, prepared with a ratio of 1 g leaf to 100 mL water, for a 3-min mix, contains 250–350 mg tea solids, comprising around 30%–42% catechins and 3%–6% caffeine. The tea beverage comprises −17% w/w nitrogenous materials as protein (−6% w/w) and amino and nucleic acids (−1.0% w/w). Theanine (y-n-ethyl glutamine) (−3% w/w) is one of the 19 amino acids in green tea and black tea and the biogenesis of aroma is mainly associated with amino acid degradation. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the major catechin found in green tea, is used as the model molecule, as it has been shown to have antiproliferative activity on colon cancer cells (Haratifar et al., 2014). Green tea extract (GTE) ingestion is known to improve glucose levels in healthy as well as diabetic sufferers, but the overall interactive effect of GTE and exercise is still debatable (Martin et al., 2016). Green tea has also been found to contain a few polyphenolic segments with cancer prevention agent and properties, yet the prevalent dynamic segments are the monomers of flavanol also known as catechins, in which the compounds ECG and EGCG are known to possess significant antioxidant properties. Various other active parts of green tea exclude the alternate catechins, for example, EC and EGC. Among the aforementioned compounds, EGCG is most biologically active and most analyzed compounds so far. Green tea polyphenols are likewise in charge of particular fragrance, shade, and taste. The sinensis plant strain originated in China. The sinesis plant strain produces various types of tea including black, oolong, green, and white teas. Despite what might be expected, the assamica plant strain basically is inhabitant to the Assam area in Northern India. Because of tremendous yields of this particular strain, it is the favored plant developed in India, Sri Lanka, and some African nations. The assamica strain is frequently utilized for supplying oolong and pu'erh teas. Tea leaf contains considerably less amounts of the chemical methylxanthine theobromine. Theophylline has been accounted for as a tea constituent but has not been identified in tea drink utilizing current

Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview   373

­ iagnostic techniques and is not produced by the biosynthetic pathd way for methylxanthines in tea. Black, green, and oolong tea refreshments contain about a similar measure of caffeine when arranged utilizing a similar measure of drying. Another group of flavonoid biopolymers present in tea are the theaflavins produced via fermentation. Displaying a brilliant orange-­ red shading in arrangement, they are essential donors of the brightness and astringency, alluring qualities of the tea beverage (Obanda and Owuor, 1995). A study conducted on 32 different brands of the black tea showed significant levels of theaflavin, theaflavin-3′-gallate, theaflavin-3-­ gallate, and theaflavin-3,3′-digallate in the water-extractable solids almost amounting to up to 0.1–5.4, 0.1–0.8, 0.2–2.1, and 0.4–5.8 mg/g, respectively (Friedman et al., 2005). The digestion and assimilation of fats is carried out by various enzymes including the pancreatic lipase (PL) which is secreted into the duodenum of the small intestine. Given the significance of PL for lipid assimilation, it might be a potential option for preventing obesity. Tetrahydrolipstatin, commercially known as Orlistat, is a PL inhibitor promoted as a weight reduction drug by the Food and Drug Administration. It has been previously reported that the compound EGCG, a major polyphenol in green tea, dose-dependently hinders PL in  vitro. This inhibition was noncompetitive with respect to substrate concentration. In contrast, (−)-EGC was ineffective. Catechins are characterized by different hydroxyl groups present on the A- and B-rings of the compound. The EC has an ortho-­ dihydroxyl group present on the B-ring at 3′ and 4′ position of carbon and a hydroxyl group present at third carbon on the C-ring. The EGC is different from EC in that it has a trihydroxyl group present at the 3′, 4′, and 5′ position of carbon on the B-ring. The EC gallate varies from EC in its gallate moiety present at the third carbon on the C-ring. The EGCG, however, is made out of trihydroxyl bunches on the B-ring and a gallate moiety is present at third carbon on the C-ring. In EGCG, the functional groups of trihydroxyl are situated at 3′, 4′, and 5′ position of carbon on the B-ring. The relative substance of green tea catechins relies upon how the leaves are prepared before drying. The fermentation process and the dehydration period of tea leaves amid the production procedure may lead to formation of polymers of monopolyphenolic catechins, further prompting conformational changes leading to modification of their properties. On the other hand, the black tea is created by prolonged fermentation of tea leaves, which brings about the improvement in polymeric complexes including thearubigins and theaflavins. Black tea majorly contains gallates of EC. On the other hand, oolong tea, a halfway

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­ atured item, contains a blend of the monomeric polyphenols and m high subatomic weight theaflavins. Each of the three kinds of tea contain huge amounts of caffeine (3%–6%) which is unaffected by various handling conditions. Moreover, each of the three kinds of tea contain EC, EC gallate, EGC, and EGCG, except for catechin. The taste and kind of tea are administered by key substance such as are polyphenols, caffeine, natural acids, and unpredictable terpenes (Senanayake, 2013). The EGCG (Table 11.2), the major catechin present in the green tea, is suspected of being responsible for liver toxicity reported in humans consuming food supplements and the intake of EGCG with green tea infusions and GTE-based beverages is high in Europe and higher in Asia. The consumption of green tea, however, is not associated with any cases of liver damage in humans. The results of the studies showed that the toxicity of EGCG after repeated administration depends on conditions of dosing. These differences found in the study indicated that kinetics of absorption of EGCG from the gastrointestinal tract has a crucial role in the expression of toxicity in the liver of animals (Dekant et al., 2017).

Table 11.2  Selected Animal Toxicity Data for Green Tea Extracts With Long-Term Exposures Expressed as Doses of EGCG Study Design “Fasting” (no food for 15 h before application) Beagle dogs, four males, and four females/ dose group, for 13 weeks “Pre-fed” Beagle dogs, Beagle dogs, four males and, four females/dose group, for 13 weeks Wistar rat, 10 males, and 10 females/dose group, for 12 months

Dosing Condition/ Doses of EGCG (mg/ kg bw/day)

Toxicity

0, 40, 120, and 400 mg as oral bolus applied in a capsule

Mortality, liver necrosis, reduced body weight gain

NOAEL of 40 mg EGCG/ kg bw/day

0, 46, 275, 460 (oral in capsules, daily doses divided into two applications) Male: 0, 4.2, 63.7, 225.7, and 838.5 (feeding); female: 0, 6.2, 94.1, 333.9, 1101.3 (feeding)

No adverse effects reported

NOAEL of 460 mg EGCG/ kg bw/day

No adverse effects reported

NOAEL of 838.5 mg EGCG/kg bw/day in males and 1101.3 mg EGCG/kg bw in females

NOAEL/LOAEL on EGCG Basis (mg/kg)

Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview   375

Table 11.2  Selected Animal Toxicity Data for Green Tea Extracts With Long-Term Exposures Expressed as Doses of EGCG—cont’d Study Design

Dosing Condition/ Doses of EGCG (mg/ kg bw/day)

Toxicity

F344 rats, 10 males and 10 females/group, B6C3F1 mice, 10 males, and 10 females, for 14 weeks

Gavage of 0, 30.3, 60.5, 121.0, 242.0, and 484.0 in rats; gavage of 0, 30.3, 60.5, 121.0, 242.0, and 484.0 to mice

Reduced weight gain and increased mortality, changes in “liver enzymes”

Wistar rats, 50 males, and 50 females/dose group, for 2 years

Males: 0, 3.7, 53.5, 181.6, 551.9; females: 0, 4.4, 64.7, 216.8, 671.4 (feeding)

No effects

In a survey conducted by National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANESs) it was found that the store-bought tea was the principal drivers of caffeine intake in the United States (Drewnowski and Rehm, 2016).

11.3 Coffee Coffee, as a beverage, has become increasingly popular in the course of time. According to the International Coffee Organization (ICO), coffee is the world's most widely marketed agricultural commodity. About 70 countries produce coffee, in 2010 the global coffee sector employment was about 26 million people in 52 coffee-­producing countries and exports of 93.4 million bags in 2009–10 were worth an estimated $15.4 billion, according to the London-based group. Drinking one cup of coffee daily has shown to cover dietary reference intakes of Ca, Fe, Mg, and Mn to a small degree (Stelmach et al., 2014). Coffee beverage is prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is a native to tropical Africa and Madagascar, the Comoros, Mauritius, and Réunion in the Indian Ocean (Maurin et al., 2007). Coffee is slightly acidic and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its

NOAEL/LOAEL on EGCG Basis (mg/kg) Liver function parameters changed at higher doses, but little dose or time dependence; changes in “liver enzymes” were small NOAEL of 551.9 mg/kg bw/day, the highest dose administered

376  Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview

caffeine content. It can be prepared and presented in different ways, for example, espresso, French press, cafe latte, etc. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served. Epidemiological studies with prospective cohorts have shown the association of coffee intake with reduced cardiovascular events (Salomone et al., 2017). In the nonlinear analysis conducted to examine the risk of hypertension in coffee intakers, a significant 9% reduction in risk of hypertension was observed per seven cups of coffee a day, while, in the linear dose-response association, 1% reduction in risk of hypertension for each additional cup of coffee per day was observed (Grosso et al., 2017). Coffee consumption has also been associated with reducing the risk of endometrial cancer (Lafranconi et al., 2017). Coffee beverage is prepared and presented in various styles and vogues around the world which majorly differs in the preparation conditions and the ingredients. • Espresso: Espresso does not contain any additives or flavorings. Under pressure of 9 bar (±1) hot water flows through the powdered coffee and the cup is filled with 25 mL (±2.5 mL) within 25 s. The quantity of coffee used in this preparation should be approximately 7 g (±0.5 g) and the water temperature of 88°C (±2°C) at the time of exit from the thermoblock results in a beverage which is approximately at a temperature of 67°C (±3°C), when it enters the cup. • Espresso macchiato: It is an Italian variety of espresso. • Cappuccino: In a standard cup of cappuccino, the espresso content is one-fourth of the steam frothed milk used. The milk used should have a protein content of approximately 3.2% along with a fat content of 3.5%. The cappuccino certified by Instituto Nazionale Espresso Italiano has a white topping along with a small brown edge. • Ristretto: It is a less concentrated espresso with same quantity of coffee as an espresso, but with less amount of water. The pressure of the water (flow pressure) should be approximately 9 bar. The quantity of coffee used is 7 g with the water temperature of 88°C at the exit from the brew group results in a beverage of 15 mL after 20 s, which when reaches the cup is at a temperature of 67°C. • Caffè shakerato: It is a cold beverage of ice cubes and a double espresso which is prepared using a cocktail shaker and frothed milk. It can optionally be refined with amaretto or grappa. • Latte macchiato: It consists of individual layers of espresso, hot milk, and frothed milk, each layer served in a tall glass of 220–250 mL. • Caffè corretto: It is a type of Espresso mixed with a strong alcoholic drink, commonly served along with a shot of grappa. • Bicerin: It is a traditional hot beverage containing one-third espresso, one-third drinking chocolate, and one-third liquid cream. Bicerin a native to Turin is essentially a nonalcoholic hot beverage.

Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview   377

• Caffè Latte: An Italian milk coffee beverage that consists of a double espresso and hot, frothed milk. This beverage is usually served in a large cup of 250–300 mL. • Café au lait: Café au lait is often served as a popular breakfast beverage. It may be served in a bowl or even in an appropriately sized glass.

11.3.1  Coffee Seed Types From around 100 species, the two species Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (robusta) are of most economic and industrial importance and are both cultivated for the production of coffee beverages. C. arabica and C. canephora (robusta) represent about 70% and 30% of the total coffee traded in the world, respectively, with Brazil providing 30% of the total world market share. C. arabica produces a better quality coffee beverage than C. canephora, which is often used in a blend with the former (Bradbury and Halliday, 1990).

11.3.2  Carbohydrate and Sugar Mobilization of Coffee Cell-wall polysaccharides are the major storage compounds in coffee beans, which encompass 48%–60% (dry weight) and essentially consist of galactomannans and arabiongalactan-proteins. Other major storage compounds present in the coffee beans include lipids (10%–16%); with triglycerides and free fatty acids making up this portion of the green coffee beans, and proteins (~11%), sucrose (4%–8%), and chlorogenic acids (6.5%) additionally present. (Galacto-)mannans are composed of β-1,4-linked mannose residues, which can be unsubstituted or substituted with just a single galactose O-6 linked units at a high frequency thus increasing solubility [galactose/mannose (G/M) 1:2], or rather sparingly (G/M 1:130) leading to decrease in solubility (Onakpoya et al., 2011).

11.3.3 Green Coffee The major monosaccharide residues of the high molecular weight material from hot water extracted Coffea robusta green coffee from Uganda were galactose (47 mol%), arabinose (23 mol%), mannose (21 mol%), and glucose (7 mol%). Green coffee bean polysaccharides represent approximately 50% of the total dry weight. Mannans (50%), in particular galactomannans, are the primary cell wall constituents (20%–30%) in green coffee beans, in addition to arabinogalactan (30%), cellulose (15%), and pectins (Kregiel, 2015).

378  Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview

Along with the important sugar-based and proteinaceous components, green coffee also has lipids, vitamins, and minerals. About 10%–17% (dry weight) lipid components, which are typically present in green coffee, possess fat-soluble vitamins and have been studied in addition to the water-soluble vitamins. Nicotinic acid is a micronutrient present in ample amount in green (and roasted) coffee but the major fat-soluble vitamin present is vitamin E and its levels rely upon postharvesting processing and sample age. Tocopherols are also present in green coffee, majorly known for their antioxidant properties, are not passed to the final roasted brew (like all fat-soluble nutrients). Water-soluble vitamins, which are destroyed during roasting, have also been detected in green coffee but in far lower amounts than is physiologically relevant. B vitamins are present at levels of B1 (0.002% dry weight), B2 (0.002% dry weight), B6 (0.001% dry weight), and B12 (trace amounts). Niacin (0.02% dry weight), pantothenic acid (0.01% dry weight), folic acid (0.0001% dry weight), and ascorbic acid (0.46%–0.61% dry weight) are also present, but are destroyed during roasting since they are heat-labile. The minerals detected in green coffee beans include primarily potassium, magnesium, and calcium and others such as sodium, iron, manganese, rubidium, zinc, copper, strontium, chrome, vanadium, barium, nickel, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, titanium, and cadmium. Food and beverage items from coffee chains may contribute to excess intake of energy and other nutrients of public health concern if consumed in addition to meals (Watson et al., 2016).

11.4  Soft Drinks Soft drinks are typically nonalcoholic beverages that contain carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. These are called “soft,” in contrast to other “hard” alcoholic beverages. The history of soft drinks start with the development of fruit flavored drinks (lemon flavored), which were non-carbonated. Later in 18th century, scientists made a remarkable discovery by making it carbonated drinks. Artificial sweetened beverages (ASBs) have been associated with risk of cardiovascular diseases, although consumption may have been a surrogate for adverse health behaviors, according to the study (Narain et al., 2016). Consumption of caffeinated and artificially sweetened soft drinks was shown to be associated with risk of early menarche in a US cohort of African American and Caucasian girls (Mueller et  al., 2015). Consumption of calorie-sweetened beverages such as the soft drinks and the fructose they contain has shown to continuously increase obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and fatty liver disease (Bray and Popkin, 2013). On the other hand, it has been researched that consuming artificially sweetened soft drinks or no soft drinks at

Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview   379

all instead of consuming sugar-sweetened soft drinks has been shown to help reduce the risk of obesity in women (Tucker et al., 2015). The main component of soft drinks is water and an increase in the intake of soft drinks might improve fluid intake and the levels of water in the body if it is regarded as an “essential nutrient” by the customers as a factor of purchasing (Redondo et al., 2014). There are many different types of soft drinks (Fig. 11.2; Table 11.3) (Hector et al., 2009). These soft drinks contain various components like caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. The consumption of soft drinks has nowadays become a highly visible and controversial public health issue. Various studies have been conducted which tells about the possible links between soft drinks intake and the medical issues associated with it. Because of this, more emphasis is being given to the health properties of soft drinks both by the industries and the consumers. A survey result has shown that Australia is the leading soft drink consuming country in the world on the basis of per capita consumption. Information by National Nutrition Survey in 1995 shows that highest number of consumers are males and young population, consuming about 1 L per day. Next highest consumers are young boys between the ages of 19 and 24 years (Wen et al., 2007). In 1998–99, the results of survey indicate that in Australia, per capita consumption of these drinks was around 113.0 L. Similarly for 2003, it was shown to be 110 L. In India, as per the survey conducted in 2016, among the total population of 1.25 billion people, the total consumption was 5.9 L in a year. This is just 1/20th of that of consumed in the United States, 1/10th of Kuwait, and 1/8th of Thailand and Philippines. Bulk/ hot water Potable Bottled water Juices

Soft drinks

Carbonated drinks Still drinks Squash/ syrups Sports drink

Fig. 11.2  Types of soft drinks.

380  Chapter 11  Nutrients in Caffeinated Beverages—An Overview

Table 11.3  Types of Soft Drinks Type of Soft Drink Bottled water

Bulk/hot water Carbonates Juice Nectars Still drinks

Description Potable water • Still water: noncarbonated, mineral, spring or table water, with or without added flavorings, and vitamins/minerals • Carbonated water: mineral, spring or table water, low carbonated waters, naturally sparkling, or sparkling by CO2 injection • Flavored water: unsweetened water, with essences and/or aromatic substances Potable water Sweetened, beverages with carbon dioxide 100% pure fruit or vegetable juice without ingredients but has permitted minerals and vitamins with the addition of sweetening agents (<2%) Diluted fruit/vegetable juice and pulp, with sweetening agents, minerals and vitamins Flavored and ready-to-drink, noncarbonated and contains fruit or non-fruit flavors, or juice content (to 25%)

There are many ingredients present in soft drinks. These ingredients are water, caffeine, sweeteners, carbon dioxide, flavors, antioxidants, chemical preservatives, foaming agents, etc. These are present in appropriate amounts and if consumed in large quantities lead to hazardous results. These are discussed in detail further: Water: Generally soft drinks contain 90% of water whereas diet soft drinks have 99% of water. As normal drinking water has ions which may alter its taste, hence in soft drinks softened water is usually used. The removal of water hardness includes the use of ion exchange polymers and reverse osmosis. Other methods make use of chelating ions such as methods of precipitation and sequestration (Fleet, 2007). The levels of ions (Mg and Ca) are reduced to approximately 50 ppm. Sugars and sweeteners: Soft drinks contain between 1% and 12% sugar. Sucrose, glucose, or fructose (and there various forms) are used as natural sweetening agents. The most common among them is glucose, a major source of energy. Sucrose: It is disaccharide comprising glucose and fructose molecules which are held together by an α-1,2 linkage. This sugar helps in intensifying the flavor of a drink and also gives a satisfying sensation. Trehalose: It is a disaccharide molecule composed of two glucose residues held together by an α-1,1-linkage. This gives high heat stability and a broad pH stability range.

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Isomaltulose: It is a polymer of glucose and fructose joined by an α-1,6 glycosidic bond. It has a mild sweetness (Hausmann, 2009). Tagatose: It is similar in structure to fructose. It has flavor-­ enhancing properties. They also have negative impacts, which include obesity, diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. These natural sweeteners form calories and results in weight gain (Fitch and Keim, 2012). Fructose forms glycation end products, which may result in the onset of diabetes and cause thickening of artery walls. Fruits and fruit juices: Fruits and fruit juices contain various nutrients and some bioactive compounds also. These include fiber, sugars, organic acids, minerals, and vitamins, flavors, and antioxidants. The sugar content mainly depends on the type of fruit. Mostly citrus fruits have relatively less amount of sugars. Fibers are defined as nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin, including starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, etc. High quantities of fibers result in better digestion and can prevent some form of cancers and heart diseases too (Serpen, 2012). Acidity regulators and carbon dioxide: Carbox dioxide is supplied to make our soft drink more acidic and sharpens its flavors. Carbon dioxide is being supplied to soft drinks either in solid form or in liquid form under high pressure. It also helps to increase the shelf life of soft drinks. Acidity regulators are used to balance the sweetness. Citric acid used as an acid regulator also enhances the activity of useful antioxidants and also adds aroma. Malic acid (E 296) along with citric acid is strong flavor enhancer. Phosphoric acid (E 338) has an intense effect on pH and is used to give a specific taste. Flavorings and colorings: The colorings can be categorized into artificial colors, natural colors, and caramels. Natural colors can be extracted from fruits, plants, and vegetables and can add antioxidant properties to the drink. In contrast to colorings, flavorings are used in comparatively small amounts, so consumer exposure is comparatively low.

11.4.1 Preservatives Chemical preservatives are used for the improvement of the soft drinks’ microbiological stability. They mainly include the chemical and physical properties of the preservative which is used, as well as the beverage. There are many factors which are needed to determine the type of preservative, these factors include the pH of the product, the presence or absence of vitamins, the packaging procedures, and the storage conditions. Some of the preservatives are as mentioned: sorbates are effective against many species such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds. The effectiveness of sorbates mainly depends on the chemical and physical

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properties of the drink. Sorbates in combination with benzoates are used especially in drinks with high acidic content. This mainly affects growth of yeast since it inhibits the uptake of amino acids. Benzoic acid is a natural preservative, which is mainly found in cranberries, cinnamon, plums, etc. and has been used to inhibit growth of microbes. DMDC is commonly used as preservative in cold soft drinks. This is highly reactive and rapidly degrades when any substrate is added to it. The main products are methanol and carbon dioxide. The DMDC is used against many antimicrobial actions. DMDC usually perforates and enters into the cell and downregulates the enzyme activity, leading to the destruction of the microbes. Other ingredients: Antioxidants like ascorbic acid is used to prevent the degradation of flavors and colors, usually when drinks are packed in O2-permeable bottles and cartons. Others include dietary fibers, such as insulin and maltodextrin, which are used as prebiotics.

11.5  Alcoholic Beverages Alcoholic beverages also contain caffeine and they are usually known as CABs. As we know these alcoholic drinks have many detrimental effects on person’s psychology, his nervous system, and also affect many organs such as liver and endocrine system which results in changes of individual’s health, behavior, and his ability to interact with others. But the situation becomes worse when these alcoholic drinks are mixed with caffeine. Mixing of caffeine increases the alcohol dependency, which means it increases the additive or synergistic actions. The studies have shown that the consumption of alcohol along with caffeine is more harmful and it results in more severe consequences than consuming alcohol alone. When compared to only alcohol drinkers, people consuming CAB tend to drink more frequently than the latter (Lau-Barraco et al., 2014) and they are more likely to experience negative alcohol-related harms. Chances of engaging in risky behaviors appear to increase as the frequency of CAB use increases. Also the consumption of CAB is associated with caffeine-related harms. One study showed the presence of both physiological outcomes which includes sleep difficulties, heart palpations, rapid speaking, and psychological outcomes such as irritability, tension, stress, etc. Similar findings with regard to physiological effects from CAB consumption have been found in other studies. Alcoholic beverage consumption in combination with an imbalanced diet has been associated with increased risk of cancer (LatinoMartel et  al., 2016). Alcoholic beverage consumption especially increases the risk of developing cancer of oral cavity and pharynx,

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c­olorectum, oesophagus, liver, female breast, and larynx (Bagnardi et  al., 2015). The association of energy drinks with other potential negative health and behavioral outcomes has suggested that the use of energy drinks, especially alcoholic beverages, represents a marker for other activities that may negatively affect adolescent development, health, and well-being (Azagba et al., 2014). The prevalence of CAB use among underage drinkers has been recorded to be higher than previously thought and usually begins in early adolescence (Kponee et al., 2014). On the other hand, alcoholic beverages such as wine and beer (but especially red wine) have shown cardiovascular protection ability because of their polyphenolic content (Chiva-Blanch et al., 2013).

11.6  Chocolate Drinks The chocolate drink, famously known as the hot chocolate or hot cocoa, is a form of warmed up beverage consisting of chocolate in various proportions and forms such as the melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and usually a sweetener. Hot chocolate is sometimes topped with whipped cream and the one made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness, and a thicker consistency (Peixoto et al., 2016). A US study report has shown that the inclusion of flavored milk, such as the chocolate milk, in the diets of children and youth leads to improvement in nutrient intake (Henry et al., 2015). Studies have shown that different segments of parents have distinct preferences for sweetener type and fat content, sugar content, and brand of chocolate milk while purchasing (Li et  al., 2014). In studies conducted to find an alternative for sugar, d-tagatose was considered to be the best replacement for sugar in enhancing children health benefits (Rouhi et al., 2015). Omega-3 enriched chocolate milk (O3ECM) is a healthy alternative for regular chocolate drinks, containing suitable combination of proteins, electrolytes, and carbohydrates (Morato et al., 2015). Consumption of flavored milk has shown to potentially increase the consumption of milk and reduction in the percentage of children below the estimated average requirement for calcium (Nicklas et al., 2017). Chocolate drink is an eminent accessory of the chocolate products that are popular with a lot, especially children and as a source of refreshment and dessert in addition to its high nutritional value. Chocolate milk (CM) has been discovered recently as a potential recovery beverage. The chocolate milk contains carbohydrate and protein in similar amounts to (carbohydrate) CHO+Pro beverages, generally associated with improved postexercise recovery (Marsh et al., 2017).

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According to the US Department of Agriculture databases, 100 g of dark chocolate contains approximately 100 mg of flavanols, an amount that has been found to be double in the case of unsweetened baking chocolate. In the case of unsweetened cocoa powder that has not been processed with an alkali, this value can reach up to 250 mg in 100 g (Gilson et al., 2010). In a study conducted on the effects of chocolate on postmenopausal women, dark chocolate and its associated drinks have reported to attenuate subsequent food intake in the postmenopausal subjects compared to the impact of consumption of milk chocolate as well as white chocolate (Marsh et al., 2017). In a study involved in evaluating the contents and bioaccessibilities of aluminum, barium, cadmium, copper, chromium, phosphorus, manganese, iron, zinc, and magnesium in samples of chocolate drink powder, variations were observed in the bioaccessibility according to the sample type, being higher in the diet and organic sample (Grivetti and Shapiro, 2011). The samples of chocolate drink powder were obtained from the supermarkets in the city of Campinas (Brazil). They included four sorts of samples accessible in the Brazilian market, namely, traditional, light, diet, and organic. One segment of each example was utilized to decide their basic substance and another part was subjected to gastrointestinal digestion in order to decide their bioaccessible fractions. It basically comprised two phases: gastric phase and intestinal phase. In the gastric phase, samples of chocolate drink powder were weighed in Erlenmeyer flasks to which deionized water was added and homogenized by mechanical shaking. The pH was adjusted to 2.0 and a solution of pepsin in HCl was added. Deionized water was added to the mixture in order to make up the volume and incubation was performed in a water bath, at 37°C, for 2 h and under agitation. In the intestinal phase the pH of the gastric digest was adjusted to 6.5 with NH4OH and a solution containing 0.4% (w/v) of porcine pancreatin and bile extract was added to the mixture and incubation was performed for two additional hours. Subsequently the mixtures were centrifuged and the soluble fraction (bioaccessible) was separated for further mineralization and analysis (Grivetti and Shapiro, 2011). The evaluation of the influence of dietary components was performed by adding various compounds like phytate, pectin, cellulose, or tannin separately to chocolate drink powder and deionized water. The mixture was left under mechanical agitation for 30 min before the application of the simulated digestion. For the sample analysis the microwave-assisted acid mineralization treatment of the samples of chocolate drink powder and the bioaccessible fractions was done. Samples were analyzed for aluminum, barium, cadmium, copper, chromium, phosphorus, manganese, iron,

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zinc, and magnesium by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy depending on the analyte. The results supported the fact that cocoa products present high levels of some essential elements, such as calcium, iron, copper, potassium, manganese, magnesium, zinc, and phosphorus. Potentially toxic elements at trace levels, such as aluminum, were also found in significant concentrations in the samples analyzed. Cocoa and cocoa products generally present very high aluminum concentrations, usually higher than 10 mg/k, as found in all the samples analyzed in this work. Cadmium is another trace element of concern in cocoa products. The Commission Regulation of the European Union in 2014 established a maximum level of 0.6 mg/kg for Cd in cocoa powder ready for consumption. Chocolate drink powder is considered a good source of nutrients such as Fe, Mg, and Zn, as stated by the majority of the manufacturers on the product’s labels, which has also been confirmed in this study based on the total contents found in the samples analyzed. However, this conception varies when the bioaccessibility is considered. Considering the total contents, chocolate drink powder can be considered a good source of copper, iron, chromium, zinc, and magnesium, especially for children. However, considering the bioaccessible fractions there is a significant reduction in the contribution of these elements to the RDI. For Fe, particularly, the chocolate drink powder consumption would contribute only 0.4%–3% to the RDI for children and 0.2%–1.5% for adults. For Zn, a similar behavior was observed. The total contents of Al showed to be relevant in chocolate drink powder samples, representing 8%–19% of the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) for children. However, considering the bioaccessible fractions, there is an important reduction in the risk associated with the intake of this product, representing 0.6%–1.9% of the PTWI for children and 0.1%–0.5% for adults. For Cd, which was found in safe levels in all the samples analyzed, a similar behavior was observed. The low bioaccessibility of this element also indicates that the regular consumption of chocolate drink does not represent any risk. The contribution of chocolate drink consumption to the recommended daily intake of nutrients changes. It is based on whether the total contents or bioaccessible fractions are considered. In general, there is an important reduction in the chocolate drink powder contribution to the RDI when bioaccessibility is considered. These changes are also observed when the toxic elements (Al and Cd) are analyzed. In both cases, the contribution of cocoa powder to the tolerable recommended intakes decreases when bioaccessibility is taking into account.

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11.7 Conclusion Over the past few years, the caffeinated beverages consumption has shown a tremendous growth. In a survey involving a population consuming a caffeinated beverages, more than half reported consuming caffeinated soft drinks—63%, coffee—55%, tea—53% and only fewer caffeinated beverage consumers reported consuming chocolate drinks—14%, energy drinks—4%, and caffeinated alcoholic drinks (CABs)—less than 1%. The varying caffeine content in these beverages has multiple effects on the body, both negative and positive. It causes migraines, drowsiness, anxiety, heartburns, and in cases of excess consumption may lead to hallucinations, achy muscles, and risk of miscarriage in pregnant women. But caffeine has also been found to bring alertness in brain, reduce the risk of oral cancer, and dementia. These caffeinated beverages along with caffeine comprise a plethora of nutrients whose particular effect on the body is still not discovered. Not just the individualistic effect but also the holistic effect of the nutrients on the body is vaguely understood. There is also a need to understand how these various nutrients work alongside caffeine bring about a change in the body. Abundant data is available on the consumption statistics of these caffeinated beverages but there is still lack of research on the effect of these nutrients on various cohorts such as men, women, children, obesity sufferers, alcoholics, smokers, individuals of different age group, etc. Furthermore, for future implications the caffeine and other nutrients of the caffeinated beverages can be studied to find out the consequences of various metabolic pathways of the body and also find out if it plays any significant role in boosting or deteriorating the immunity of an individual.

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