Obsidian from the Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic eastern Maghreb. A view from the Hergla context (Tunisia)

Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 2529e2537

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Obsidian from the Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic eastern Maghreb. A view from the Hergla context (Tunisia) Simone Mulazzani a, François-Xavier Le Bourdonnec b, Lotfi Belhouchet c, Gérard Poupeau b, d, *, Jamel Zoughlami c, Stéphan Dubernet b, Emiliano Tufano e, Yannick Lefrais b, Rym Khedhaier f a Université de Paris 1/CNRS UMR 7041, Archéologie et Sciences de l’Antiquité, 21 Allée de l’Université, 92023 Nanterre Cedex, France and Università di Bologna, Dipartimento di Archeologia. Piazza San Giovanni in Monte 2, 40124 Bologna, Italy b Institut de Recherche sur les Archéomatériaux, Centre de Recherche en Physique Appliquée à l’Archéologie, UMR 5060, CNRS-Université Bordeaux 3, Esplanade des Antilles, 33607 Pessac, France c Institut National du Patrimoine. 4, Place du Château, 1008 Tunis, Tunisia d UMR 7194, CNRS-Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Département de Préhistoire, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France e Università degli Studi Suor Orsola Benincasa, Corso Vittorio Emanuele, 292 I, 80135 Napoli, Italy f Laboratoire Méditerranéen de Préhistoire (Europe-Afrique), UMR 6636, Maison Méditerranéenne des Sciences de l’Homme d’Aix-en-Provence, 5 rue du Château de l’Horloge, Aix-en-Provence, France

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 23 December 2009 Received in revised form 18 May 2010 Accepted 20 May 2010

In the present paper, it is shown that in the Hergla area (eastern Tunisia), obsidian was present from the early to at least the late sixth millennium cal BC. The presence of cores indicates that obsidian knapping was at least partly carried out in situ. The origin of these obsidians was determined from their elemental composition, by comparison with those originating from western Mediterranean potential sources, including analyses of new samples from the nearby Pantelleria Island. All obsidians were measured following the same protocol, by particle induced X-ray emission or by scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersion spectrometry. All the Hergla obsidians were found to originate from the Balata dei Turchi sources of Pantelleria. A review of the present body of knowledge on eastern Maghreb suggests, in spite of the still very preliminary data available, that Pantelleria was almost its unique provider of obsidians from the Epipalaeolithic to and during the Neolithic. However, the relative importance of the two main Pantellerian sources of Balata dei Turchi and Lago di Venere as providers of obsidian to eastern Maghreb remains to be investigated. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Obsidian Provenance Hergla Epipalaeolithic Neolithic Pantelleria Tunisia

1. Introduction In the western Mediterranean, obsidian started being used as a raw material during the seventh millennium BC, when the onset of navigation allowed Mesolithic men to reach the four islandsources of Lipari, Palmarola, Pantelleria and Sardinia (Fig. 1). Since then, and until the Chalcolithic, the obsidians of these islands diffused in different directions, toward northeastern Spain, southern France, peninsular Italy and the Maghrebian coastal areas of Tunisia and eastern Algeria (Tykot, 1996; Vaquer, 2006, 2007; Costa, 2007; Lugliè, 2009). Many provenance studies documented the Mesolithic to Chalcolithic obsidian circulation in the central and * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 (0)5 57 12 47 89; fax: þ33 (0)5 57 12 45 50. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Mulazzani), Francois-Xavier. [email protected] (F.-X. Le Bourdonnec), lotfi[email protected] (L. Belhouchet), [email protected] (G. Poupeau), [email protected] (J. Zoughlami), [email protected] (S. Dubernet), [email protected] (E. Tufano), [email protected] (Y. Lefrais), [email protected] (R. Khedhaier). 0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.05.013

northern Tyrrhenian area (Vaquer, 2006; Lugliè, 2009 inter alia), as well as in the south of the Italian peninsula, Sicily and their surrounding islands (Acquafredda et al., 2006; Tufano, in press). In contrast, information remained very limited for Maghrebian obsidians since the early works of Camps (1964, 1974) and Camps et al. (1985, 1987). Until recently, the presence of obsidian was attested in less than twenty Holocene sites, and its modes of introduction and provenance remained largely undetermined (Mulazzani, 2004). The objectives of this contribution are to present the status of obsidian sourcing in the Maghreb and to provide provenance data for obsidians from two contexts of the Hergla area and from the Mezzouna site of eastern Tunisia. 2. The Hergla and Mezzouna sites and their obsidians 2.1. The Hergla context The archaeological significance of the Hergla coastal area, in eastern Tunisia, was investigated more than 50 years ago (Gobert,

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hearths, post-holes and pits, found throughout the entire sequence, demonstrate undoubtedly the presence of in situ domestic activities. These remains represent one of the rare structural complexes recognised in the ancient-middle Holocene open air sites of Maghreb (Mulazzani et al., in press). Furthermore, two burials and some scattered human bone remains were uncovered in the vicinity of the domestic space (Munoz et al., in press). The material culture includes both lithic and bone industries, vessels and ornaments in ostrich egg shells, and shell ornaments. In the four (numbers 1e4) oldest layers, pottery is only represented by rare, small potsherd fragments. It becomes relatively abundant only in the three (5e7) upper levels, where other elements of material culture traditionally associated to the Neolithic tradition were also recovered. The subsistence economy of the site appears however to correspond to a sequence of the Epipalaeolithic type, as hunting, fishing and gathering are the only activities attested so far (Curci et al., in press; Mannino et al., in press).

Fig. 1. Schematic map of the central and western Mediterranean showing the obsidian source-islands. In Sardinia, they are localised in the Monte Arci volcanic massif. The two sites whose obsidians were sourced in this contribution are indicated in italics.

1954, in Harbi and Zoughlami, 1971), and during the early 1970s several small trenches revealed obsidian flakes and fragments which were considered as originating from Pantelleria (Harbi and Zoughlami, 1971; Camps, 1974; M’Timet et al., 1992). All these obsidians were found on the western edge of the retro-coastal lagoon of Sebkhet Halk el Menjel, at the SHM-1 site (Fig. 2). In 2002, an ItaloeTunisian team initiated a detailed survey of this area and the mapping of its ancient human occupations. New test trenches were dug and a more extensive excavation opened. Seven main occupation levels were identified over a depth of 150 cm from the ground surface. The oldest levels were dated by radiocarbon to a time span situated between the seventh and the sixth millennium cal BC (Table 1). The remains of dry stone walls, pebble platforms,

2.1.1. SHM-1 Nineteen obsidian artefacts were collected at the SHM-1 site. The eleven pieces, recently found (2002e2007), come from various stratigraphic units of the three upper levels. The stratigraphic positions of the eight samples discovered in earlier excavation campaigns (1969e1971) were unfortunately not recorded, and only five of these obsidians could be recovered (Table 1). In all, this material comprised seven flakes, three cores, and nine debris or undetermined pieces. The cores are relatively small and correspond to an unidirectional and residual reduction stage, having allowed the production of a reduced number of bladelets (from one to three blanks) from a single striking platform, apparently through a pressure technique (Fig. 3.1e3.3). Retouched flake Obs2, of which only the mesio-proximal part was found, is affected by a low angle inverse retouch on the right edge, and by a direct scaled retouch on the mesial left side. Flake 1351 apparently resulted from the final stages of a core optimisation. Its stigmas (flat butt, prominent bulb and impact point) point to a reduction from a hard hammer (Fig. 3.4). These characteristics indicate that obsidian reduction was at least partly carried out in situ at the SHM-1 site. A comparison with the most abundant by far flint industry suggests that obsidian was reduced following the same processes. 2.1.2. SHM-12 At station SHM-12, about 5 km east from SHM-1 (Fig. 2), two other obsidians were recently discovered along the littoral cliff of Tyrrhenian age separating the Halk el Menjel Sebkhet from the open sea. They were found at a depth of 100 cm during the ‘refreshing’ of the sea-facing scarp erosion front. One of them (SHM-12.12) is a small flake produced during the rejuvenation of a core. It exhibits a direct scaled retouch on its right side, and an inverse retouch on its left side (Fig. 3.5). The second one is a small, undeterminable fragment (Table 1). As no other archaeological remains were associated to these fragments, their stratigraphic and cultural ages are uncertain.

2.2. The Mezzouna site

Fig. 2. Location map of the Hergla coastal area in eastern Tunisia.

This southern Tunisia site, located about 80 km southwest of Sfax, was discovered more than 50 years ago and only exploited by one exploratory test-pit (Vaufrey, 1955). One obsidian flake lying on the ground surface was found during a 2007 field survey carried out by one of us (L.B.) under the direction of N. Aouadi-Abdeljaouad. The rare associated remains do not allow determining whether this settlement is to be related to a Capsian (Epipalaeolithic) or to a Neolithic occupation.

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Table 1 Sample description, stratigraphic position and radiometric ages. Site

Cultural period

Sample

Level

14

C dating

SU

Age BP Hergla Site SHM-1 (1969e1971)

Site SHM-1 (2002e2007)

Site SHM-12 (2005) Mezzouna

Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic ? ? Epipalaeolithic? Neolithic?

Obs1 Obs2 Obs3 Obs4 Obs5 478 2668 2669 2670 2933 3719 1351 12 250 13 733 14 462 20 408

12 13 Mez1

? ? ? ? ? 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 5 5 5 5 1 1 e e e

? ? ? ? ? 12 303 303 303 303 304 13 395 345 345 345 529 237 6 6 Surface

Type

Dimensions (mm)

Flake Retouched flake Fragment Fragment Flake Core Fragment Fragment Core Fragment Core Flake Fragment Fragment Fragment Fragment

22  18  5 22  15  7 6  13  4 17  13  7 22  14  8 13  12  10 11  5  3 10  8  2 16  13  8 932 15  9  3 19  11  3 12  10  3 15  7  4 15  9  4 12  5  3

Retouched flake Fragment Fragment

22  16  4 <5  5  5 16  12  5

Age cal BC

6840  30 *

5529e5187

7175  45** 6993  79*

5831e5474 5697e5284

7520  40*

6186e5774

7870  30* 8220  40*

6499e6106 7001e6485

The 14C ages were determined at ENEA Laboratory, Bologna, Italy (*) and at LOCEAN Laboratory, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris (**) on the shell of the marine mollusk Cerastoderma sp. taking into account a ΔR correction factor for Mediterranean waters of 58  85 (Reimer and McCormac, 2002). The 2s calibrated ages ranges were calculated using the Marine04 radiocarbon age calibration curve (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993).

3. Potential obsidian sources and sampling As stated above, in the western Mediterranean, the obsidians present in Neolithic sites since the onset of marine navigation were identified to date as originating from four island-sources (Fig. 1). Carpathian obsidians reached only the Adriatic coast near Trieste, and those from the Giali and Melos islands in the eastern Mediterranean remained confined to this area and its continental surroundings (Lugliè, 2009; Carter, 2009). Previous sourcing attempts of eastern

Maghreb obsidians, based on their elemental composition or on their colour (see below), indicated essentially a Pantelleria origin, some samples being visually attributed to Lipari. It is generally admitted that the macroscopic appearance of any western Mediterranean obsidian most often allows one to determine from which of the island-sources it originates. This is in particular true for the uniquely greenish Pantellerian obsidians. However, it is not possible by this colour alone to distinguish between the various Pantellerian sources. In contrast, the chemical composition is specific to each source.

Fig. 3. Hergla artefacts. At site SHM-1: 1, core 478; 2, core 2670; 3, core 3719; 4, flake 1351. At site SHM-12: retouched flake 12 (Drawings: L. Belhouchet).

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In the present work, the sourcing of eastern Maghreb obsidians was carried out according to their elemental compositions, as determined by PIXE and by scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersion spectrometry (SEM-EDS). In order to be exhaustive, all potential Mediterranean sources, as previously characterised by our group, were considered, and new Pantelleria samples analysed. Seven geological obsidians from the Pantelleria Island were newly sampled. Six were collected from the Balata dei Turchi (BDT) and Lago di Venere (LDV) sources in the course of a detailed survey of the Pantelleria Island by one of us (E.T.). At Balata dei Turchi, a cove situated in the southern part of the island, the obsidian primary source is a flow about 2 m thick, intercalated in a volcanosedimentary series. It outcrops at an altitude of 70 m above sea level, near to the top of a cliff dominating the northern coast of the cove. Samples Balt 10, 13 and 20 were taken from different locations in this obsidian layer, after a difficult climb to the top of the cliff. In the Lago di Venere area, in the north of Pantelleria, a thin obsidian layer was discovered inside a small artificial cave dug in the western portion of a cliff bounding the lake, at an elevation of 15 m above the average water level. Samples Lagv 15, 19 and 21 were collected from this flow. Details about these sampling stations are provided elsewhere (Tufano, in press). A seventh obsidian, from the Balata dei Turchi source, PAN-BTO, provided long ago to one of us (G.P.) by Vicenzo Francaviglia (Istituto per le Tecnologie Applicate ai Beni Culturali, Roma) for an inter-laboratory comparison purpose, comes from an unspecified location.

4.1. Sourcing by PIXE All source samples and most artefacts were treated by PIXE on the AIFIRA facility nuclear microprobe line (Centre d’Etude Nucléaire de Bordeaux-Gradignan). While the source samples were analysed as microprobe-quality polished sections, the artefacts were only cleaned. The two largest of these, which could not be introduced in the vacuum sample chamber at AIFIRA, were analysed on the AGLAE extracted beam line facility (Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, Paris). In both cases, a proton beam of 3 MeV and 0.5e2 nA and a set-up of two X-ray detectors allowed the simultaneous detection of 15 major and trace elements (Poupeau et al., 2004, in press; Le Bourdonnec et al., 2010a). The analysed surfaces are of the order of 700 mm2 at AIFIRA and 500 mm2 at AGLAE. One to two measurements on different areas per sample were carried out at AIFIRA, and only one at AGLAE. The data treatment was performed with the 2000 version of the GUPIX software. The results are presented in Table 2. The geological samples from Balata dei Turchi (BDT) and Lago di Venere (LDV), respectively, present a very homogeneous PIXE composition. The BDT and LDV compositions differ essentially in their Al, Si, Ca, Ti, Rb, Zr and Nb contents, and more subtly in their Fe and Y contents. Sample PANBTO had also been previously analysed by PIXE at AGLAE, and three of its aliquots by inductively coupled plasma e atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) for major elements and inductively coupled plasma e mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for trace elements. It can be observed in Table 2 that all these analyses are in good agreement, except for Ga (difference of a factor of 1.6 between two PIXE measurements) and Rb. The Rb discrepancy observed might be attributed to the well-known intrinsic variations of this element in obsidians. However, given the differences between the PIXE

4. Obsidian sourcing Eighteen Hergla obsidians were sourced, of which eleven by PIXE and seven by SEM-EDS. All were analysed in a non-destructive mode.

Table 2 Elemental composition of artefacts and geological samples as determined by PIXE and SEM-EDS. Sample

Facility

Method

Na2O

Al2O3

SiO2

K2O

CaO

TiO2

MnO

Fe2O3

Zn

Ga

Rb

Sr

Y

Zr

Nb

Type

Archaeological artifacts Hergla, site SHM-1 Obs1 (1969e1971) Obs2 Obs3 Obs4 Obs5 Hergla, site SHM-1 478 (2002e2007) 1351 2668 2669 2670 2933 3719 12 250 13 733 14 462 20 408 Hergla, site SHM-12 12 Hergla, site SHM-12 13 Mezzouna ME-1

CRP2A CRP2A CRP2A CRP2A CRP2A AGLAE AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA AGLAE AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA CRP2A AIFIRA AIFIRA CRP2A

SEM-EDS SEM-EDS SEM-EDS SEM-EDS SEM-EDS PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE SEM-EDS PIXE PIXE SEM-EDS

6.4 5.9 6.6 5.9 5.6 6.6 6.4 6.2 5.9 6.5 6.4 6.1 6.6 6.4 6.5 6.3 6.7 6.6 6.4

7.0 6.8 6.9 6.8 6.7 7.7 7.6 7.4 8.7 7.7 7.4 8.3 7.5 7.8 7.6 7.0 7.5 7.9 7.2

72.4 72.0 71.6 71.5 71.9 72.0 69.3 71.9 70.6 72.4 70.7 70.5 72.0 71.6 71.3 71.1 71.0 70.5 72.9

4.1 4.3 4.1 4.3 4.5 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.1 3.9 3.8 4.0

0.30 0.32 0.41 0.40 0.30 0.34 0.34 0.42 0.68 0.30 0.33 0.43 0.35 0.35 0.28 0.52 0.31 0.40 0.26

0.15 0.14 0.15 0.19 0.18 0.196 0.168 0.163 0.173 0.211 0.190 0.166 0.194 0.186 0.183 0.20 0.156 0.172 0.20

0.23 0.23 0.20 0.27 0.27 0.281 0.348 0.282 0.273 0.270 0.323 0.292 0.249 0.283 0.305 0.26 0.293 0.295 0.35

8.42 9.24 9.07 9.63 9.50 8.09 9.69 7.85 7.75 7.85 8.88 8.21 7.12 7.59 7.94 9.51 8.18 8.13 7.72

e e e e e 444 572 410 469 422 488 473 480 437 451 e 444 492 e

e e e e e 32 30 37 26 32 36 30 32 35 29 e 31 26 e

e e e e e 174 180 162 174 174 209 168 209 188 178 e 177 151 e

e e e e e nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd e nd nd e

e e e e e 169 259 254 238 184 165 268 261 225 249 e 230 242 e

e e e e e 1695 2282 1873 1990 1664 2001 1971 2269 2076 2000 e 2042 1875 e

e e e e e 425 543 563 439 410 410 408 474 423 446 e 467 403 e

BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT BDT

AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA AGLAE

PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE* ICP** PIXE PIXE PIXE PIXE

7.7 6.5 6.8 6.9 6.94 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.5

7.3 7.4 7.8 7.5 7.74 7.6 9.7 9.9 9.9

71.1 71.2 71.9 71.1 e 72.3 67.2 67.7 67.8

3.6 3.9 3.8 3.9 4.05 3.8 4.1 4.0 4.0

0.27 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.295 0.24 0.49 0.47 0.47

0.162 0.169 0.157 0.19 0.223 0.169 0.449 0.434 0.452

0.292 0.301 0.236 0.29 0.326 0.228 0.331 0.268 0.267

7.98 8.41 8.44 8.25 8.57 8.12 8.59 8.98 8.95

440 466 362 483 nd 357 299 246 264

36 35 25 41 nd 25 35 31 25

159 157 118 170 170 115 93 86 40

nd nd nd <10 5.30 nd nd nd nd

249 222 159 e 189 179 132 113 117

1986 2005 1950 2023 2003 1783 1154 1181 1217

421 456 404 e 394 352 264 181 233

BDT BDT BDT

Sampling site

Geological samples Balt13 Balt10 PAN-BTO

Balt21 Lagv19 Lagv20 Lagv15

Balata dei Turchi Balata dei Turchi Balata dei Turchi

Balata dei Turchi Lago di Venere Lago di Venere Lago di Venere

AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA AIFIRA

Element contents are reported in weight percent oxides from Na to Fe and mg/g for the others; BDT ¼ Balata dei Turchi, LDV ¼ Lago di Venere. *Bellot-Gurlet, 1998 Ph. D. **Average contents of three aliquotes; elements Na to Fe were determined by ICP-AES and ZneNb by ICP-MS (Bellot-Gurlet, 1998 Ph. D.).

00 00

BDT LDV LDV LDV

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internal calibrations used by Bellot-Gurlet (1998) and those employed in this work, the overall agreement observed by this technique for PAN-BTO can be considered as excellent. These data also confirm the equivalence between PIXE analyses in vacuum chamber and by extracted beam, previously demonstrated for western Mediterranean obsidians (Le Bourdonnec et al., 2005; Le Bourdonnec, 2007), and the good agreement between the PIXE and ICP techniques generally verified, for example in the cases of Andean (Bellot-Gurlet et al., 2005, 2008) and Near East (Poupeau et al., in press) obsidians. The twelve Hergla obsidians present a peralkaline PIXE composition of the BDT type, albeit with some Ca content variability, which indicates a Pantellerian origin. In no case could these obsidians have come from another western Mediterranean island, as shown in Fig. 4, nor from any source-island in the eastern Mediterranean, all of a calc-alkaline affinity. 4.2. Sourcing by SEM-EDS The elemental compositions of seven artefacts were determined at the Centre de Recherche de Physique Appliquée à l’Archéologie (Bordeaux) with a JEOL JMS 6460 LV scanning electron microscope operating at a 20 kV accelerating voltage. For each measurement, the electron beam diameter swept a surface of about 1.5  104 mm2. The fluorescence X-rays emitted by the samples were collected by an Oxford X-Max EDS Silicon Drift Detector (SDD) with 20 mm2 active area and a 125 eV resolution for the Mn Ka emission line. All spectra were obtained with a real acquisition time of 120 s and a dead time of 30%. This involves spectra with more than 106 counts between 0 and 10 keV. The INCA data treatment software uses a XPP procedure 4(rz) X-ray correction models to calculate element contents as percent oxides. The contents of Na, Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Mn and Fe were obtained for all samples following the procedure described elsewhere (Le Bourdonnec et al., 2010b). Due to the artefacts’ sizes and geometry, the elemental composition was determined as the average of four to seven ‘punctual’ measurements, rather than 10e20, as is usually the case (Le Bourdonnec et al., 2006, 2010b). The element contents determined by SEMEDS are very similar to those obtained by PIXE on the other Tunisian artefacts (Table 2) and suggest a raw material of the Pantelleria BDT type. This is confirmed by a comparison with the 99 western Mediterranean geological obsidians analysed by SEM-EDS in the

Fig. 4. Rb and Zr contents determined by PIXE in 12 Hergla obsidian artefacts and 55 obsidians from central and western Mediterranean sources (PIXE data for source samples: Lipari and Palmarola e Poupeau et al., 2000; Sardinia e Lugliè et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Pantelleria e this work).

Fig. 5. Na and Al contents determined by SEM-EDS in six Hergla and one Mezzouna obsidian artefacts and 99 obsidians from central and western Mediterranean sources (data for source samples from Le Bourdonnec et al., 2010b).

same conditions, but from polished sections (Le Bourdonnec et al., 2010b), as illustrated in Fig. 5. Thus, all the Hergla (SHM-1 and SHM-12) and the Mezzouna obsidians analysed here are considered as originating from Pantellerian BDT sources.

5. Discussion Obsidian is currently attested in more than twenty eastern Maghreb Holocene sites, of which three in Algeria and nineteen in Tunisia (Fig. 6). The number of obsidians found is often only vaguely indicated, from ‘few fragments’ to ‘many’ and, in one case, ‘hundreds’. When specified, the number is often limited to one or two specimens. Only in four instances were a larger number of artefacts observed (or recorded), such as at Djebel ed Did (32 artefacts), Rmel Khellada (18), the Zembra Island (34), and SHM-1 (19) (Table 3). These obsidians were rarely described, and in most cases little detail is given as to the techno-typological features. The most abundant are non-worked to retouched flakes, such as at Djebel ed Did (Gruet, 1947; Camps, 1964; Gragueb et al., 1985), Kef el Ahmar (Harbi-Riahi et al., 1987), Doukanet el Khoutifa (Zoughlami, 1991), Kef Hamda (Zoughlami, 2009; Zoughlami et al., 1998), La Galite (Camps et al., 1985), Rmel Khellada (Gragueb et al., 1985), Sebkha el Melah (Perthuisot, 1975), and in southern Tunisia (Pézard, 1908; Dalloni, 1948; Lhote, 1951). At Djebel ed Did, nonworked to retouched bladelets, one notch and four arrow points were also found. The only other recorded arrow point was collected at Korba (Gobert, 1952, 1962; Harbi-Riahi et al., 1987), while an endscraper was observed at Tébessa (Camps, 1964; Crummett and Warren, 1985: fig. A1.2; Tykot, 1996). In only two sites, Rmel Khellada and SHM-1 of the Hergla area, some evidence of in situ obsidian knapping could be pointed out, with the discovery of several cores (Table 1). The ages of the obsidian Maghrebian industries are most often uncertain, especially as the artefacts are mostly surface finds. However, there are a few cases where the lithic typology and/or 14C dates allow us to state that, generally, obsidian was being procured by eastern Maghreb populations during the Neolithic (Camps, 1964). Obsidian sampling in 14C-dated stratigraphic contexts occurred in only three instances, at Hergla (site SHM-1, Table 1), Doukanet el Koutifa, and Kef Hamda (Table 4). At SHM-1, while the oldest human occupation (level 1) was radiocarbon-dated to the

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Fig. 6. Localisation of Holocene sites in the eastern Maghreb: 1, La Marsa; 2, Aïn Khiar; 3, Tébessa; 4, Aïn Djantoura; 5, La Galite; 6, Sidi Abdel Aroua; 7, Djebel ed Dib; 8, Rmel Khellada; 9, Remel; 10, Zembra; 11, Ras ed Drek; 12, Kef el Ahmar; 13, Korba; 14, SHM-1; 15, SHM-12; 16, Henchir Jel 2; 17, Sebkha el Melah; 18, Mezzouna; 19, Kef Hamda; 20, Doukanet el Khoutifa; 21, ‘South Tunisia’; 22, Kerkennah.

seventh millennium cal BC, the first obsidians found so far were extracted from layers dated to a period between the last quarter of the seventh millennium and the last quarter of the sixth millennium cal BC. To our knowledge, in eastern Maghreb, 14C ages were determined for only two other obsidian-bearing sites, Kef Hamda and Doukanet el Khoutifa (Fig. 6). In both cases, the dated obsidians and charcoal were unearthed from snaileries (‘escargotières’, locally called ‘rammadiyat’), black layers rich in organic matter with complex post-depositional/reworking histories, so that their 14C ages do not necessarily correspond to that of the obsidians’ deposition time. The SHM-1 obsidians might therefore be the only ones in the Maghreb whose depositional age is known. They show that the first human groups capable of marine navigation sailed early through the strait separating Sicily from the southern Mediterranean coast. The data presented in this paper show for the first time that Epipalaeolithic communities of the eastern Maghreb were capable of procuring obsidian toward the end of the seventh millennium BC. These results fit well with what we know about hunter-gatherer mobility and islands exploitation in the Mediterranean, as also attested in the Aegean islands, Cyprus, Sicily, etc. (see Broodbank, 2006).

In the central Mediterranean, the visual appearance of an obsidian and/or its petrography may be helpful for the determination of its provenance. Yet, according to the greenish colour in transparency, it is relatively easy to identify the peralkaline obsidians of the Pantelleria Island. It is on this basis that Tykot (1996) estimated that 34 Zembra Island obsidians came from Pantelleria. The earlier visual attributions of provenance, to Lipari and Pantelleria, are however to be considered cautiously. Thus, in spite of the green olive colour of the Djebel ed Did obsidians (Gruet, 1947), which we know now to be characteristic of the Pantellerian volcanic glasses, they were attributed according to their visual appearance to Lipari (Camps, 1974). The sourcing of Maghrebian obsidians from their elemental composition was apparently applied to only four sites, at Tébessa (Crummett and Warren, 1985), SHM-1 and SHM-12 at Hergla and Mezzouna (this work). While at Tébessa the only sample analysed by neutron activation was of a Lipari obsidian type of composition, all the Hergla and the Mezzouna obsidians analysed in this work originate from Pantelleria. The overall available data suggest that the obsidians that flooded the eastern Maghreb were almost only, if not only, of a Pantelleria origin. The presence of Lipari obsidians suspected in early

S. Mulazzani et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 2529e2537

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Table 3 Present status of obsidian sourcing in eastern Maghreb. Site

Type of sampling

Map Country n numbers

Culture

Ref.

Source Method*

Ref.

La Marsa

?

1

ALG

2

Camps, 1964; Morel 1969

Li?

1

Iberomaurisian and Neolithic Iberomaurisian and Neolithic Unknown

Morel, 1969; Camps, 1974 Morel, 1969; Camps, 1974 Crummett and Warren, 1985

Aïn Khiar

?

2

ALG

2

Tébessa

?

3

ALG

Aïn Djantoura

Surface

4

TUN

“Several”

Unknown

La Galite Sidi Abdel Aroua

Surface Surface

5 6

TUN TUN

Surface

7

TUN

1 Unknown “Few Unknown fragments” 32 Neolithic?

Djebel ed Dib Rmel Khellada Remel Zembra Ras ed Drek Kef el Ahmar Korba

Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface

8 9 10 11 12 13

TUN TUN TUN TUN TUN TUN

18 2 34 “Many” 1 1

Neolithic Neolithic? Unknown Unknown Neolithic? Neolithic?

SHM-1 e 1969e1971 Stratigraphy 14

TUN

8

Final Epipalaeolithic

SHM-1 e 2002-2007

Stratigraphy 14

TUN

11

SHM-12 Henchir Jel 2 Sebkha el Melah Mezzouna

Stratigraphy Surface Surface Surface

15 16 17 18

TUN TUN TUN TUN

2 1 1 1

Kef Hamda

Stratigraphy 19

TUN

1

Doukanet el Koutifa South Tunisia

Stratigraphy 20 ? 21

TUN TUN

2 “Sporadic”

Final Epipalaeolithic (14C) Neolithic? Neolithic? Neolithic? Final Epipalaeolithic e Neolithic? Final Epipalaeolithic e Neolithic (14C) Neolithic (14C) Unknown

Kerkennah

Surface

TUN

Hundreds

Unknown

22

Visual

Camps, 1964; Morel, 1969 Pa? Li? Visual Camps, 1964

Li?

NAA

Pézard, 1906; Zoughlami et al., 1989 Camps et al., 1985 Maury, 1977

Sa?

?

Maury, 1977

Pa?

Visual

Camps, 1964, 1974; Gragueb et al., 1985**

Pa

Visual

Tykot, 1996

Pa?

Visual

Gobert, 1962

Pa

? (3)

Gruet, 1947; Camps, 1964; Gragueb et al., 1985 Gragueb et al., 1985 Fobis, 1916 Tykot, 1996 Camps et al., 1987 Harbi-Riahi et al., 1987 Gobert, 1952, 1962; Harbi-Riahi et al., 1987 Zoughlami, 1991; M’timet et al., 1992 This work This work Chenorkian et al., 2002 Perthuizot, 1975 Vaufrey, 1955 Zoughlami, 1991; Zoughlami et al., 1998 Zoughlami, 1991 Pézard, 1908; Dalloni, 1948; Lhote, 1951 Boussofara (pers. comm.)

Pa Pa Pa Pa

Camps, 1974; Zoughlami, 1991 SEM-EDS (5) This work PIXE (10) This work SEM-EDS (1) This work PIXE This work

Pa? Pa

Visual PIXE

Perthuisot, 1975 This work

Pa

?

Zoughlami, 1991

Pa

?

Zoughlami, 1991

Pa

PIXE (37)

Boussofara, Le Bourdonnec, Poupeau, unpub.

ALG, Algeria; TUN,Tunisia; the map numbers refer to those in Fig. 6; n, number of obsidians; Li ¼ Lipari, Pa¼Pantelleria, Sa ¼ Sardinia. *Between parenthesis, number of samples sourced instrumentally when it is lower than the number of obsidian finds. NAA, neutron activation analysis. **Camps proposes a Lipari origin for these obsidians but their green olive colour, reported in their description by Gruet (in Camps, 1964) suggests rather a Pantelleria origin.

observations/analyses still awaits confirmation by modern investigations. The small numbers per site of obsidian artefacts and often the absence of their typo-technological description seriously limit any hypothesis about the forms and mode of introduction of these volcanic glasses on the continent. However, as scarce as obsidian cores may be in their consumption centres (Nicoletti, 1997), their occurrence shows that this raw material was at least partly introduced as preforms, and also possibly as more elaborated débitage products (e.g. flakes, blades and bladelets). The mode of circulation of obsidian remains unknown. Thus, it is unclear at the moment whether Pantellerian obsidians were acquired through specific expeditions from the continent, by a form of ‘foraging seascapes’

Table 4 14 C ages of the Doukanet el Khoutifa and Kef Hamda sites. Site

Kef Hamda

Stratigraphic Lab* unit

Unknown Unknown Doukanet US 2 el Khoutifa US 1 US 1 US 1 US 1

Mc 1714 Mc 1713 MC 828 MC 825 MC 833 MC 834 MC 835

Nature

14

C Dating Age cal 2s BC

Age BP Helix Charcoal Charcoal Helix Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

7610 7445 6750 6240 6150 6100 6000

þ þ þ þ þ þ þ

165 125 200 100 100 100 100

7001 6559 6021 5466 5317 5297 5209

      

6079 6049 5317 4946 4838 4792 4689

(Barker, 2005), or more indirectly, by the way of coastal navigation involving other material goods transfers. Obsidian, due to its mechanical, chromatic and lustre properties, was certainly an attractive material for the Maghrebian communities, which could have in exchange provided Pantellerian groups with flint, absent on their island, among other products. Unfortunately, this hypothesis cannot be substantiated at Pantelleria, as practically all evidence of its pre-second millennium BC (Middle Bronze Age) material culture seems to have been erased as a consequence of subsequent agricultural activities. The oldest village ever identified in the island, at Mursia, is in effect dated to the mid-second millennium cal BC (Tozzi, 1968; Tusa, 1997). The only older pieces of evidence of a human presence are at Bugeber, in the form of a few potsherd fragments of possible Chalcolithic age (Giannitrapani, 1999), at Lago di Venere (not published), and at Punta Fram, several lithic industries which might have to be referred to the early Neolithic (Cattani, pers. comm.), a time of probably still sporadic occupations. Holocene industries in the eastern Maghreb were essentially based on flint, limestone and quartzite, whose primary sources are distributed along the Tell and the Tunisian ‘Dorsale’, the easternmost Atlas belts, and also in the Gafsa region. At SHM-1, limestone and flint represent the main raw materials exploited; they can be found locally for the former and about 70 km westward for the latter. Nearly nothing is known about the status of Maghrebian obsidians. Even if at SHM-1 some specimens were apparently

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S. Mulazzani et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 2529e2537

destined to domestic uses, and following the same types of chaînes opératoires as flints (obsidian represents less than 1& of the lithic industry from the last three levels), it might also be quite possible that, as in other cases related to the central and western Mediterranean diffusion domains, this unusual raw material was invested by some highly symbolic value (e.g. Vaquer, 2007). 6. Summary and conclusion Prior to the present work, the rare data published on the provenances of eastern Maghrebian obsidians were mainly based on their optical appearance. This was sufficient to demonstrate that the Pantellerian obsidians, easily distinguished according to their unique greenish colour, were almost the only ones to have reached the African continent. The only other source suspected, for the obsidians of three Algerian sites, was Lipari. However, for two of these sites, this attribution, made long ago on purely visual criteria, ought to be confirmed by an instrumental determination. The presence of Lipari and Pantelleria obsidians in this region of the African continent is, however, not to be unexpected, as both are represented in western Sicily and Malta since the early Neolithic (Cann and Renfrew, 1964; Francaviglia and Piperno, 1987). Our PIXE and SEM-EDS data show that the obsidians of Hergla (SHM-1 and SHM-12) and Mezzouna originate from Pantelleria (Table 2), as those from the yet undated Kerkennah occurrences (Table 3). This aspect confirms the importance of Pantellerian obsidians in the eastern Maghreb. The elemental compositions of obsidians from the two former sites indicate an origin from one or several of the Balata dei Turchi sources, and for the latter (to appear elsewhere), more diversified Pantellerian origins. Our finds at SHM-1 indicate that the southern Mediterranean coast was included from the late seventh millennium BC in the Pantelleria obsidians influence zone. The presence of cores attests that at least part of the obsidians were introduced only as preforms (and possibly unworked blocks?), and various fragments show that at least some knapping was carried out in situ. Unfortunately, not enough materials were found in any cultural level for chaînes opératoire studies. Acknowledgements The authors are indebted to Philippe Moretto, Matthieu Compin (Centre d’Etude Nucléaire de Bordeaux-Gradignan), Thomas Calligaro and the late Joseph Salomon (Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, Paris) at the AIFIRA and AGLAE PIXE facilities, respectively. They are grateful to Ridha Boussofara (Director, Section de Préhistoire, Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunis), for the permission to quote unpublished data in Table 3, Vicenzo Francaviglia (Istituto per le Tecnologie Applicate at Beni Culturali, Roma) for obsidian PAN-BTO, Mounira Harbi-Riahi (Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunis) for having lent us some of the SHM-1 obsidians analysed here and Olivia Munoz (Université de Paris 1, Paris) for the preparation of regional maps. This work benefited from encouragements and fruitful discussions with Colette Roubet (Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris), Maurizio Tosi (Dipartimento di Archeologia, Università di Bologna), and Sebastiano Tusa (Sovrintendenza del Mare della Regione Sicilia). The field work was funded by the Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente (Roma), and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. References Acquafredda, P., Muntoni, I.M., Pallara, M., 2006. La determinazione di provenienza dell’ ossidiana mediante SEMþEDS: caratteristiche della metodica e casi studio dall’ Italia sud-orientale, Materie prime e scambi nella Preistoria italiana. In:

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