OLIVERO: The project analysing the future of olive production systems on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Environmental Management 89 (2008) 75–85 www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

OLIVERO: The project analysing the future of olive production systems on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin$ Leo Stroosnijdera,, Maria Ineˆs Mansinhob, Assunta Maria Palesec a

Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands b Departamento de Economia Agra´ria e Sociologia Rural, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Lisbon, Portugal c Dipartimento di Scienze dei Sistemi Colturali, Forestali e dell’Ambiente, Universita` degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy Received 25 June 2006; received in revised form 2 May 2007; accepted 10 May 2007 Available online 1 November 2007

Abstract From 2003 to 2006, a consortium of six European partners analysed the future of olive production systems on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin. Olive production on such land dates back to pre-Roman times, but the production systems (known by the acronym SMOPS, for ‘‘Sloping and Mountainous Olive Production Systems’’), are under threat. Many are unsustainable environmentally (erosion hazard), socially (exodus of young people) or economically (high labour costs). The OLIVERO research project was possible thanks to a grant of h1.5 million from the European Union, which gives out h2.5 billion in subsidies annually for olive production. An extended survey conducted by the project in five sites in Portugal, Spain, Italy and Greece revealed the diversity and multifunctionality of SMOPS. Four main systems were identified as important for the future: traditional, organic, semi-intensive and intensive. The conceptual framework of OLIVERO involved six phases, ranging from the initial survey up to policy recommendations. In all phases there was intensive contact with stakeholders and institutions. End-users were identified at three levels: local, intermediate and regional, and national/international. This paper presents the highlights of the physical analysis of land and water resources, crop and land management, and economics and policies. Scenario studies gave insight into the possible future: some SMOPS will be gradually abandoned or transformed into nature conservation areas, others will exploit drip irrigation and follow the intensification patterns of agriculture in the valleys, and a third group will continue to be managed more extensively, perhaps augmenting their income with other activities (possibly off-farm) or turning to organic production systems. At the five international OLIVERO meetings held from 2003 to 2006, knowledge, experience and ideas on the future of olive production systems were intensively exchanged. A network was established for ongoing and future cooperation. Two end-user seminars were held in Matera (Italy) and Lisbon. Over 70 scientific papers have been published. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Olive production systems; Mediterranean basin; Sloping land; Socio-economics; Crop management; Erosion; Policies; Scenarios

1. Introduction Olive production on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin predates the Roman period. Many of these so-called Sloping and Mountainous Olive Production Systems $

For more information, see: www.olivero.info.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 317 482446; fax: +31 317 486103.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Stroosnijder), [email protected] (M.I. Mansinho), [email protected] (A.M. Palese). 0301-4797/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.05.025

(SMOPS) production systems are currently under threat. They are unsustainable environmentally (e.g. because of erosion), socially (e.g. because of the exodus of young people) or economically (e.g. because of the high labour costs). This raises questions about the future of such systems and how this future is affected by European Union (EU) policy. It was to answer such questions that a research project on olive production systems on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin started in 2003. Known by the acronym OLIVERO, the project was run by a consortium of six European partners. It terminated in 2006.

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2. Justification of OLIVERO



2.1. Historical development of olive growing on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin

 The origin of olive growing is lost in time. All we know is that it started in the Mediterranean basin. There are three main ways of growing olive trees: (1) on the edges of cultivated land or within a polycultural system; (2) on large areas of flat land; and (3) in sloping and mountainous areas. Various olive production systems on sloping land can be distinguished on the basis of their technology and their natural, economic and social environments. These SMOPS include the traditional system that originated in antiquity. The biggest increase in olive tree plantations on sloping land occurred at the transition from the 19th to the 20th century. With the technology current at that time, neither irrigation nor large-scale mechanisation were possible on the slopes. Instead, soil- and water-conservation measures like terracing, dry mulching and clean weeding were practised. The most dominant feature of the Mediterranean ecosystem is its particular climate: rain falls in autumn and winter, the non-growing season, and large inter-annual variations in water availability are the rule rather than the exception. The conservation and cropping systems that have developed here since antiquity are well adapted to the rainfall pattern. Water is conserved in the topsoil during wintertime, with an eye to its subsequent use in the following cropping season. Another common practice is to store water in deeper layers, out of reach of annual crops. Olive trees can survive the large inter-annual variations in climate thanks to their ability to exploit this stored water (Xiloyannis et al., 1996). The many different opportunities to store water and the high variation in other natural resources have created a multitude of complex olive production systems. The future of most of them relies on the economic sustainability of farming, a sustainability that must be seen not only through the analysis of their economic functions but also through the social and environmental functions of olive-growing systems. SMOPS will change over time: some will be abandoned while others will be intensified with irrigation and new technologies. Some have become organic production systems. 2.2. Degradation of SMOPS For centuries, olive orchards on sloping and mountainous land were economically and environmentally sustainable, but recent developments have affected them so badly that in some cases they have become unproductive and environmentally disastrous. Several factors may be responsible for this:



The ongoing migration of rural population to coastal and urban areas.



 



Cheaper seed oils are taking an increasing market share in the Mediterranean, causing per capita consumption of olive oil to fall in countries such as Portugal, Turkey and North Africa except Morocco (Grigg, 2001). EU support to the olive sector (h2 billion per year in the 1990s) in the form of production subsidies favoured farms on flat areas more than hillside farms and did not provide incentives for more sustainable land and water use (De Graaff and Eppink, 1999). Increasing competition from countries outside Europe, where in the last decade production has increased and the area under olives has expanded by 9% compared with 3% in the EU (FAOSTAT, 2001). The start of intensive irrigated olive cultivation on flat land As a result of losing competitiveness, SMOPS are no longer well managed and pose a severe threat to the environment (annual soil erosion losses of 80 t ha1 are no exception and flood hazards are now tremendous) (Laguna, 1989; Lo´pez-Cuervo, 1990; Raglione et al., 2000). These detrimental effects have been enhanced by mechanisation and herbicide use in recent years. The abandonment of SMOPS has sharply increased the incidence of wildfires in southern Europe (Beaufoy, 2001; Allen et al., 2006).

The main contribution of the OLIVERO project is expected to be to avert the consequences of these multiple factors, that is to say, to prevent the degradation of SMOPS. 2.3. Functions of SMOPS Rapid economic development has meant that many of the traditional systems are no longer considered sustainable, at least not under classical free market principles. The disadvantages are lower returns to labour compared with off-farm employment, the increased prices for other farming inputs, and the low prices for most commodities. Nevertheless the other social and environmental functions SMOPs perform create pressure for retaining them and require policy measures. One of the aims of OLIVERO is to enhance the relative importance of the different functions—productive, ecological, social and economic—performed by SMOPS. Aware that there are various types of SMOPS in different countries, in the OLIVERO project each type was analysed (Metzidakis (Ed.), 2004), using a purpose-built typology of SMOPS. Some SMOPS are still strong in productive terms: for instance, those claimed to be semi-intensive and oriented at producing table olives. Others are relevant because of their role in social cohesion in rural areas (representing a target seasonal activity, even for people living in towns). Still others perform ecological functions to preserve biodiversity and reduce the risk of wildfires.

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Some functions (such as the productive function) are easy to quantify, but others can only be estimated qualitatively. The characterisation of SMOPS functions was based on three major sources of information: (i) available statistics; (ii) primary data collected during the socio-economic surveys, and (iii) qualitative data based on the knowledge and experience of local technicians and farmers who had also been asked to help identify SMOPS functions. Land use is no longer determined by classical economic principles alone. New economic principles arise, often under popular pressure, favouring local social values or the environment. The free-market principle does not hold with respect to land use—at least not fully. Land and landscapes are becoming more multifunctional. We distinguished three main functions of SMOPS. 2.3.1. Production The productive function of the SMOPS is variable and strongly affected by pedoclimatic and horticultural factors (cultivar, irrigation, fertilisation, pruning, plant density). The soils on sloping land are mostly shallow and sometimes very poor (low soil organic matter content) because of erosion processes associated with continuous tillage and loss of the superficial layer The climate, typically Mediterranean, is characterised by scant precipitation during the autumn and winter period that cannot be stored effectively in the shallow soils. Furthermore, the high air temperatures accelerate degradation of soil organic matter. In the SMOPS the olive trees are usually rainfed. Although the olive tree is considered to be droughtresistant, able to grow and crop in environments with water shortage, it reacts well to appropriate agronomic practices. Appropriate orchard management (Integrated Pest Management strategies, soil- and water-conservation measures, irrigation, balanced pruning) represents the only way to improve the productive function of SMOPS in terms of the yield of olives and the quality of the olive oil. 2.3.2. Ecological Together with vine and cereal cultivation, SMOPS is one of the most traditional agricultural systems in the Mediterranean region and also an important component of the Mediterranean landscape. The olive tree is striking in appearance, having a big and contorted trunk, often multistemmed. The evergreen canopy can create a colour contrast with the neighbouring vegetation, especially during autumn. In some cases the olive tree is grown on very steep slopes that are otherwise not productive but have been reclaimed by building stone terraces by hand. These terraces, which have become a characteristic feature of the landscape, prevent soil erosion and the loss of water and nutrients (De Graaff and Eppink, 1999). Over the centuries, olive cultivation has created a traditional landscape of small olive orchards scattered over the landscape (‘‘permanent patches of green’’).

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This landscape has survived for a long time, thanks to the growers cultivating olives for productive and economic reasons. In the past, these people played a role in ecological control, preventing land degradation processes (erosion, fires, over-grazing). The cultivated olive orchard represents a complex ecosystem in which the existence of numerous species of the Mediterranean flora ensures ideal habitats for animals (beneficial or harmless arthropod fauna; insects; birds, including migrants; mammals) and guarantees a high level of biodiversity. Compared with other agricultural systems, a cultivated olive grove is considered to be quite a stable ecosystem thanks to its high biodiversity and tolerance of pest damage, and also to its resemblance to the natural Mediterranean ecosystem. (Loumou and Giourga, 2003). 2.3.3. Socio-economic SMOPS are mainly located in the less developed regions within the EU. The boundaries of the Mediterranean region coincide to a large extent with the northernmost limit of olive cultivation. Efforts to strengthen the olive oil sector thus benefit many of these economically deprived rural areas. The areas in question are dry, mountainous, remote and rural, with a GDP only 50–60% of the EU average (ESDP, 1999). In recent years, these areas have suffered severely from depopulation: the remaining residents are aged and are predominantly retired people who are still active in agriculture. They generally grow olives in a traditional, extensive system, whereby soil erosion is kept to a minimum, biodiversity remains important and relatively little use is made of pesticides (Beaufoy, 2001). However, in some cases these elderly producers are no longer competitive; it is therefore expected that olive production will be gradually abandoned. Only the introduction of policy measures can counter this trend. 2.4. Olive growing and the EU Using the information on olive oil and table olive sectors published by the Directorate-General for Agriculture of the European Commission (2004), we are able to give a brief overview of these sectors in recent years. The European Mediterranean region, with 80% of the world acreage of olives, contributes significantly to total olive oil and olive production in the world. So, European olive production is important in global terms. If we consider the 5.4 million ha in Europe under olive trees (exploited by 2.5 million olive growers) we can estimate that 45% of this total is located in Spain, while Italy, Greece and Portugal account for, respectively, 26%, 19% and 10%. Despite large fluctuations from year to year, linked to the uncertainty of climate and alternate-year bearing, world olive oil production rose from 1.8 million MT in the early 1990s to 2.8 million MT in the early 2000s: an increase of more than 50% (IOOC, 2006). After Greece’s accession to the EU (1981) the EU’s share of world oil production grew to 50% (before that it was

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only one third); after Portugal and Spain joined the EU (1986), it reached 80% (Spain is the biggest world olive oil producer). Since the 1990s, an increase in the acreage and yield of olive-growing systems has boosted EU olive oil further. The forthcoming enlargement of the EU will have only a limited impact on EU olive oil production, since only three of the new Member States (Malta, Cyprus and Slovenia) are olive producers and their olive production is low. Consumption of olive oil is increasing. The per capita consumption varies from country to country. In 1990 it was 25 kg in Greece, 12 kg in Italy and Spain was and 6.9 kg in Portugal. Since olive oil tends to be consumed in the producing areas, less than 20% of the world production is exported. The exports are mainly to the USA, Australia, Japan, Canada and Brazil. The EU imports of olive oil (essentially from Tunisia and Turkey) are fairly stable and modest. Although the price of olive oil is four or five times higher than other edible oils, demand has risen steadily, mainly due to other factors. This situation should contribute to a stable production sector in Europe but, as previously mentioned, the economic sustainability of production systems is affected by rising production costs—particularly those linked to labour and mechanisation of harvesting. Olives are also sold as table olives. The world production in 2003 was almost 1.3 million tons, of which about 40% was from the EU. The wide variability of table olives and the development of different products (whole, pitted, sliced, stuffed) contributes to the product diversification and has led to the record growth in the table olives sector. There is a close link between the table olive and olive oil market, due to the fact that most varieties can be used either for table olives or for oil. Though the EU is the biggest exporter of olives in the world (accounting for 48% of all trade), it is also a major importer of table olives, being second only to the USA. 2.5. What is the future of SMOPS? The traditional production system with inherent water conservation is no longer viable under the present-day economic situation. The system could, however, be viable if its social and environmental value were taken into account, or if other sectors of the economy were to value the traditional production system. The following major trends can be expected in SMOPS: (i) some SMOPS will be gradually abandoned or transformed into nature conservation areas; (ii) some will exploit drip irrigation and follow the intensification patterns of agriculture in the valleys, and (iii) some will continue to be managed in a more extensive way, maybe augmenting income with other activities (possibly off-farm) or turning to organic production systems. In all these cases, attention must be paid to sustainable land husbandry, in particular to soil and water conservation.

3. The OLIVERO project (2003–2006) 3.1. Objectives The main aim of the OLIVERO project was to assess the future of SMOPS. The project set out to improve the rural population’s quality of life and their utilisation of the natural resources of land and water in the sloping and mountainous areas of southern Europe currently used for olive orchards. To achieve this, the following specific targets were pursued together with end-users:









Defining SMOPS based on an inventory: A characterisation of the state of the soil and water resources within the sloping and mountainous olive production systems and the degree of land degradation under current farming practices. Analysis of socio-economic development in target SMOPS: The socio-economic situation of olive farmers, the production costs and the feasibility of interventions, and the actual and likely future policies. Technological packages for land remaining under olives and alternatives for other land use: Testing of alternative crop, soil and water management systems for optimal production and conservation of the natural resource base of the SMOPS. Developing, with end-users, alternative development pathways and detailed scenarios for SMOPS in relation to regional, national and EU policies. Policy incentives to sustain SMOPS: Recommendations for both farmers and policy makers on key issues related to natural resources management, leading to the sustainability of SMOPS.

3.2. Conceptual framework Fig. 1 indicates the OLIVERO conceptual framework. The route for the search for answers to the questions posed was divided into six work packages, which were interlinked through regular consultation with stakeholders and institutions. The work packages were: WP1 Defining SMOPS and their functions; WP2 Physical analysis and land and water resources; WP3 Crop and land management; WP4 Economics and policies; WP5 Scenario development; and WP6 Extension and policy recommendations. 3.2. Project partners The six partners in the OLIVERO project were: Wageningen University in the Netherlands (coordination); Instituto de agricultura sostenible in Cordoba Spain; Centro de investigacion y formacion agrarian in Granada Spain; Universita` degli studi della Basilicata in Potenza Italy, Institute of olive tree and subtropical plants in Chania Greece and Universidade tecnica de Lisboa in Lisbon Portugal. For descriptions of the institutes, see www.olivero.info.

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3.3. Research areas In addition to a number of country-wide data collections, five areas were selected for intensive study after an

exploratory survey by Fleskens and de Graaff (2003): Tra´sos-Montes area in northern Portugal; Cordoba area in southern Spain; Granada–Jaen area in southern Spain; Basilicata–Campania area in southern Italy and Chania– Rethymnon area in west Crete, Greece. An overview of these locations is given in Fig. 2. 3.4. End-user participation

WP2 Physical analysis and land & Water resources

WP1 Defining SMOPS and their functions

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End-users were consulted in all phases of the project (see also Fig. 1). We distinguished end-users at three spatial levels: local production level (hillside farmers and olivefarmer associations); intermediate level (processing companies—private or cooperative—and traders) and at regional and national/international level (government, nature conservation organisations and the European Union).

WP3 Crop and land management

Stakeholders & Institutions

4. Highlights of OLIVERO results WP6 Extension and policy recommendations

WP4 Economics & policies

4.1. Defining SMOPS and their functions

WP5 Scenario development

Fig. 1. OLIVERO conceptual framework for the future of olive plantation systems on sloping and mountainous land in the mediterranean (SMOPS).

SMOPS was the most important unit of analysis used by the OLIVERO project. All scenarios and end-user recommendations pertained to specific SMOPS. SMOPS were defined as current olive orchards with relatively homogeneous characteristics that extend over areas with a minimum slope of 7%. In each target area, four to six SMOPS were distinguished from the usually large local variety of olive orchard systems, based on such parameters

1

4

2

1 3 5

Vulnerability to water erosion Low Moderate

Research areas 1

Trás-os-Montes

4

Basilicata

2

Córdoba

5

West-Crete

3

Granada-Jaèn

High Very High

Fig. 2. Vulnerability of the Mediterranean basin (after US Department of Agriculture, 1998) and location of the 5 OLIVERO research sites.

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as olive productivity, tree density and structural and management characteristics of the orchard (Fleskens, submitted). To synthesise the project’s findings, cluster analysis was used to regroup the total number of 25 local SMOPS into a typology of four generic categories: traditional, semi-intensive, intensive irrigated and organic. These categories are dealt with individually in the remaining papers in this special issue. Table 1 provides an overview of the main characteristics of each generic SMOPS category, while Table 2 provides an overview of the distribution (in ha and %) of these different SMOPS in the five research areas. All SMOPS were described according to their productive, ecological, economic and social functions, using certain key indicators for each function. In general, traditional SMOPS can be characterised by the relative importance of ecological and social functions. Semiintensive SMOPS perform best on productive and social functions. Intensive irrigated SMOPS have the highest scores for productive and economic functions, and organic SMOPS usually scored well for ecological functions but performed variably on the other functions.

Table 1 Description of generic SMOPS classes Type of SMOPS

Description

Traditional

Low-density plantations (100 trees ha1) of old trees (450 years), sometimes in an irregular pattern, with low yields (1250 kg ha1), low labour and material inputs and usually manual or semi-mechanised harvesting. Some cultural operations such as tillage and pruning are not performed on a regular basis

Organic

Plantations with very variable characteristics, but usually low or intermediate tree densities (100–200 trees ha1), variable yields, high labour input and, most notably, variable levels of organic material inputs. Compost application is typical for this system

Semiintensive

(a) Low input: Plantations with a tree density of 100–150 trees ha1 with variable tree age, mostly in a regular pattern, with an indicative yield level of 2500 kg ha1, intermediate labour input but low material inputs. All cultural operations are performed on a regular basis (b) High input: Plantations with a variable tree density usually with young, productive trees (indication: 30 years), with an indicative yield level of 3750 kg ha1, high labour and material inputs, but usually not irrigated (if irrigated, often supplementary irrigation)

4.2. Physical analysis and land and water resources The current state and rate of land degradation in the respective SMOPS of the target areas were assessed by means of various methods: data from past or ongoing longterm field experiments, measurements of erosion from runoff plots installed by the project, field surveys and modelling studies. Large differences were found within the different target areas and among SMOPS. The factors found to be critical in reducing erosion rates were the

Table 2 Distribution (in ha and %) of different SMOPS in the research areas of the OLIVERO project Area

SMOPS Traditional Semi-int-L Semi-int-H Intensive Organic

Cordoba

Granada

Italy

Greece

Portugal

Total

45 431

36 000 356 000 63 000 86 000

30 000 5000 10 000 15 000 10 000

11 753 22 854

30 000 15 000 3000

30 227 461

3200

153 184 398 854 176 000 131 227 38 827

100 000 25 166

Total

170 597

541 000

70 000

65 295

51 200

898 092

In % Traditional Semi-int-L Semi-int-H Intensive Organic

27 0 59 0 15

7 66 12 16 0

43 7 14 21 14

18 35 0 46 1

59 29 6 0 6

17 44 20 15 4

Total

100

100

100

100

100

100

L ¼ low input; H ¼ high input.

Intensive

Plantations with a high tree density (4200 trees ha1) with young, productive trees (indication: 20 years), with an indicative yield level of 6000 kg ha1, high labour and very high material inputs, in the majority of cases irrigated (dripirrigation).

Source: Fleskens and de Graaff (2006); Fleskens (submitted for publication).

presence of terraces, the number and type of tillage operations and the presence of cover crops during winter. In many SMOPS, cover crops are one of the most promising methods to control erosion. In some project areas they are already applied as an alternative management strategy to the common practice of clean weeding, the conventional method that has repeatedly been shown to result in land degradation that is sometimes disastrous. However, further adoption of cover crops is hampered by the fear that such crops compete for scarce water resources, depressing the yields of the olive trees. The project therefore developed a simulation model (OLIVCROP) to determine optimal dates of cover crop removal for soil conservation and production (Castro and Gomez, 2006). This meets the need to provide the professional end-users with scientific information that allows them to calculate optimal cover crop removal dates. 4.3. Crop and land management A thorough agronomic characterisation was made of the agricultural management practices in the respective SMOPS types, with special reference to tillage and organic

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matter management, crop management and integrated pest management, and soil and water conservation. To this end, published data of experimental research done by all contributing partners was collated. Further details were collected from an agro-socio-economic farm survey (see Section 3.4). Building on the current methods of land husbandry and crop management, and considering the priorities for natural resource conservation (from a scientific as well as a stakeholder perspective), a set of guidelines for good agricultural practice was elaborated for all SMOPS. These will be summarised in the following papers in this special issue that deal individually with the four generic SMOPS classes. The measures for traditional SMOPS (Duarte et al., 2006) focus on the prevention of wildfires and preservation of biodiversity; these issues must also be addressed if SMOPS are abandoned. Semi-intensive SMOPS (Xiloyannis et al., 2006) should pay special attention to soil conservation. Intensive irrigated SMOPS (Metzidakis et al., 2006) should aim to reduce pollution from chemical inputs and make rational use of scarce water resources. Organic SMOPS by definition curb pollution, but should improve their overall environmental performance: for example, in erosion control and biodiversity. 4.4. Economics and policies In order to characterise all project areas socio-economically, over 60 farms in each country took part in an agrosocio-economic farm survey that made it possible to assess farm characteristics, cultural operations details, and the importance of olive farming to the family economy. To be able to predict the future of SMOPS, an overview of their current financial returns is crucial. Technical coefficients such as the prices of inputs and outputs and agricultural operations were therefore collected during the survey. Analyses were done per target area and per SMOPS type, and aggregated to the generic SMOPS types. Producer prices for olive oil and labour wage rates turned out to vary greatly, both between target areas and between SMOPS types. The possibilities for improvements were assessed for each SMOPS type and worked out in feasibility studies. The SMOPS operate in an international policy environment that in recent decades has moulded the olive sector— especially in the European Union, where production subsidies have triggered large changes in the area cropped to olive and in orchard productivity. An overview of the historical development and the current position at the crossroads to transition to a new decoupled subsidy policy illustrates that the OLIVERO project can make an important contribution to the prediction of future developments.

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OLIVERO. On the basis of all previous results, an overview was elaborated of the prospects for each SMOPS. This was done in close consultation with stakeholders. The prospects include a list of external factors that will remain uncertain, a participatory SWOT (Strengths and Weaknesses) analysis, problem trees of key issues, options and objectives and alternative short- and medium-term (respectively, 5 and 25 years) prospects. The qualitative information this yielded was used to elaborate scenarios using two distinct methods: expert opinion and linear programming. Olive experts were invited to present their visions for the future of SMOPS in each target area. Expert opinion was compared with the output of a linear programming model. The LP model considers four typical scenarios, based on market prospects: (a) moderate reduction of support levels (stable market scenario), (b) moderate reduction of support levels with increasing olive oil prices (bright), (c) strong reduction of support levels, increasing olive oil prices and increasing wage rates (bleak), and d) strong reduction of support levels with increasing wage rates (doom). While the bright market scenario shows considerable increases in net income and on the other hand excessive water use, increasing pollution and lower biodiversity, the other scenarios show less drastic changes. Further details can be found in a paper in this special issue. 4.6. Extension Scientists from the five EU countries in the project met five times during the project’s duration. During these meetings there was an intensive exchange of knowledge, experience and ideas on the future of olive production systems. A network for ongoing and future cooperation was established. In conjunction with two project meetings, two public OLIVERO seminars were held: ‘‘The future of olive plantation systems in marginal areas: socio-economic aspects, natural resource conservation and quality production’’ in Matera, Italy in 2004 and ‘‘Future of olive production systems on sloping land’’ in Lisbon, Portugal in 2006. The first meeting focused on the farm-level aspects of SMOPS, whereas the second seminar also considered the policy aspects. In early 2005 an online-survey of the landscape value of olive orchards in the Arribas (riversides) of the Rio Douro Valley in north-east Portugal was conducted on the OLIVERO website. In total, 280 valid entries were registered (Eicher, 2005). In the period 2001–2005, 67 scientific papers and 29 project reports were published. For a complete list, see www.olivero.info. 4.7. Farmer recommendations

4.5. Scenario development As the name of the project suggests, scenario development for the future of SMOPS is the main goal of

Recommendations were made for the four generic SMOPS categories obtained from the cluster analysis (see Section 4.1).

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4.7.1. Traditional orchards (Duarte et al., 2006)







For continuation as traditional orchards, the positive environmental impact on biodiversity, erosion control and landscape value should be maintained by: preserving terraces and other structures; minimum tillage or alternative soil management; pruning trees into traditional shapes; employing traditional harvesting and other management techniques; and minimising the use of chemical inputs. In orchards that have been or are being abandoned, recommended agricultural practices should focus on minimising the risk of wildfire. This can be achieved by eliminating herbaceous soil cover at the end of spring and removing suckers and small shrubs at least every 2 years. Rough pruning of olive trees to prevent the development of a closed canopy will also help, as will keeping terraces and stone bunds free of vegetation and collecting or chopping combustible dry crop residues and woody debris. Low economic sustainability, the reason behind widespread abandonment, could be improved by applying fertiliser to rectify nutrient shortages revealed by leaf and soil analysis and by implementing integrated pest management based on pest monitoring; these practices not only improve productivity, but also reduce production costs. Better marketing of the high-quality traditional product, e.g. by the Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) label, would allow a better price to be obtained. The marketing skills required to achieve this could best be achieved through collective actions, e.g. by involving cooperative mills.

4.7.2. Semi-intensive orchards (Xiloyannis et al., 2006) The recommendations for semi-intensive farmers entail improving economic sustainability while reducing the negative environmental effects of intensification.





The main actions that can be suggested to guarantee the economic viability of semi-intensive systems are irrigation (of low input systems) to increase productivity, adequate marketing (labelling/certification, etc.) to ensure a higher value of the final product, and augmentation of olive areas (buying neighbouring plantations that are being abandoned) to allow easier mechanisation, thereby helping reduce production costs. Negative environmental effects of intensification can be reduced by the following soil and canopy management practices: J C-cycle management in accordance with the carbon balance of the system and use of organic carbon of different origin: use of cover crops, burying of pruning residues, applying manure and compost, and grazing as a means to control erosion, improve soil fertility and hence soil water retention capacity. J Nutrient-cycle management in accordance with the olive trees’ requirements as revealed by leaf and soil

analysis, with the aim to improve yield and quality of production. J Management of the canopy through light annual pruning and harvest at the appropriate time, to increase yield consistency and olive oil quality. J Integrated pest management strategies. These practices also increase economic viability through quality improvement.

4.7.3. Intensive orchards (Metzidakis et al., 2006) Intensive orchards are economically sustainable even without policy support, due to their high productivity. To date, they have benefited from production aid. They have specific problems of environmental sustainability resulting from inefficient fertilisation and irrigation. The high amount of pesticides applied, together with abundant and frequent applications of inorganic fertilisers and herbicides, causes soil quality degradation and water pollution problems. The relatively high soil humidity, low biodiversity and high productivity make the trees susceptible to pests and diseases. The main recommendations to farmers of intensive olive orchards aim to increase environmental sustainability and counter the problems of soil and water pollution, depletion of natural resources and destruction of natural ecosystems. The latter entails adequate fertilisation, pest and irrigation management:





Apply chemical inflows, adjusted to crop needs through pest monitoring and soil and leaf analyses. Integrated production will provide adequate production and minimise the negative impact of these systems on the environment; Increase the efficiency of water use, by means of proper irrigation scheduling tailored to the actual needs of the plants. This process could be facilitated by establishing a system for advising farmers on their irrigation schedules, introducing appropriate agronomic practices and applying salinity management techniques.

4.7.4. Organic systems (Go´mez et al. 2006) To farmers, organic management is associated with low levels of productivity, costly inputs and a price differential that is not always high enough. The economic sustainability of these systems therefore remains dependent on two external factors that organic producers cannot really influence: the level of the corresponding agri-environmental measure and the size of the market composed by consumers willing to pay a premium for this type of olive and olive oil production.



The most important recommendation for these farmers concerns certain interventions that might improve the economic sustainability of organic olive production: J When possible, irrigation is the main intervention to increase productivity;

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Improved marketing can increase the price differential between organic and conventional production; J Combining organic olive production with other agricultural and rural activities (extensive goat and sheep grazing, agrotourism, etc.) can improve household income. As regards environmental sustainability, organic olive growing faces the same erosion risk as other systems do, because mechanised tillage is the most widespread technique for weed control. So, the use of a cover crop during the rainy period should also be recommended for this system.

To minimise fire risk, the olive orchards should be kept free from suckers and small shrubs, particularly in areas where cross-compliance has a reduced impact (for instance, where large contiguous areas or small orchards interspersed with natural vegetation have already been abandoned). The following practices should be applied here by public intervention: a) in areas where nature parks are being created, fire corridors should be established and maintained; b) in areas with no new designation, some rows of trees should be grubbed out. Although cross-compliance regulations do not clearly refer to this, the control of pests and diseases should, whenever possible, be done using biological and physical measures (e.g. IPM), instead of chemical methods. J Cross-compliance rules to enhance good agricultural practices in olive growing cannot be applied unless public or private institutions provide effective extension and control services for doing so.

J



J

4.8. Recommendations to policy makers (Duarte and de Graaff, 2006) 4.8.1. Cap policy change





While the introduction of the Single Payment Scheme (SPS) (EC Reg. 865/2004) initially envisioned additional support for social and environmental purposes, in practice, total decoupling was adopted by almost all the main producing countries. The SPS as implemented lacks equity, as under the new scheme the main beneficiaries of production aid—farmers with the most productive systems—will again receive more. Faced with the decoupling of CAP subsidies equity could be enhanced by reinforcing Rural Development Measures. Indeed, such reinforcement is essential, given the widespread recognition of the environmental and social functions of these non-intensive olive production systems, and if prevention of abandonment is considered a policy objective. After years of stimulating increased production, the present CAP, with the application of the SPS to the olives and olive oil sector, can now help improve olivegrowing practices through cross-compliance rules. Under these rules, only olive producers who maintain their olive orchards in good agricultural condition can benefit from CAP subsidies. In this way, cross-compliance can help to prevent abandonment and help preserve the beneficial environmental functions of olive growing.

4.8.2. Cross-compliance



The details of these rules will differ among countries, but as a general recommendation, and according to the analysis undertaken by the OLIVERO project, the following minimum obligations should be taken into consideration for all SMOPS: J To prevent erosion, there should be a cover crop during the rainy period of the year. Castro and Gomez (2006) have developed a model useful in this context to ensure maximum soil protection while minimising the risk of yield loss; it allows the optimum dates for killing cover crops to be determined.

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4.8.3. Rural development measures Under the 2003 CAP Reform (CEC, 2003), rural development measures are supposed to be reinforced. Some of these measures are particularly relevant to prevent olive growing being abandoned in marginal areas like those analysed by the OLIVERO project. In face of the recent reform of EU Structural Funds, these measures, namely Less Favoured Areas payments, agri-environmental measures and incentives for the modernisation of farms and processing units, are now being redefined by the EU Member States.



Agri-environmental measures (AEM) can be a very useful policy instrument to enhance the environmental and landscape value of SMOPS, particularly of traditional, semi-intensive and organic olive-growing systems. The measures will differ from country to country and in some cases from region to region. As these measures depend on the voluntary participation of the farmers, in order to increase their impact in terms of number of farmers and area covered by AEM contracts, certain actions must be considered. General recommendations to increase impact are the provision of adequate EU and national funds, clear definitions of environmental objectives and obligations, and better publicity and reduced bureaucracy to encourage farmers to apply for AEM contracts. In order to enhance the environmental benefits of olive growing, it is very important to stimulate through adequate AEM: J integrated production management; J organic production; J preservation of terraces on steep slopes; The development of these environmentally friendly production systems is also conditioned by the willingness of consumers to pay a premium price for the final product. So, environmental education of

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consumers should also constitute an important policy intervention. Incentives to modernise: The prevention of abandonment will be closely related to the capacity to increase the productivity and improve the quality of the olive oil produced. Public interventions with this aim are mainly to do with incentives to invest. Incentives to modernise farming and processing facilities should be maintained, as they can have a relevant impact on improving the quality of the final product. Higher quality and better marketing will help reinforce the economic viability of many SMOPS. Incentives can assume different forms, such as loans at reduced interest rates, or investment subsidies. Other ways to enhance the investment capacity of farmers and processing units could be to give small firms access to microcredit, and encourage participation in mutual guarantee societies. Public funding to enhance the investment capacity of farmers and processing units should give priority to projects that have clear market orientation and are based on direct cooperation of agents participating in different stages of the supply chain. This option would assure that the modernisation of processing units would go hand in hand with the improvement of olive-growing agronomical practices that contribute more efficiently to obtaining a better quality and higher market value product.

5. Conclusions The OLIVERO project has analysed the future of olive production systems on sloping land, referred to as SMOPS. On the basis of detailed surveys in the five research sites in the four southern European countries, it distinguished four main types of such SMOPS with their respective features and functions. The next papers in this Special Issue focus successively on these four SMOPS types. Subsequently the project undertook agronomic and physical research to develop alternative technological packages for production and natural resource conservation, to arrive at good agricultural practices. It also analysed the socio-economic situation and the implications of past and new policies. On the basis of these studies, the project undertook scenario studies to determine the likely development of the respective SMOPS (up to the year 2030) for different market situations. This showed that some SMOPS may be subject to abandonment while others may be further intensified or may give way to other, for example, organic production systems. In short, OLIVERO has contributed to the understanding of olive production systems on sloping land and has developed a methodology that can be used to analyse the future of such systems in multi-functional landscapes. Acknowledgements The OLIVERO project was made possible thanks to a research grant (h1.5 million) from the European Union

(Research Project QLK5 CT-2002-01841). We would like to thank European taxpayers for putting their trust into the six partners. We also thank the Technical University of Lisbon (Instituto Superior de Agronomia), which hosted the seminar where the final results obtained in Greece, Italy, Spain and Portugal could be presented to a selection of end-users and evaluators. We also thank all those who have assisted the national teams during the 3 years of the project, particularly our students and assistants who put so much effort into this research.

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