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On origin of delta eutectoid carbide in M2 high-speed steel and its behaviour at high temperature
Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Letters journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mlblue
On origin of delta eutectoid carbide in M2 high-speed steel and its behaviour at high temperature Alexander S. Chaus a,⇑, Martin Sahul b a b
Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Institute of Production Technologies, J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava, Slovak Republic Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Institute of Materials Science, J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava, Slovak Republic
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 20 August 2019 Received in revised form 27 August 2019 Accepted 30 August 2019 Available online 6 September 2019 Keywords: Steels Solidification Delta-eutectoid Carbides EBSD
a b s t r a c t Delta eutectoid can affect mechanical properties of high-speed steels. Nevertheless, the morphology and the origin of the carbide formed in delta eutectoid, as well as its microstructural changes under the effect of high temperatures, have not been completely investigated till now. To overcome it, the morphology and origin of the carbide in the delta eutectoid of M2 steel were thoroughly examined. The results showed that both M2C and M6C carbides could simultaneously form delta eutectoid. During annealing at 1200 °C, M2C decomposed into the mixture of M6C and V-rich carbides. Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The first prototype of modern high-speed steels (HSSs) was developed by Mushet in the latter half of the 19th century [1]. Since that time, there have been many publications in which the microstructure and properties of HSSs have been thoroughly investigated. Despite this, there is a lack of information, particularly, with respect to the products of a delta ferrite solid-state decomposition. It is well known that solidification of HSSs containing up to 1.1% of carbon starts with the precipitation of primary delta ferrite followed by the formation of an austenite through peritectic reaction [2–4]. If the intradendritic residual delta ferrite not entirely consumed by the peritectic reaction, further it decomposes into the mixture of an austenite and carbide, i.e. delta eutectoid [1,3,5–8]. The microstructure of delta eutectoid can affect certain properties of HSSs [5,6]. Nevertheless, the morphology and the origin of the carbide, which forms delta eutectoid, have not been completely investigated till now. A separate colony of delta eutectoid developed in the centre of the primary matrix grain of M2 HSS was shown in one paper only [6]. However, in the presented image its morphology was undistinguishable due to a low magnification. In contrast, extremely fine rod-like morphology of the carbide in the delta eutectoid colony, developed in M2 type HSS, was clearly seen on the micrograph in [3]. But the origin of carbide was not ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.S. Chaus). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126605 0167-577X/Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
identified in both cases, although in the latter one it was reported that the carbide in the eutectoid was probably M6C. However, this was not in line with the observed carbide morphology. As for T1 tungsten-type grade HSS, there is also no consensus on the origin of the carbide precipitated in the d-eutectoid. Most researchers reported that the carbide in the delta eutectoid of the steel was M6C [9,10], which was in contrast to another work where carbide M23C6 of the stoichiometric formula Fe21W2C6 was identified in the delta eutectoid [11]. According to [5] the delta eutectoid included cementite-type carbide. So, the microstructure and the origin of the delta eutectoid carbide is still open question. Moreover, no works have also been reported on the microstructural changes in the delta eutectoid under the effect of high temperatures. Herein, the origin and morphology of carbide in a delta eutectoid of M2 HSS were thoroughly studied. Moreover, microstructure evolution of M2C carbide was investigated to reveal its thermal stability during annealing at 1200 °C. 2. Experimental procedures HSS of AISI M2 type was melted in an induction furnace and cast into the ceramic mould manufactured by lost wax technology using zircon filler and a 30% colloidal silica binder. After casting, annealing was carried out at 1200 °C for 2, 4 and 8 h. The microstructure of the samples was examined employing a scanning electron microscope, equipped with an energy dispersion spectroscopy facility. EBSD measurements were done using a
2
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Fig. 1. (a) Overall microstructure and morphology of (b) M2C and (c) M6C carbides in delta-eutectoid colonies in the studied steel after casting.
Fig. 2. (a, c) EBSD images and (b, d) measured patterns of (a, b) M2C and (c, d) M6C carbides in the microstructure of the studied steel after casting.
3
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Nordlys 2 detector and an AsTec software of the Oxford Instruments. 3. Results and discussion Fig. 1a shows the overall microstructure after casting where delta eutectoid was observed in the matrix primary grains. The delta eutectoid colonies developed into regular oval shapes. Two
types of the carbide morphology were revealed in the delta eutectoid: fine rod-like (Fig. 1b), as a prevailing morphology, and coarser fishbone one (Fig. 1c). To determine the origin of both carbides, EBSD measurements were carried out in situ and the results are presented in Fig. 2. The carbide with the fine rod-like morphology (Fig. 2a) was found to be M2C (Fig. 2b). The carbide of the fish-bone morphology (Fig. 2c) was identified as M6C (Fig. 2d). In both cases the chemical composition of carbides, listed in Table 1, was consis-
Table 1 The chemical composition of carbides in the delta eutectoid of M2 HSS, wt%. Carbide
V
Cr
Fe
Mo
W
After casting M2C, rod-like M6C, fishbone
9.28 3.20
6.57 4.99
21.46 60.82
31.52 13.62
31.17 17.37
After annealing at 1200 °C V-rich carbide M6C
16.89 2.42
4.22 3.07
57.32 30.19
8.52 23.83
13.04 40.18
Fig. 3. (a) SEM image of M2C delta-eutectoid colony and (b–f) EDS elemental maps of the microstructure after casting.
4
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Fig. 4. (a, e) SEM images of M2C delta-eutectoid colony and (b–d, f–h) EDS elemental maps of the microstructure in the studied steel after annealing at 1200 °C for (a–d) 2 h and (e–h) 8 h.
tent with the determined crystallography of the given carbides, as shown for identical eutectic carbides elsewhere [6–8]. In this context, it is worth noting that the simultaneous formation of delta
eutectoid on the basis of two different carbides in the same steel may be probably well explained by the different conditions of the grain boundary wetting by the melt in the certain areas of
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
the microstructure during the peritectic reaction and the further decomposition of the retained delta ferrite into delta eutectoid. The role of the wetting phase transitions in some peritectic and eutectic nonferrous alloys [12–16] as well as in the Fe-based alloys [17] is clear from the above-mentioned papers which are useful in understanding the formation and control of the microstructure in such alloys. It should be emphasised that the thermodynamic stability of both carbides is quite different. M6C is known to be stable carbide, whilst M2C, as a metastable phase, decomposes at high temperatures into the mixture composed of M6C and MC carbides. This decomposition process and its products have been widely investigated for M2C eutectic carbide only [18–23]. In contrast, there is no information about high-temperature behaviour of M2C carbide in the case of a delta eutectoid. Since the decomposition process of M2C eutectic carbide is primarily attributed to the diffusion redistribution of alloying elements occurred at high temperatures [23], SEM image and EDS elemental maps of the delta eutectoid in the initial cast state are shown in Fig. 3. As can be seen, the distribution of vanadium (Fig. 3b) and other alloying elements (Fig. 3d–f) in all carbide particles in the given delta eutectoid colony was uniform in the as cast state. This is not the case for the samples annealed at 1200 °C where primarily segregation of vanadium occurred in the central zone of the delta eutectoid, as shown in Fig. 4a and b for the sample annealed for 2 h. However, the distribution of molybdenum and tungsten remained practically the same like in the as cast state (Fig. 4c and d, respectively). The segregation of vanadium could be attributed to a local precipitation of carbide particles enriched in vanadium that was accompanied by the transformation of the initial M2C into M6C and the coarsening or coalescence of the latter (see Fig. 4a). A chemical composition of both carbides detected by EDS after the annealing and presented in Table 1 was in line with this assumption. It is worth mentioning that the carbide particles enriched in vanadium differ from conventional MC precipitates formed during the decomposition of M2C carbide of eutectic origin [18–23] by lower content of vanadium at the expense of iron. Probably, this can be explained by the significantly finer microstructure of the initial M2C carbide in the delta eutectoid colony compared with that of the eutectic one, which resulted in shorter diffusion distance of iron atoms from the matrix of the delta eutectoid to the V-rich carbide particles precipitated in the matrix. With an increasing time of the annealing the segregation of vanadium in the central zone was getting more pronounced as well as the coarsening of the M6C carbide particles. Fig. 4f shows that 8 h annealing resulted in stronger V segregation than after 2 h (see Fig. 4b) and 4 h annealing that could be primarily related to a larger extent of Vrich carbide precipitation, which occurred in this case in the whole delta eutectoid colony. Consequently, after the longest hightemperature exposure clearly distinguished mixture of M6C (Fig. 4e) with high concentration of molybdenum and tungsten (Fig. 4g and h respectively) and V-rich (Fig. 4f) carbides was formed due to the decomposition of the initial M2C delta eutectoid carbide. 4. Conclusions In summary, the microstructure and the origin of the carbide in the delta eutectoid were thoroughly examined by SEM, EDS and
5
EBSD measurements in situ. The results showed that both M2C and M6C carbides could simultaneously form the delta eutectoid in M2 type HSS during casting. During high-temperature annealing at 1200 °C, M2C decomposed into the mixture of M6C and V-rich carbides thus contributing to the further development of the microstructure of the delta eutectoid that was shown in the literature for the first time. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgements The financial support of the grants from the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic VEGA 1/0747/19 and APVV-16-0057 is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank Mr Matej Bracˇík and Prof. Mária Dománková for technical help with experiments. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126605. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
[14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23]
M. Boccalini, H. Goldenstein, Int. Mater. Rev. 46 (2001) 92–115. H. Fredriksson, Met. Sci. 10 (1976) 77–86. H. Fredriksson, S. Brising, Scand. J. Metall. 5 (1976) 268–275. H. Fredriksson, M. Nica, J. Metall. 8 (1979) 243–253. Y.A. Geller, Tool Steels, fifth ed., Metallurgiya, Moscow, 1983 (in Russian). H.F. Fischmeister, R. Riedl, S. Karagöz, Metall. Trans. A 20A (1989) 2133–2148. A.S. Chaus, M. Bracˇík, M. Sahul, M. Dománková, Vacuum 162 (2019) 183–198. A.S. Chaus, Mater. Sci. Technol. 30 (2014) 1105–1115. H.H. Weigand, E. Haberling, TEW Techn. Ber. 1 (1975) 110–121. H. Fredriksson, J. Stjerndahl, Met. Sci. 16 (1982) 575–584. T.K. Jones, T. Mukherjee, J. Iron Steel Inst. 196 (1970) 90–92. O.A. Kogtenkova, A.B. Straumal, N.S. Afonikova, A.A. Mazilkina, K.I. Kolesnikova, B.B. Straumal, Phys. Solid State 58 (2016) 742–746. B.B. Straumal, A. Korneva, O. Kogtenkova, L. Kurmanaeva, P. Zieba, A. Wierzbicka-Miernik, S.N. Zhevnenko, B. Baretzky, J. Alloy Compd. 615 (2014) S183–S187. B.B. Straumal, W. Gust, D.A. Molodov, Interface Sci. 3 (1995) 127–132. B. Straumal, W. Gust, Mater. Sci. Forum 207 (59) (1996) 207–209. B.B. Straumal, B. Baretzky, O.A. Kogtenkova, A.B. Straumal, A.S. Sidorenko, J. Mater. Sci. 45 (2057) (2010) 2057–2061. O.I. Noskovich, E.I. Rabkin, V.N. Semenov, B.B. Straumal, L.S. Shvindlerman, Acta Metall. Mater. 39 (1991) 3091–3098. H. Fredriksson, M. Hillert, M. Nica, Scand. J. Metall. 8 (1976) 111–122. X.F. Zhou, F. Fang, J.Q. Jiang, W.L. Zhu, H.X. Xu, Mater. Sci. Technol. 30 (2014) 116–122. X.F. Zhou, F. Fang, J.Q. Jiang, W.L. Zhu, H.X. Xu, Mater. Sci. Technol. 28 (2012) 1499–1504. A.S. Chaus, J. Porubski, Met. Sci. Heat Treat. 55 (2014) 583–591. A.S. Chaus, M. Bogachik, P. Uradnik, Phys. Met. Metallogr. 112 (2011) 470–479. A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul, M. Bracˇík, Diffus. Found. 22 (2019) 24–33.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Letters journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mlblue
On origin of delta eutectoid carbide in M2 high-speed steel and its behaviour at high temperature Alexander S. Chaus a,⇑, Martin Sahul b a b
Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Institute of Production Technologies, J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava, Slovak Republic Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Institute of Materials Science, J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava, Slovak Republic
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 20 August 2019 Received in revised form 27 August 2019 Accepted 30 August 2019 Available online 6 September 2019 Keywords: Steels Solidification Delta-eutectoid Carbides EBSD
a b s t r a c t Delta eutectoid can affect mechanical properties of high-speed steels. Nevertheless, the morphology and the origin of the carbide formed in delta eutectoid, as well as its microstructural changes under the effect of high temperatures, have not been completely investigated till now. To overcome it, the morphology and origin of the carbide in the delta eutectoid of M2 steel were thoroughly examined. The results showed that both M2C and M6C carbides could simultaneously form delta eutectoid. During annealing at 1200 °C, M2C decomposed into the mixture of M6C and V-rich carbides. Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The first prototype of modern high-speed steels (HSSs) was developed by Mushet in the latter half of the 19th century [1]. Since that time, there have been many publications in which the microstructure and properties of HSSs have been thoroughly investigated. Despite this, there is a lack of information, particularly, with respect to the products of a delta ferrite solid-state decomposition. It is well known that solidification of HSSs containing up to 1.1% of carbon starts with the precipitation of primary delta ferrite followed by the formation of an austenite through peritectic reaction [2–4]. If the intradendritic residual delta ferrite not entirely consumed by the peritectic reaction, further it decomposes into the mixture of an austenite and carbide, i.e. delta eutectoid [1,3,5–8]. The microstructure of delta eutectoid can affect certain properties of HSSs [5,6]. Nevertheless, the morphology and the origin of the carbide, which forms delta eutectoid, have not been completely investigated till now. A separate colony of delta eutectoid developed in the centre of the primary matrix grain of M2 HSS was shown in one paper only [6]. However, in the presented image its morphology was undistinguishable due to a low magnification. In contrast, extremely fine rod-like morphology of the carbide in the delta eutectoid colony, developed in M2 type HSS, was clearly seen on the micrograph in [3]. But the origin of carbide was not ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.S. Chaus). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126605 0167-577X/Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
identified in both cases, although in the latter one it was reported that the carbide in the eutectoid was probably M6C. However, this was not in line with the observed carbide morphology. As for T1 tungsten-type grade HSS, there is also no consensus on the origin of the carbide precipitated in the d-eutectoid. Most researchers reported that the carbide in the delta eutectoid of the steel was M6C [9,10], which was in contrast to another work where carbide M23C6 of the stoichiometric formula Fe21W2C6 was identified in the delta eutectoid [11]. According to [5] the delta eutectoid included cementite-type carbide. So, the microstructure and the origin of the delta eutectoid carbide is still open question. Moreover, no works have also been reported on the microstructural changes in the delta eutectoid under the effect of high temperatures. Herein, the origin and morphology of carbide in a delta eutectoid of M2 HSS were thoroughly studied. Moreover, microstructure evolution of M2C carbide was investigated to reveal its thermal stability during annealing at 1200 °C. 2. Experimental procedures HSS of AISI M2 type was melted in an induction furnace and cast into the ceramic mould manufactured by lost wax technology using zircon filler and a 30% colloidal silica binder. After casting, annealing was carried out at 1200 °C for 2, 4 and 8 h. The microstructure of the samples was examined employing a scanning electron microscope, equipped with an energy dispersion spectroscopy facility. EBSD measurements were done using a
2
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Fig. 1. (a) Overall microstructure and morphology of (b) M2C and (c) M6C carbides in delta-eutectoid colonies in the studied steel after casting.
Fig. 2. (a, c) EBSD images and (b, d) measured patterns of (a, b) M2C and (c, d) M6C carbides in the microstructure of the studied steel after casting.
3
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Nordlys 2 detector and an AsTec software of the Oxford Instruments. 3. Results and discussion Fig. 1a shows the overall microstructure after casting where delta eutectoid was observed in the matrix primary grains. The delta eutectoid colonies developed into regular oval shapes. Two
types of the carbide morphology were revealed in the delta eutectoid: fine rod-like (Fig. 1b), as a prevailing morphology, and coarser fishbone one (Fig. 1c). To determine the origin of both carbides, EBSD measurements were carried out in situ and the results are presented in Fig. 2. The carbide with the fine rod-like morphology (Fig. 2a) was found to be M2C (Fig. 2b). The carbide of the fish-bone morphology (Fig. 2c) was identified as M6C (Fig. 2d). In both cases the chemical composition of carbides, listed in Table 1, was consis-
Table 1 The chemical composition of carbides in the delta eutectoid of M2 HSS, wt%. Carbide
V
Cr
Fe
Mo
W
After casting M2C, rod-like M6C, fishbone
9.28 3.20
6.57 4.99
21.46 60.82
31.52 13.62
31.17 17.37
After annealing at 1200 °C V-rich carbide M6C
16.89 2.42
4.22 3.07
57.32 30.19
8.52 23.83
13.04 40.18
Fig. 3. (a) SEM image of M2C delta-eutectoid colony and (b–f) EDS elemental maps of the microstructure after casting.
4
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
Fig. 4. (a, e) SEM images of M2C delta-eutectoid colony and (b–d, f–h) EDS elemental maps of the microstructure in the studied steel after annealing at 1200 °C for (a–d) 2 h and (e–h) 8 h.
tent with the determined crystallography of the given carbides, as shown for identical eutectic carbides elsewhere [6–8]. In this context, it is worth noting that the simultaneous formation of delta
eutectoid on the basis of two different carbides in the same steel may be probably well explained by the different conditions of the grain boundary wetting by the melt in the certain areas of
A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul / Materials Letters 256 (2019) 126605
the microstructure during the peritectic reaction and the further decomposition of the retained delta ferrite into delta eutectoid. The role of the wetting phase transitions in some peritectic and eutectic nonferrous alloys [12–16] as well as in the Fe-based alloys [17] is clear from the above-mentioned papers which are useful in understanding the formation and control of the microstructure in such alloys. It should be emphasised that the thermodynamic stability of both carbides is quite different. M6C is known to be stable carbide, whilst M2C, as a metastable phase, decomposes at high temperatures into the mixture composed of M6C and MC carbides. This decomposition process and its products have been widely investigated for M2C eutectic carbide only [18–23]. In contrast, there is no information about high-temperature behaviour of M2C carbide in the case of a delta eutectoid. Since the decomposition process of M2C eutectic carbide is primarily attributed to the diffusion redistribution of alloying elements occurred at high temperatures [23], SEM image and EDS elemental maps of the delta eutectoid in the initial cast state are shown in Fig. 3. As can be seen, the distribution of vanadium (Fig. 3b) and other alloying elements (Fig. 3d–f) in all carbide particles in the given delta eutectoid colony was uniform in the as cast state. This is not the case for the samples annealed at 1200 °C where primarily segregation of vanadium occurred in the central zone of the delta eutectoid, as shown in Fig. 4a and b for the sample annealed for 2 h. However, the distribution of molybdenum and tungsten remained practically the same like in the as cast state (Fig. 4c and d, respectively). The segregation of vanadium could be attributed to a local precipitation of carbide particles enriched in vanadium that was accompanied by the transformation of the initial M2C into M6C and the coarsening or coalescence of the latter (see Fig. 4a). A chemical composition of both carbides detected by EDS after the annealing and presented in Table 1 was in line with this assumption. It is worth mentioning that the carbide particles enriched in vanadium differ from conventional MC precipitates formed during the decomposition of M2C carbide of eutectic origin [18–23] by lower content of vanadium at the expense of iron. Probably, this can be explained by the significantly finer microstructure of the initial M2C carbide in the delta eutectoid colony compared with that of the eutectic one, which resulted in shorter diffusion distance of iron atoms from the matrix of the delta eutectoid to the V-rich carbide particles precipitated in the matrix. With an increasing time of the annealing the segregation of vanadium in the central zone was getting more pronounced as well as the coarsening of the M6C carbide particles. Fig. 4f shows that 8 h annealing resulted in stronger V segregation than after 2 h (see Fig. 4b) and 4 h annealing that could be primarily related to a larger extent of Vrich carbide precipitation, which occurred in this case in the whole delta eutectoid colony. Consequently, after the longest hightemperature exposure clearly distinguished mixture of M6C (Fig. 4e) with high concentration of molybdenum and tungsten (Fig. 4g and h respectively) and V-rich (Fig. 4f) carbides was formed due to the decomposition of the initial M2C delta eutectoid carbide. 4. Conclusions In summary, the microstructure and the origin of the carbide in the delta eutectoid were thoroughly examined by SEM, EDS and
5
EBSD measurements in situ. The results showed that both M2C and M6C carbides could simultaneously form the delta eutectoid in M2 type HSS during casting. During high-temperature annealing at 1200 °C, M2C decomposed into the mixture of M6C and V-rich carbides thus contributing to the further development of the microstructure of the delta eutectoid that was shown in the literature for the first time. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgements The financial support of the grants from the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic VEGA 1/0747/19 and APVV-16-0057 is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank Mr Matej Bracˇík and Prof. Mária Dománková for technical help with experiments. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126605. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
[14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23]
M. Boccalini, H. Goldenstein, Int. Mater. Rev. 46 (2001) 92–115. H. Fredriksson, Met. Sci. 10 (1976) 77–86. H. Fredriksson, S. Brising, Scand. J. Metall. 5 (1976) 268–275. H. Fredriksson, M. Nica, J. Metall. 8 (1979) 243–253. Y.A. Geller, Tool Steels, fifth ed., Metallurgiya, Moscow, 1983 (in Russian). H.F. Fischmeister, R. Riedl, S. Karagöz, Metall. Trans. A 20A (1989) 2133–2148. A.S. Chaus, M. Bracˇík, M. Sahul, M. Dománková, Vacuum 162 (2019) 183–198. A.S. Chaus, Mater. Sci. Technol. 30 (2014) 1105–1115. H.H. Weigand, E. Haberling, TEW Techn. Ber. 1 (1975) 110–121. H. Fredriksson, J. Stjerndahl, Met. Sci. 16 (1982) 575–584. T.K. Jones, T. Mukherjee, J. Iron Steel Inst. 196 (1970) 90–92. O.A. Kogtenkova, A.B. Straumal, N.S. Afonikova, A.A. Mazilkina, K.I. Kolesnikova, B.B. Straumal, Phys. Solid State 58 (2016) 742–746. B.B. Straumal, A. Korneva, O. Kogtenkova, L. Kurmanaeva, P. Zieba, A. Wierzbicka-Miernik, S.N. Zhevnenko, B. Baretzky, J. Alloy Compd. 615 (2014) S183–S187. B.B. Straumal, W. Gust, D.A. Molodov, Interface Sci. 3 (1995) 127–132. B. Straumal, W. Gust, Mater. Sci. Forum 207 (59) (1996) 207–209. B.B. Straumal, B. Baretzky, O.A. Kogtenkova, A.B. Straumal, A.S. Sidorenko, J. Mater. Sci. 45 (2057) (2010) 2057–2061. O.I. Noskovich, E.I. Rabkin, V.N. Semenov, B.B. Straumal, L.S. Shvindlerman, Acta Metall. Mater. 39 (1991) 3091–3098. H. Fredriksson, M. Hillert, M. Nica, Scand. J. Metall. 8 (1976) 111–122. X.F. Zhou, F. Fang, J.Q. Jiang, W.L. Zhu, H.X. Xu, Mater. Sci. Technol. 30 (2014) 116–122. X.F. Zhou, F. Fang, J.Q. Jiang, W.L. Zhu, H.X. Xu, Mater. Sci. Technol. 28 (2012) 1499–1504. A.S. Chaus, J. Porubski, Met. Sci. Heat Treat. 55 (2014) 583–591. A.S. Chaus, M. Bogachik, P. Uradnik, Phys. Met. Metallogr. 112 (2011) 470–479. A.S. Chaus, M. Sahul, M. Bracˇík, Diffus. Found. 22 (2019) 24–33.