- Email: [email protected]
Online Teaching: Challenges for a New Faculty Role
ONLINE TEACHING: CHALLENGES FOR A NEW FACULTY ROLE CHERYL HOLLY, EDD, RN,* TIMOTHY J. LEGG, PHD, RN, CHES,† DALE MUELLER, EDD, RN, CNAA, BC, z AND DEBORAH S. ADELMAN, PHD, RN, CNA, BC, CNS § This article discusses a number of challenges for faculty as they move into online teaching. These challenges involve the use of a constructivist approach in which faculty must function as facilitators or guides enacting transformative experiences with which learners feel confident and supported in working on their own and with each other rather than in more traditional teacher-centered roles. A unique challenge involves the application of classic educational philosophy to this method of teaching. (Index words: Constructivist; Adult learning; Online education; Nursing education; Graduate nursing education) J Prof Nurs 24:254–8, 2008. A 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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HE INCLUSION OF online courses as a critical element in the strategic plans of many universitylevel educational institutions has grown dramatically (Miller & Lu, 2003; Schunk, 2000). Indeed, in 2001, Tang reported that 84% of 4-year public universities were offering online courses, representing 2.2 million college students. Online penetration rates across colleges from 2003 data show that although business programs are the most widespread at 43% of colleges, health professions and related sciences are not far behind at 31% (Allen & Seaman, 2005). It is difficult to establish the current number of online nursing courses because neither the American Association of Colleges of Nursing nor the National League for Nursing currently maintains statistics on the number of nursing programs that offer all or part of their program content using a distance education platform (Anonymous, personal communication, August 17, 2006). However, Oram (n.d.) provided some information on this phenomenon in nursing programs. Using Oram's (n.d.) online search engine, we conducted a search with the preselected terms “Nursing” (“registered nurse training”) ⁎Associate Professor and Director, New Jersey Center for EvidenceBased Practice and School of Nursing, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, NJ. †Assistant Professor, College of Health Sciences, Touro University International, Cypress, CA. ‡Assistant Professor, College of Health and Human Services, School of Nursing, California State University at Dominguez Hills, Carson, CA. §Associate Professor, State University of New York, College of Technology at Delhi, Delhi, NY. Address correspondence to Dr. Holly: UMDNJ-SN, 55 Bergen St., Suite 1132B, Newark, NJ 07107. E-mail: [email protected] 8755-7223/$ - see front matter 254 doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2007.07.003
and “undergraduate associates,” “undergraduate bachelors,” as well as “undergraduate certificate” without indicating any preference as to on-campus requirements. The search yielded 63 colleges/universities that offered registered nurse training. Exploration of these schools found that most online courses use a Web-based learning platform and interactive teaching strategies. Students in these programs usually work asynchronously, at a place and time convenient to them. As a method of instruction, online courses are as much a social experience as a learning experience, and their flexibility has been reported to meet the needs of diverse learners (Clerehan, Turnbull, Moore, Brown, & Tuovinen, 2003; Gulati, 2004; Peters, 2000). The most effective and appropriate underlying pedagogical rationale for online learning among adults is social constructivism, or sociocultural theory, in which learners create shared meanings through collaborative learning activities that integrate new knowledge into their experiences, in which the development of a community of scholars is an additional intended outcome (Gulati, 2004). Such an approach is learner focused and provides a viable and stimulating alternative to traditional pedagogy. Indeed, (Candy, 1991, p. 95) stated that constructivism is closely aligned with the concept of self-direction in its reliance on “active enquiry, independence in the learning task, and individuality in constructing meaning.” Fundamentally, previous learning is viewed as a foundation upon which to transform and modify existing knowledge and expand one's ways of knowing through the acquisition of new knowledge. In other words, learners build upon the meanings associated with their own experiences and understandings and discover new constructs.
Journal of Professional Nursing, Vol 24, No 4 (July–August), 2008: pp 254–258 A 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
CONSTRUCTIVISM AND ONLINE EDUCATION
Constructivism is congruent with the way in which adults learn and offers great potential for the augmentation of self-regulated learning and the development of the metacognitive or reflective thinking skills that underlie such learning and strengthening of the cognitive or critical thinking skills needed for clinical decision making in nursing contexts (Kuiper & Pesut, 2004; Peters, 2000). Such activity is not without its challenges, however. The purpose of this study was to explore the issues faced by online teachers engaging in a new role. Mason (1998) stated that constructivist thought can be enhanced through learner participation in well-thought-out online discussions, shared online activities, online assessments, interactive course materials, and changing the role of the teacher from “a sage to a guide” (p. 4). Herein lies the major challenge: application of a constructivist theoretical framework to an inherently objectivist discipline. Traditionally, nurse educators have relied on the presentation of facts as the primary method of instruction. This objectivist, or behavioral, view assumes that knowledge can be conveyed from teachers to students through lecture, supervised practice, and tightly woven behavioral objectives, which all students must meet. This constitutes what Freire (1972) criticized as the banking concept, in which knowledge is viewed as a gift to be given to students by teachers. In his explanation of the concept of banking, Freire contended that students are merely receptacles in whom to deposit knowledge. The more a student accepted the knowledge deposited, the better student he or she was considered. This method of teaching/ learning was noted to lack creativity and emphasize “teacher-control and learner compliance,” in which conformity is an expected outcome (Gulati, 2004, p. 1). The constructivist discourse, on the other hand, stresses the importance of learner control, collegial learner–teacher relationships, flexibility, and openness in discussions as means of meeting the planned outcomes of the curriculum. In other words, learners assume responsibility and take ownership of their own learning, including any error made. Building an online community of nurse learners able to engage in learning without being worried about making an error and, in fact, learning from error provides a benefit in the move from experienced clinicians to experienced nurse leader-scholars (Gulati, 2004; Peters, 2000), a hallmark of advanced nursing education. Constructivist learners must be unafraid of making mistakes because mistakes are actually the means providing the opportunity for insight into understanding one's own ideas. Indeed, in a health care era in which a blame-free environment is envisioned as ideal, learning from error can only serve to enhance patient safety.
The First Challenge: Working From a Theoretical Foundation One major challenge to overcome in the use of a constructivist epistemology is the growing body of
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criticism that online learning lacks a theoretical framework (De Castell, Bryson, & Jenson, 2002; Phipps & Merisotis, 1999; Thurmond, 2002). Such thinking denies the contributions of classic educational thinkers such as Dewey (1966), Freire (1972), Knowles (1992), Piaget (1937), and Vygotsky (1962, 1978). These visionary educators provided a solid foundation. Piaget, a Swiss professor of psychology and sociology, for example, spent most of his life trying to answer the question, “How does knowledge grow?” He concluded that people learn through the construction of progressively complex logical structures, beginning in infancy and extending through adulthood. Constructivist education is based on this premise of successive knowledge building that increases in complexity as one progresses through each stage (Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, 2004). Dewey (1966), as well, believed learners needed to be able to draw on experiences in constructing new meanings. He advised the importance of freedom and flexibility in education by allowing the expression of neophyte ideas and opinions as an important ingredient in learning to reach what Piaget (1937) deemed to be higher forms of reasoning. In Dewey's view, the standardized transmission of knowledge leaves most learners with abstract ideas or concepts far removed from their own experience. For learning to occur, Dewey believed that there must be a realization that these concepts are simply an instrument for understanding the reality of the world (Hickman, 2005). Vygotsky (1962) advised that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition and that full cognitive development does not occur in the absence of social interaction. He examined the relationship between the cognitive process and the individual's social activities; he is known for his theory of development that focuses on the “zone of proximal development.” According to this theory, learning takes place when learners solve problems beyond their actual developmental level under teacher guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Forman and Cazden (1985, cited in Miller, 1995) observed students in solving collaborative problems. In exercises of problem solving, students first encouraged, supported, and guided each other; they then made conclusions based on evidence and were able to articulate their differing opinions. These researchers believed that new insights could be gained through collaboration and communication with peers. Teachers' support and guidance were fundamental to the process of acquiring new knowledge but not central. Freire (1972) argued that learning involves a multifaceted connection between social life and individual life. In his classic 1972 work, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Freire discussed his experiences with the working class people of Brazil. He noted the way in which these students were looked down upon by educators charged with teaching skills that pertained to their daily work and how this relationship between the “low class” learner and the
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“higher class” educator tainted the learning that took place. Freire contended that “apart from inquiry, apart from the praxis, individuals cannot be truly human. Knowledge emerges only through invention and reinvention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursued in the world, with the world, and with each other” (p. 53). Freire (1972) further posited that it is only through communication that human life can hold meaning. It is impossible for the teacher to think for the student because “authentic thinking” concerned with reality does not take place “in ivory tower isolation, but only in communication” (p. 58). The process of humanization of the student can only take place through “authentic liberation” in which men and women are allowed to reflect on their world in an attempt to transform it. Freire advocated abandoning the banking method of education and instead using the “problem-posting” method, which embodies communication (p. 60). By identifying that meaningful adult learning is based on life experience, Knowles (1992) added some considerations to the constructivist foundation through a set of assumptions about adult learning, which has become known as andragogy. Knowles believed that learning is an encounter connected to a context and characterized adult learners by their independence and self-direction, including their willingness to move from the traditional passivity of pedagogy into more self-directed activities, given the opportunity in a learner-centered classroom. He emphasized that adults have a great deal of life experiences to bring to the learning encounter and that those experiences provide a foundation for additional learning. Adult learners seek relevance from the learning activity, including problem-solving applications for significant and contemporary challenges (Brookfield, 1986). This intrinsic motivation is a stronger and more enduring driver in adults in that it is by choice that adults are engaged in higher education. These characteristics of adult learners are consistent with constructivist approaches to learning in that new learning is built upon—and indeed expands upon—the existing context for learners in support of learning outcomes that expand current knowledge and seek relevant applications in the social context (Knowles, 1980). Constructivism, then, as a theory, endorses an active process in which learner-scholars create new meanings and reconstruct old meanings in a new context. The key points of an online framework for constructivist learning, espoused here, emphasize engaged learners making meaning from an experiential base through active participation in dialogue with others, having the freedom to articulate opposing and fledgling opinions as well as make mistakes, and inventing and reinventing their work through reflection. An overarching principle within this framework is an openness that allows collegiality between teachers and learners so that authentic discourse can take place in an atmosphere of mutual respect and cooperation and in which learners feel a sense of community and educators assume the
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role of a co-learner. Teachers' support and guidance are fundamental, but learners' own intrinsic motivation to learn is paramount.
The Second Challenge: Embracing a New Faculty Role Online educators using a constructivist framework have been referred to as both mediators and pioneers. As a mediator, the constructivist educator works to join the learner and the curriculum in a way that provides meaning for the learner (Gulati, 2004)—to “liberate,” in Freire's words, the learner in making his or her own meanings. As a pioneer, the faculty must give up control over learning, abandon the banking concept, and allow the learner to take the lead (Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001)—to be self-regulated as Knowles advised. In an online environment espousing the tenets of a constructivist paradigm, educators now function as facilitators or guides enacting transformative experiences in which learners feel confident and supported in working on their own and with each other. An atmosphere of trust and risking taking needs to be apparent as learners communicate with each other under the observant facilitator-educator. The educator cannot assume that all learners have the same background knowledge or experiences on which to build new knowledge; therefore, active presence in the online classroom is paramount to make the connections for learners and to provide discovery opportunities to hypothesize, analyze, interpret, problem solve, and predict. The facilitator-educator allows learners to take risks and voice opinions that might not necessarily be a part of the mainstream of traditional thought. Such essential communication and collaboration are foundational to a constructivist framework (Gulati, 2004; Peters, 2000). For example, faculty can establish circles of learning in which students are encouraged at the beginning of the term to actively participate in the evolving dialogue. The facilitator as an active member of the circle can guide the discussion, steer learning in new directions, and introduce new concepts. This implies that the facilitator is actively engaged and present in the classroom. However, facilitation is not the only strength needed by the educator. Subject matter expertise and ability to structure or scaffold learning activities that comes from the educator's own experiences are also necessary (Twomey, 2004). A recent qualitative study involving graduate learners in health and nursing investigated the characteristics of exemplary teaching in an online classroom. The researchers indicated that “exemplary online teachers create a community of inquiry that is comprised of a strong social, cognitive and teaching presence” (Perry & Edwards, 2005, p. 47). To do this, facilitators should be involved in courses about which they are fervent and that mirror their unique knowledge, interests, and expertise. Faculty need to begin to view themselves as educators who have clinical specialty knowledge rather than as
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clinicians who teach. Teaching the discipline of nursing needs to be viewed as an advanced practice role (Ironside & Valiga, 2006) with its own unique theories, procedures, and diagnostics. Scaffolding, which involves talking a learner through a new and unfamiliar territory, is a necessary component of the online teacher's repertoire. When using the method of scaffolding, the teacher highlights a relevant theory while assisting in its application to real or proposed situations. The teacher accomplishes this by formulating and posting questions that require consideration of knowledge in new contexts. Alternatively, by getting students to describe a clinical situation, a teacher can examine their responses for depth of understanding, saliency, and detail and gauge their understanding and level of knowledge (Spouse, 2001). Talking about experiences provides learners with opportunities to advance knowledge and to use what Spouse called “knowledge-in-waiting” to expand knowledge boundaries (p. 516). These questions can be supplemented by Web site links, videotaped minilectures, podcasts, and PowerPoint presentations, which the students are free to use. Graduate nurse learners, in particular, need an open space in which to learn and discuss their experiences in relation to the subject matter at hand as they approach learning from their own experience bank. The discussion of personal as well as professional experiences and the reaction of fellow learners as they seek clarification as well as affirmation, provide hypotheses, and attempt to balance Aristotle's ideal with Plato's reality provide additional facets to a constructivist framework that is ideal for the professional nature of the graduate nurse learner. It is the facilitator's role to point out the theoretical assumptions and frameworks under discussion and to augment the discussion with questions that pose new ways of thinking about old experiences. This is not to advocate for course development that is entirely free floating but rather for courses that allow the learner the freedom necessary to unite new knowledge and old experiences—the essence behind critical thinking. A more formal teaching method should be provided when necessary because it is not within a constructivist framework to allow the student to flounder, lost in a maze of information and conflicting opinions. The idea that students discover and construct meaning from their past suggests that online educators need to be cognizant about how they teach and how successful traditional methods may or may not translate to the online environment. The online environment may cause some discomfort for the educator used to more traditional teaching environments, but this need not be the case because a constructivist educator is one who designs learning experiences that are active and transformative, in which the learner can generate new knowledge and comprehension through focused comments, questions, and suggestions no matter the environs. There is an inherent challenge to the educator's creative abilities as the need to search for learning materials and opportunities that can be accessed online is accelerated
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(Cuellar, 2002). Teacher talk, for example, cannot take center stage within the constructivist framework because teaching an online course means less lecturing and more facilitating (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2000). Learner–learner dialogue and personal reflection on the matters at hand are two of the important ways to accomplish this, in which the teacher, acting as a guide, smoothens the learners' progress. Laurillard (1994) inferred that the constructivist teacher must adapt to each learner's world through feedback on the learner's work and discussion. The learner reflects on that feedback. This takes time, and an increase in online nursing faculty contact hours has been suggested as necessary to the process (Cuellar, 2002). Leaving too little time for reflection leaves the learning process incomplete. In a study of licensed nurses, Teekman (2000) reported that reflective thinking was presented as cognitive activities of “comparing and contrasting phenomena, recognizing patterns, categorizing perceptions, framing, and self-questioning to create meaning and understanding” (p. 1125) and that the nurses in the study used these processes to discover meaningful actions. Dialogue, on the other hand, allows the learner to see an issue from differing perspectives and be able to ask questions and seek clarification, affirmation, and alternatives while building new meanings (Laurillard, 1994). The main activity in a constructivist classroom should be problem solving through dialogue. Learners use methods of inquiry to ask questions, explore a topic, come to conclusions, and revisit or revise those conclusions as the topic is further discussed. In the traditional classroom, students may ask a few questions but would rather listen and write the expected answer as gained from the teacher.
Conclusions Among the purposes of online graduate education in nursing is helping adult learners achieve advanced degrees that would otherwise not be possible because of home, family, and work commitments. The use of the constructivist framework for graduate programs in nursing has the potential to accomplish this goal in such a way that learners are guided to (1) manage the uncertainty and ambiguity in practice rather than focusing on identifying the one right answer (Ironside & Valiga, 2006) and (2) be part of a growing community of scholars who openly discuss old and new ideas and suggest alternatives in an open and trusting environment. As Ironside and Valiga stated: “Teachers (need to) openly admit when they do not know something and raise questions, which may have no answer, for exploration. For instance, teachers and students [need to] explore issues such as ‘when nothing can be done,’ when ‘doing nothing is the best intervention,’ and how nurses determine ‘if/how to intervene when none of the available options are ideal’” (p. 4). Strategies, such as scaffolding, reflection, and dialogue, that emphasize knowledge construction, recognize authentic tasks in a meaningful context, provide case-based learning, and support the building of new knowledge on the foundation
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of old knowledge can be used to devise learning methods in an environment that values the complexity of the real world and meets the tenets of a constructivist epistemology (Cooke & Matarasso, 2005; Jonassen, 1991).
References Allen, I., & Seaman, J. (2005). Growing by degrees: Online education in the United States, 2005. Retrieved August 27, 2006 from http://www.sloan-c.org. American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2000). Distance learning is changing and challenging nursing education. AACN Issue Bulletin. Washington, DC: AACN. Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5, 68–72. Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. London: Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Clerehan, R., Turnbull, J., Moore, T., Brown, A., & Tuovinen, J. (2003). Transforming learning support: An online resource for a diverse student population. Educational Media International, 40, 15–31. Cooke, M., & Matarasso, B. (2005). Promoting reflection in mental health nursing practice: A case illustration using problem-based learning. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 14, 243–248. Cuellar, N. (2002). The transition from classroom to online teaching. Nursing Forum, 37, 5–13. De Castell, S., Bryson, M., & Jenson, J. (2002). Object lessons: Towards an educational theory of technology. First Monday, 7, 24–36. Dewey, J. (1966). Lectures in the philosophy of education. New York: Random House Inc. Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Gulati, S. (2004). Constructivism and emerging online learning pedagogy: A discussion for formal to acknowledge and promote the informal. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Universities Association for Continuing Education—Regional Futures: Formal and Informal Learning Perspectives, Centre for Lifelong Learning, University of Glamorgan. Retrieved June 1, 2006 http://www.leeds. ac.uk/educol/documents/00003562.htm. Hickman, L. A. (2005). A pragmatic view of concepts. Presentation at the 2005 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Center for Dewey Studies Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Ironside, P. M., & Valiga, T. M. (2006). Creating a vision for the future of nursing education: Moving toward excellence through innovation [Guest editorial]. Nursing Education Perspectives, 27, 120–121. Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Evaluating constructivistic learning. Educational Technology, 749, 28–32. Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge Books.
Knowles, M. (1992). Applying principles of adult learning in conference presentations. Adult Learning, 4, 11–14. Kuiper, R., & Pesut, D. (2004). Promoting cognitive and metacognitive reflective reasoning skills in nursing practice: Self-regulated learning theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45, 381–391. Laurillard, D. (1994). Multimedia and the changing experience of the learner. In Ryan M (Ed.), Proceedings of Asia Pacific Information Technology in Training and Education Conference and Exhibition: APITITE 94, (Vol. 1, pp. 19–94). Brisbane, Australia: Asia Pacific Information Technology in Training and Education. Mason, R. (1998). Models of online courses. ALN Magazine, 2, 11. Miller, M. T., & Lu, M. -Y. (2003). Serving non-traditional students in e-learning environments: Building successful communities in the virtual campus. Educational Media International, 40, 163–169. Miller, S. M. (1995). Vygotsky and education: The sociocultural genesis of dialogic thinking in classroom contexts for open-forum literature discussions. Retrieved July 1, 2006, from http://psych. hanover.edu/vygotsky/miller.html. Oram, F. A. (Ed.) (2005). Peterson's guide to four year colleges. (37th ed.). Lawrenceville, NJ: Thompson Peterson's. Perry, B., & Edwards, M. (2005). Exemplary online educators: Creating a community of inquiry. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 6, 46–54. Peters, M. (2000). Does constructivist epistemology have a place in nurse education? Journal of Nursing Education, 39, 166–172. Phipps, R., & Merisotis, J. (1999). What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education. Washington, DC: The Institute for Higher Education Policy. Piaget, J. (1937). The construction of reality in the child. NY: The Macmillan Company. Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective. (3rd ed.). Merrill, NJ: McGraw Publisher. Spouse, J. (2001). Bridging theory and practice in the supervisory relationship: A sociocultural perspective. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33, 512. Tang, T. (2001). Online education: Learning from afar. Retrieved June 24, 2006, from http://www.emarketer.com. Teekman, B. (2000). Exploring reflective thinking in nursing practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31, 1125–1135. Thurmond, V. A. (2002). Considering theory in assessing the quality of Web-based courses. Nurse Educator, 27, 20–24. Twomey, A. (2004). Web-based learning in nursing: Lessons from the literature. Nurse Education Today, 24, 452–458. Vygotsky, L. V. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. V. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Workshop: Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning (2004). Retrieved July 15, 2006, from http://www. thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html.
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HE INCLUSION OF online courses as a critical element in the strategic plans of many universitylevel educational institutions has grown dramatically (Miller & Lu, 2003; Schunk, 2000). Indeed, in 2001, Tang reported that 84% of 4-year public universities were offering online courses, representing 2.2 million college students. Online penetration rates across colleges from 2003 data show that although business programs are the most widespread at 43% of colleges, health professions and related sciences are not far behind at 31% (Allen & Seaman, 2005). It is difficult to establish the current number of online nursing courses because neither the American Association of Colleges of Nursing nor the National League for Nursing currently maintains statistics on the number of nursing programs that offer all or part of their program content using a distance education platform (Anonymous, personal communication, August 17, 2006). However, Oram (n.d.) provided some information on this phenomenon in nursing programs. Using Oram's (n.d.) online search engine, we conducted a search with the preselected terms “Nursing” (“registered nurse training”) ⁎Associate Professor and Director, New Jersey Center for EvidenceBased Practice and School of Nursing, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, NJ. †Assistant Professor, College of Health Sciences, Touro University International, Cypress, CA. ‡Assistant Professor, College of Health and Human Services, School of Nursing, California State University at Dominguez Hills, Carson, CA. §Associate Professor, State University of New York, College of Technology at Delhi, Delhi, NY. Address correspondence to Dr. Holly: UMDNJ-SN, 55 Bergen St., Suite 1132B, Newark, NJ 07107. E-mail: [email protected] 8755-7223/$ - see front matter 254 doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2007.07.003
and “undergraduate associates,” “undergraduate bachelors,” as well as “undergraduate certificate” without indicating any preference as to on-campus requirements. The search yielded 63 colleges/universities that offered registered nurse training. Exploration of these schools found that most online courses use a Web-based learning platform and interactive teaching strategies. Students in these programs usually work asynchronously, at a place and time convenient to them. As a method of instruction, online courses are as much a social experience as a learning experience, and their flexibility has been reported to meet the needs of diverse learners (Clerehan, Turnbull, Moore, Brown, & Tuovinen, 2003; Gulati, 2004; Peters, 2000). The most effective and appropriate underlying pedagogical rationale for online learning among adults is social constructivism, or sociocultural theory, in which learners create shared meanings through collaborative learning activities that integrate new knowledge into their experiences, in which the development of a community of scholars is an additional intended outcome (Gulati, 2004). Such an approach is learner focused and provides a viable and stimulating alternative to traditional pedagogy. Indeed, (Candy, 1991, p. 95) stated that constructivism is closely aligned with the concept of self-direction in its reliance on “active enquiry, independence in the learning task, and individuality in constructing meaning.” Fundamentally, previous learning is viewed as a foundation upon which to transform and modify existing knowledge and expand one's ways of knowing through the acquisition of new knowledge. In other words, learners build upon the meanings associated with their own experiences and understandings and discover new constructs.
Journal of Professional Nursing, Vol 24, No 4 (July–August), 2008: pp 254–258 A 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
CONSTRUCTIVISM AND ONLINE EDUCATION
Constructivism is congruent with the way in which adults learn and offers great potential for the augmentation of self-regulated learning and the development of the metacognitive or reflective thinking skills that underlie such learning and strengthening of the cognitive or critical thinking skills needed for clinical decision making in nursing contexts (Kuiper & Pesut, 2004; Peters, 2000). Such activity is not without its challenges, however. The purpose of this study was to explore the issues faced by online teachers engaging in a new role. Mason (1998) stated that constructivist thought can be enhanced through learner participation in well-thought-out online discussions, shared online activities, online assessments, interactive course materials, and changing the role of the teacher from “a sage to a guide” (p. 4). Herein lies the major challenge: application of a constructivist theoretical framework to an inherently objectivist discipline. Traditionally, nurse educators have relied on the presentation of facts as the primary method of instruction. This objectivist, or behavioral, view assumes that knowledge can be conveyed from teachers to students through lecture, supervised practice, and tightly woven behavioral objectives, which all students must meet. This constitutes what Freire (1972) criticized as the banking concept, in which knowledge is viewed as a gift to be given to students by teachers. In his explanation of the concept of banking, Freire contended that students are merely receptacles in whom to deposit knowledge. The more a student accepted the knowledge deposited, the better student he or she was considered. This method of teaching/ learning was noted to lack creativity and emphasize “teacher-control and learner compliance,” in which conformity is an expected outcome (Gulati, 2004, p. 1). The constructivist discourse, on the other hand, stresses the importance of learner control, collegial learner–teacher relationships, flexibility, and openness in discussions as means of meeting the planned outcomes of the curriculum. In other words, learners assume responsibility and take ownership of their own learning, including any error made. Building an online community of nurse learners able to engage in learning without being worried about making an error and, in fact, learning from error provides a benefit in the move from experienced clinicians to experienced nurse leader-scholars (Gulati, 2004; Peters, 2000), a hallmark of advanced nursing education. Constructivist learners must be unafraid of making mistakes because mistakes are actually the means providing the opportunity for insight into understanding one's own ideas. Indeed, in a health care era in which a blame-free environment is envisioned as ideal, learning from error can only serve to enhance patient safety.
The First Challenge: Working From a Theoretical Foundation One major challenge to overcome in the use of a constructivist epistemology is the growing body of
255
criticism that online learning lacks a theoretical framework (De Castell, Bryson, & Jenson, 2002; Phipps & Merisotis, 1999; Thurmond, 2002). Such thinking denies the contributions of classic educational thinkers such as Dewey (1966), Freire (1972), Knowles (1992), Piaget (1937), and Vygotsky (1962, 1978). These visionary educators provided a solid foundation. Piaget, a Swiss professor of psychology and sociology, for example, spent most of his life trying to answer the question, “How does knowledge grow?” He concluded that people learn through the construction of progressively complex logical structures, beginning in infancy and extending through adulthood. Constructivist education is based on this premise of successive knowledge building that increases in complexity as one progresses through each stage (Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, 2004). Dewey (1966), as well, believed learners needed to be able to draw on experiences in constructing new meanings. He advised the importance of freedom and flexibility in education by allowing the expression of neophyte ideas and opinions as an important ingredient in learning to reach what Piaget (1937) deemed to be higher forms of reasoning. In Dewey's view, the standardized transmission of knowledge leaves most learners with abstract ideas or concepts far removed from their own experience. For learning to occur, Dewey believed that there must be a realization that these concepts are simply an instrument for understanding the reality of the world (Hickman, 2005). Vygotsky (1962) advised that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition and that full cognitive development does not occur in the absence of social interaction. He examined the relationship between the cognitive process and the individual's social activities; he is known for his theory of development that focuses on the “zone of proximal development.” According to this theory, learning takes place when learners solve problems beyond their actual developmental level under teacher guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Forman and Cazden (1985, cited in Miller, 1995) observed students in solving collaborative problems. In exercises of problem solving, students first encouraged, supported, and guided each other; they then made conclusions based on evidence and were able to articulate their differing opinions. These researchers believed that new insights could be gained through collaboration and communication with peers. Teachers' support and guidance were fundamental to the process of acquiring new knowledge but not central. Freire (1972) argued that learning involves a multifaceted connection between social life and individual life. In his classic 1972 work, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Freire discussed his experiences with the working class people of Brazil. He noted the way in which these students were looked down upon by educators charged with teaching skills that pertained to their daily work and how this relationship between the “low class” learner and the
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“higher class” educator tainted the learning that took place. Freire contended that “apart from inquiry, apart from the praxis, individuals cannot be truly human. Knowledge emerges only through invention and reinvention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursued in the world, with the world, and with each other” (p. 53). Freire (1972) further posited that it is only through communication that human life can hold meaning. It is impossible for the teacher to think for the student because “authentic thinking” concerned with reality does not take place “in ivory tower isolation, but only in communication” (p. 58). The process of humanization of the student can only take place through “authentic liberation” in which men and women are allowed to reflect on their world in an attempt to transform it. Freire advocated abandoning the banking method of education and instead using the “problem-posting” method, which embodies communication (p. 60). By identifying that meaningful adult learning is based on life experience, Knowles (1992) added some considerations to the constructivist foundation through a set of assumptions about adult learning, which has become known as andragogy. Knowles believed that learning is an encounter connected to a context and characterized adult learners by their independence and self-direction, including their willingness to move from the traditional passivity of pedagogy into more self-directed activities, given the opportunity in a learner-centered classroom. He emphasized that adults have a great deal of life experiences to bring to the learning encounter and that those experiences provide a foundation for additional learning. Adult learners seek relevance from the learning activity, including problem-solving applications for significant and contemporary challenges (Brookfield, 1986). This intrinsic motivation is a stronger and more enduring driver in adults in that it is by choice that adults are engaged in higher education. These characteristics of adult learners are consistent with constructivist approaches to learning in that new learning is built upon—and indeed expands upon—the existing context for learners in support of learning outcomes that expand current knowledge and seek relevant applications in the social context (Knowles, 1980). Constructivism, then, as a theory, endorses an active process in which learner-scholars create new meanings and reconstruct old meanings in a new context. The key points of an online framework for constructivist learning, espoused here, emphasize engaged learners making meaning from an experiential base through active participation in dialogue with others, having the freedom to articulate opposing and fledgling opinions as well as make mistakes, and inventing and reinventing their work through reflection. An overarching principle within this framework is an openness that allows collegiality between teachers and learners so that authentic discourse can take place in an atmosphere of mutual respect and cooperation and in which learners feel a sense of community and educators assume the
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role of a co-learner. Teachers' support and guidance are fundamental, but learners' own intrinsic motivation to learn is paramount.
The Second Challenge: Embracing a New Faculty Role Online educators using a constructivist framework have been referred to as both mediators and pioneers. As a mediator, the constructivist educator works to join the learner and the curriculum in a way that provides meaning for the learner (Gulati, 2004)—to “liberate,” in Freire's words, the learner in making his or her own meanings. As a pioneer, the faculty must give up control over learning, abandon the banking concept, and allow the learner to take the lead (Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001)—to be self-regulated as Knowles advised. In an online environment espousing the tenets of a constructivist paradigm, educators now function as facilitators or guides enacting transformative experiences in which learners feel confident and supported in working on their own and with each other. An atmosphere of trust and risking taking needs to be apparent as learners communicate with each other under the observant facilitator-educator. The educator cannot assume that all learners have the same background knowledge or experiences on which to build new knowledge; therefore, active presence in the online classroom is paramount to make the connections for learners and to provide discovery opportunities to hypothesize, analyze, interpret, problem solve, and predict. The facilitator-educator allows learners to take risks and voice opinions that might not necessarily be a part of the mainstream of traditional thought. Such essential communication and collaboration are foundational to a constructivist framework (Gulati, 2004; Peters, 2000). For example, faculty can establish circles of learning in which students are encouraged at the beginning of the term to actively participate in the evolving dialogue. The facilitator as an active member of the circle can guide the discussion, steer learning in new directions, and introduce new concepts. This implies that the facilitator is actively engaged and present in the classroom. However, facilitation is not the only strength needed by the educator. Subject matter expertise and ability to structure or scaffold learning activities that comes from the educator's own experiences are also necessary (Twomey, 2004). A recent qualitative study involving graduate learners in health and nursing investigated the characteristics of exemplary teaching in an online classroom. The researchers indicated that “exemplary online teachers create a community of inquiry that is comprised of a strong social, cognitive and teaching presence” (Perry & Edwards, 2005, p. 47). To do this, facilitators should be involved in courses about which they are fervent and that mirror their unique knowledge, interests, and expertise. Faculty need to begin to view themselves as educators who have clinical specialty knowledge rather than as
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clinicians who teach. Teaching the discipline of nursing needs to be viewed as an advanced practice role (Ironside & Valiga, 2006) with its own unique theories, procedures, and diagnostics. Scaffolding, which involves talking a learner through a new and unfamiliar territory, is a necessary component of the online teacher's repertoire. When using the method of scaffolding, the teacher highlights a relevant theory while assisting in its application to real or proposed situations. The teacher accomplishes this by formulating and posting questions that require consideration of knowledge in new contexts. Alternatively, by getting students to describe a clinical situation, a teacher can examine their responses for depth of understanding, saliency, and detail and gauge their understanding and level of knowledge (Spouse, 2001). Talking about experiences provides learners with opportunities to advance knowledge and to use what Spouse called “knowledge-in-waiting” to expand knowledge boundaries (p. 516). These questions can be supplemented by Web site links, videotaped minilectures, podcasts, and PowerPoint presentations, which the students are free to use. Graduate nurse learners, in particular, need an open space in which to learn and discuss their experiences in relation to the subject matter at hand as they approach learning from their own experience bank. The discussion of personal as well as professional experiences and the reaction of fellow learners as they seek clarification as well as affirmation, provide hypotheses, and attempt to balance Aristotle's ideal with Plato's reality provide additional facets to a constructivist framework that is ideal for the professional nature of the graduate nurse learner. It is the facilitator's role to point out the theoretical assumptions and frameworks under discussion and to augment the discussion with questions that pose new ways of thinking about old experiences. This is not to advocate for course development that is entirely free floating but rather for courses that allow the learner the freedom necessary to unite new knowledge and old experiences—the essence behind critical thinking. A more formal teaching method should be provided when necessary because it is not within a constructivist framework to allow the student to flounder, lost in a maze of information and conflicting opinions. The idea that students discover and construct meaning from their past suggests that online educators need to be cognizant about how they teach and how successful traditional methods may or may not translate to the online environment. The online environment may cause some discomfort for the educator used to more traditional teaching environments, but this need not be the case because a constructivist educator is one who designs learning experiences that are active and transformative, in which the learner can generate new knowledge and comprehension through focused comments, questions, and suggestions no matter the environs. There is an inherent challenge to the educator's creative abilities as the need to search for learning materials and opportunities that can be accessed online is accelerated
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(Cuellar, 2002). Teacher talk, for example, cannot take center stage within the constructivist framework because teaching an online course means less lecturing and more facilitating (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2000). Learner–learner dialogue and personal reflection on the matters at hand are two of the important ways to accomplish this, in which the teacher, acting as a guide, smoothens the learners' progress. Laurillard (1994) inferred that the constructivist teacher must adapt to each learner's world through feedback on the learner's work and discussion. The learner reflects on that feedback. This takes time, and an increase in online nursing faculty contact hours has been suggested as necessary to the process (Cuellar, 2002). Leaving too little time for reflection leaves the learning process incomplete. In a study of licensed nurses, Teekman (2000) reported that reflective thinking was presented as cognitive activities of “comparing and contrasting phenomena, recognizing patterns, categorizing perceptions, framing, and self-questioning to create meaning and understanding” (p. 1125) and that the nurses in the study used these processes to discover meaningful actions. Dialogue, on the other hand, allows the learner to see an issue from differing perspectives and be able to ask questions and seek clarification, affirmation, and alternatives while building new meanings (Laurillard, 1994). The main activity in a constructivist classroom should be problem solving through dialogue. Learners use methods of inquiry to ask questions, explore a topic, come to conclusions, and revisit or revise those conclusions as the topic is further discussed. In the traditional classroom, students may ask a few questions but would rather listen and write the expected answer as gained from the teacher.
Conclusions Among the purposes of online graduate education in nursing is helping adult learners achieve advanced degrees that would otherwise not be possible because of home, family, and work commitments. The use of the constructivist framework for graduate programs in nursing has the potential to accomplish this goal in such a way that learners are guided to (1) manage the uncertainty and ambiguity in practice rather than focusing on identifying the one right answer (Ironside & Valiga, 2006) and (2) be part of a growing community of scholars who openly discuss old and new ideas and suggest alternatives in an open and trusting environment. As Ironside and Valiga stated: “Teachers (need to) openly admit when they do not know something and raise questions, which may have no answer, for exploration. For instance, teachers and students [need to] explore issues such as ‘when nothing can be done,’ when ‘doing nothing is the best intervention,’ and how nurses determine ‘if/how to intervene when none of the available options are ideal’” (p. 4). Strategies, such as scaffolding, reflection, and dialogue, that emphasize knowledge construction, recognize authentic tasks in a meaningful context, provide case-based learning, and support the building of new knowledge on the foundation
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of old knowledge can be used to devise learning methods in an environment that values the complexity of the real world and meets the tenets of a constructivist epistemology (Cooke & Matarasso, 2005; Jonassen, 1991).
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