- Email: [email protected]
Optimization of Energy Mix - Nuclear Power and Renewable Energy for Low Emissions Energy Source a Benefit for Generations to Come
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO 2016, 26-28 October 2016, Bucharest, Romania
Optimization of energy mix - Nuclear power and Renewable Energy for low emissions energy source a benefit for generations to come Gabriel Lazaro Pavela*, Andrei Razvan Budua, Dominic Eugeniu Morarua a
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Splaiul independentei 313, Bucharest, Postal code: 060042, Faculty of Power Engineering, Romania
Abstract The paper addresses the general issues concerning nuclear power generation in today’s energy market. Nuclear power with its characteristic generating cycle parameters is common for base load applications but modern operating nuclear power stations are able to vary their load according to the demand. Emissions are one of the most important aspects in power generation and the nuclear power is one of the few low emissions power source. Although nuclear power has at this moment low efficiencies it is a competitive and reliable power source for generations to come. Recent research achievements showed that nuclear energy could be also considered renewable. © 2017 2017The TheAuthors. Authors. Published Elsevier © Published by by Elsevier Ltd.Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy 2016. and Environment and Environment 2016 Keywords: low carbon emissions; reliable; competitive power source; energy market; operation procedure
1. Introduction Two of the most polluting industries, when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions, are considered to be the transport and power. Power generating industry is a complex mixture between high, medium and low emitter technologies, each one having its advantages and disadvantages. Among other technologies, nuclear power is considered to be one of the less CO2 emitters in the world. In the European Union (EU), limitations imposed by various regulations when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions had important impact over technologies allowed and
* Corresponding author. Tel: +4-021-402-9511 E-mail address: [email protected]
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016 doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1092
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
available to be used, transposed directly into an important economic impact. Security of supply is also an important factor that needs to be taken into consideration. Energy mix is an important factor for ensuring security of supply but today’s energy market imposes very high flexibility for power generating units. On the one hand, considering economical aspects, electricity must be provided according to ongoing contracts. On the other hand, from the technological point of view, situation has a high degree of complexity. The newly and highly encouraged technologies like wind, solar, geothermal although are very low CO2 emitters they are very volatile when it comes to actual energy production. This volatility must be compensated with the help of other energy producing technologies present in the energy mix in a specific area. The most difficult situation can be encountered when most of the powers producing technologies are the ones usually used in base loads with low capabilities for ensuring rapid variations. One key aspect when encountering such situation is a good interconnectivity between systems present in different areas or in different countries. Nomenclature EU EC NDC
European Union European Commission Nationally determined contributions
2. European Context In December 2011, European Commission (EC) issued an Energy Roadmap [1] that needed to be adopted by 2050 by EU member states. The Energy Roadmap is focused on the idea of ensuring the “well-being of citizens, industrial competitiveness and a functional society” ensuring in the same time a diverse energy production system, capable of fulfilling these needs. Security of energy supply is a key factor promoted in this roadmap. The roadmap is based on the “Green Paper on the security of energy supply”-November 2009 [2] and later on “Green Paper - A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy”-2006 [3]. Within these documents six strategic pathways were identified that need to be tackled in order to obtain a sustainable development (promotion of energy sources with reduced carbon footprint), competitiveness and security in the power supply (reducing imports, energy mix diversification, etc.). The stipulated pathways were: 1) build-up of an European electricity and natural gas market; 2) security of supply based on a durable, more efficient and more flexible energy mix; 3) an internal energy market able to guarantee the security of supply; 4) an integrated approach when it comes to issues related to climate change; 5) innovation boost; 6) a coherent external policy with respect to energy issues. As deadline for actions foreseen in these documents, the year 2020 was stipulated. The year itself was wisely chosen for the so called 20-20-20 climate and energy package. According to [4], it is a set of binding legislation to ensure the EU meets its climate and energy targets for the year 2020: 20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels); 20% of EU energy from renewable and 20% improvement in energy efficiency. In December 2015 a historic agreement was agreed in Paris. During the 21st Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 21) 195 countries set path to keep temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius this century. After four year negotiations and clear difference between developed and developing countries, the treaty was finally signed. According to [5] following main decisions were agreed: x Reaffirm the goal of limiting global temperature increase well below 2 degrees Celsius, while urging efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees;
413
414
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
x Establish binding commitments by all parties to make “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs), and to pursue domestic measures aimed at achieving them; x Commit all countries to report regularly on their emissions and “progress made in implementing and achieving” their NDCs, and to undergo international review; x Commit all countries to submit new NDCs every five years, with the clear expectation that they will “represent a progression” beyond previous ones; x Reaffirm the binding obligations of developed countries under the UNFCCC to support the efforts of developing countries, while for the first time encouraging voluntary contributions by developing countries too; x Extend the current goal of mobilizing $100 billion a year in support by 2020 through 2025, with a new, higher goal to be set for the period after 2025; x Extend a mechanism to address “loss and damage” resulting from climate change, which explicitly will not “involve or provide a basis for any liability or compensation;” x Require parties engaging in international emissions trading to avoid “double counting;” and x Call for a new mechanism, similar to the Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, enabling emission reductions in one country to be counted toward another country’s NDC. Following the COP 21 conclusions it is strongly believed that nuclear energy will continue to play an important role in the European energy mix along with other low carbon emitters energy producing technologies. 3. Energy mix. Renewable and Nuclear Energy mix represents all power generating technologies available at a certain moment of time in a specific area (which usually lies within a country’s sovereign territory). Each country can decide for itself which energy technology to use according to its needs, according to its financial possibilities and according to natural/geographical or man-made availability of raw materials. Each technology has its advantages and disadvantages. Mixture between all available technologies can ensure the well-being of citizens and also security of supply. In case of renewable power sources (as those considered to be up to now: wind, solar, water) the other power sources present in the energy mix of a country, they must be able to replace them due their high degree of availability volatility in very short time. In April 2016 following a multi-disciplinary research in the field, scientists from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National laboratory published in a special edition of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research [6] a series of important advances in uranium extraction [7]. Basically the procedure is very simple and consists in laying into the seawater some fabrics which have the role of uranium absorbers. These fabrics are deployed for a certain period of time and afterwards removed. In this time uranium ore present in the water is adhering to “trap’s” fibers and later on it is removed with the help of an acid treatment that also has the role of regenerating the fibers. Fiber composition research began in 19190s at Japan Atomic Energy Agency and in 2011 following an initiative from Department of Energy, United States, teams from national laboratories and other research entities developed the fibers so that it can be efficient in retaining uranium particles (as shown in Figure 1 from [6]) and also cost effective. The research in the field reduced the cost of the fibers four times in a period of five years of research. These being said a new perspective arises, the one that nuclear energy could be considered as renewable offering thus a high degree of availability and energy security. Uranium extracted from the water comes from the rocks present on bottom of the sea. Once it is extracted it is considered to be replaced by dissolution of these rocks/land.
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
Fig. 1. Absorbing “net” for Uranium particles [6] One other option is the use of smart grids and a very good interconnection with other regional power grids. Romania has a very balanced energy mix. One can find: hydro power plants, wind, solar, nuclear, biomass, coal, gas and petrol. According to [8], at the end of 2015 Romania reached 3129 MW of installed capacities in wind sector, 1325 MW in the solar sector, more than 70 MW in biomass and more than 2700 MW in hydro power plants. Nuclear sector had a steady 1327 MW. Thus Romania already reached its 20% target of renewable. Despite huge investments in the sector and important incentives offered by Romanian state, according to Figure 2, the share of wind and solar in the total energy supplied, at the end of 2015 was rather low.
Fig. 2. Romania’s energy production (MWh) during 2015 [9] Due to a very balanced energy mix but also due to favorable geographical conditions hydro power plants can successfully cover the wide power variations introduced by wind or solar power sources. As it can be seen in Figure 3, on May 29 2015 the total share of hydropower production was more than 50%. Hydro power plants can easily and fast be started so that they can provide the necessary power.
415
416
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
Fig. 3. Power production on May 29, 2015.[9] From this perspective Romania has an obvious advantage. As nuclear power plants are designed to work for a long period of time (usually for one-two years) without refueling this way of operation can ensure long and safe usage. On the other hand, countries with energy production coming mainly from base-load technologies, like nuclear in France had to adapt. According to [10], about 75% of energy production in France comes from nuclear sector. If it is taken into considerations power consumption variations only during 24 hours one can observe the high degree of versatility (combined with very good inter-regional power grid connection) nuclear power plant have in France. This was achieved with the help of huge investments in research related to nuclear power sector. Also, according to World Nuclear Association [10], France intends to reduce the share of nuclear to 50% by the end of 2025. Supporting this idea, a recent report [11] released on March 2016 revealed that use of renewable energy in France was found on an almost vertical trend line over the least 10 years, reaching the level of 20% by the end of 2014 and more than 23 % by the end of 2015 [12]. As seen in Figure 4, renewable in France were up to 9120 MW wind power generated installed by the end of 2014 and almost 5300 MW installed at the end of same year. This situation imposed even more flexibility to nuclear power plants involved in power production.
Fig. 4. Wind and solar in France 2014 [11]
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
4. Conclusions Power generation in EU is driven by an open market. One of the two aspects dealing with power productions concerns the economical one and the other one deal with technology availability in a specific are. In order to achieve the 20-20-20 target important incentives were given to renewable sector. This lead, in the last decade, to a spectacular increase in building of wind and solar power producing units. This had a major impact over the power grid and on other sources of energy. Two cases were presented. The first was the Romanian one with a balanced energy mix and the second the case of France where more than 75% of energy is produced via nuclear units. In Romania, due to high presence of hydro power plants the variations due to solar and wind power can be rather easy balanced in such way power producing technologies used for base loads could be affected. In France, the trend is to downgrade the share of nuclear to 50% by the end of 2025 and replacement of obsolete nuclear units with renewable power sources. Even so, the energy mix is poor and nuclear units sometimes must be used to balance the energy necessary.. References [1] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=URISERV:em0045&from=EN&isLegissum=true, as of 28.05.2016 [2] http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/energy/external_dimension_enlargement/l27037_en.htm, as of 28.05.2016 [3] http://europa.eu/documents/comm/green_papers/pdf/com2006_105_en.pdf , as of 28.05.2016 [4] http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020/index_en.htm , as of 28.05.2016 [5] http://www.c2es.org/international/negotiations/cop21-paris/summary , as of 28.05.2016 [6] Pacific Northwest National Laboratory http://www.pnnl.gov/news/release.aspx?id=4271 , as of 22.09.2016 [7] Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research http://pubs.acs.org/toc/iecred/55/15#UraniuminSeawater , as of 22.09.2016 [8] http://www.business-review.eu/sidebar-featured/romanias-renewable-investors-struggling-with-financial-pressures-100762 , as of 28.05.2016 [9] http://www.transelectrica.ro/widget/web/tel/sen-grafic/-/SENGrafic_WAR_SENGraficportlet , as of 28.05.2016 [10] http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx , as of 28.05.2016 [11] http://www.rte-france.com/sites/default/files/2015_01_27_pk_rte_2014_french_electricity_report.pdf , as of 28.05.2016 [12] http://www.ambafrance-uk.org/Renewable-energy-production-in-France-rose-23-in-2015 , as of 28.05.2016
417
ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO 2016, 26-28 October 2016, Bucharest, Romania
Optimization of energy mix - Nuclear power and Renewable Energy for low emissions energy source a benefit for generations to come Gabriel Lazaro Pavela*, Andrei Razvan Budua, Dominic Eugeniu Morarua a
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Splaiul independentei 313, Bucharest, Postal code: 060042, Faculty of Power Engineering, Romania
Abstract The paper addresses the general issues concerning nuclear power generation in today’s energy market. Nuclear power with its characteristic generating cycle parameters is common for base load applications but modern operating nuclear power stations are able to vary their load according to the demand. Emissions are one of the most important aspects in power generation and the nuclear power is one of the few low emissions power source. Although nuclear power has at this moment low efficiencies it is a competitive and reliable power source for generations to come. Recent research achievements showed that nuclear energy could be also considered renewable. © 2017 2017The TheAuthors. Authors. Published Elsevier © Published by by Elsevier Ltd.Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy 2016. and Environment and Environment 2016 Keywords: low carbon emissions; reliable; competitive power source; energy market; operation procedure
1. Introduction Two of the most polluting industries, when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions, are considered to be the transport and power. Power generating industry is a complex mixture between high, medium and low emitter technologies, each one having its advantages and disadvantages. Among other technologies, nuclear power is considered to be one of the less CO2 emitters in the world. In the European Union (EU), limitations imposed by various regulations when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions had important impact over technologies allowed and
* Corresponding author. Tel: +4-021-402-9511 E-mail address: [email protected]
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016 doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1092
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
available to be used, transposed directly into an important economic impact. Security of supply is also an important factor that needs to be taken into consideration. Energy mix is an important factor for ensuring security of supply but today’s energy market imposes very high flexibility for power generating units. On the one hand, considering economical aspects, electricity must be provided according to ongoing contracts. On the other hand, from the technological point of view, situation has a high degree of complexity. The newly and highly encouraged technologies like wind, solar, geothermal although are very low CO2 emitters they are very volatile when it comes to actual energy production. This volatility must be compensated with the help of other energy producing technologies present in the energy mix in a specific area. The most difficult situation can be encountered when most of the powers producing technologies are the ones usually used in base loads with low capabilities for ensuring rapid variations. One key aspect when encountering such situation is a good interconnectivity between systems present in different areas or in different countries. Nomenclature EU EC NDC
European Union European Commission Nationally determined contributions
2. European Context In December 2011, European Commission (EC) issued an Energy Roadmap [1] that needed to be adopted by 2050 by EU member states. The Energy Roadmap is focused on the idea of ensuring the “well-being of citizens, industrial competitiveness and a functional society” ensuring in the same time a diverse energy production system, capable of fulfilling these needs. Security of energy supply is a key factor promoted in this roadmap. The roadmap is based on the “Green Paper on the security of energy supply”-November 2009 [2] and later on “Green Paper - A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy”-2006 [3]. Within these documents six strategic pathways were identified that need to be tackled in order to obtain a sustainable development (promotion of energy sources with reduced carbon footprint), competitiveness and security in the power supply (reducing imports, energy mix diversification, etc.). The stipulated pathways were: 1) build-up of an European electricity and natural gas market; 2) security of supply based on a durable, more efficient and more flexible energy mix; 3) an internal energy market able to guarantee the security of supply; 4) an integrated approach when it comes to issues related to climate change; 5) innovation boost; 6) a coherent external policy with respect to energy issues. As deadline for actions foreseen in these documents, the year 2020 was stipulated. The year itself was wisely chosen for the so called 20-20-20 climate and energy package. According to [4], it is a set of binding legislation to ensure the EU meets its climate and energy targets for the year 2020: 20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels); 20% of EU energy from renewable and 20% improvement in energy efficiency. In December 2015 a historic agreement was agreed in Paris. During the 21st Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 21) 195 countries set path to keep temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius this century. After four year negotiations and clear difference between developed and developing countries, the treaty was finally signed. According to [5] following main decisions were agreed: x Reaffirm the goal of limiting global temperature increase well below 2 degrees Celsius, while urging efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees;
413
414
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
x Establish binding commitments by all parties to make “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs), and to pursue domestic measures aimed at achieving them; x Commit all countries to report regularly on their emissions and “progress made in implementing and achieving” their NDCs, and to undergo international review; x Commit all countries to submit new NDCs every five years, with the clear expectation that they will “represent a progression” beyond previous ones; x Reaffirm the binding obligations of developed countries under the UNFCCC to support the efforts of developing countries, while for the first time encouraging voluntary contributions by developing countries too; x Extend the current goal of mobilizing $100 billion a year in support by 2020 through 2025, with a new, higher goal to be set for the period after 2025; x Extend a mechanism to address “loss and damage” resulting from climate change, which explicitly will not “involve or provide a basis for any liability or compensation;” x Require parties engaging in international emissions trading to avoid “double counting;” and x Call for a new mechanism, similar to the Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, enabling emission reductions in one country to be counted toward another country’s NDC. Following the COP 21 conclusions it is strongly believed that nuclear energy will continue to play an important role in the European energy mix along with other low carbon emitters energy producing technologies. 3. Energy mix. Renewable and Nuclear Energy mix represents all power generating technologies available at a certain moment of time in a specific area (which usually lies within a country’s sovereign territory). Each country can decide for itself which energy technology to use according to its needs, according to its financial possibilities and according to natural/geographical or man-made availability of raw materials. Each technology has its advantages and disadvantages. Mixture between all available technologies can ensure the well-being of citizens and also security of supply. In case of renewable power sources (as those considered to be up to now: wind, solar, water) the other power sources present in the energy mix of a country, they must be able to replace them due their high degree of availability volatility in very short time. In April 2016 following a multi-disciplinary research in the field, scientists from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National laboratory published in a special edition of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research [6] a series of important advances in uranium extraction [7]. Basically the procedure is very simple and consists in laying into the seawater some fabrics which have the role of uranium absorbers. These fabrics are deployed for a certain period of time and afterwards removed. In this time uranium ore present in the water is adhering to “trap’s” fibers and later on it is removed with the help of an acid treatment that also has the role of regenerating the fibers. Fiber composition research began in 19190s at Japan Atomic Energy Agency and in 2011 following an initiative from Department of Energy, United States, teams from national laboratories and other research entities developed the fibers so that it can be efficient in retaining uranium particles (as shown in Figure 1 from [6]) and also cost effective. The research in the field reduced the cost of the fibers four times in a period of five years of research. These being said a new perspective arises, the one that nuclear energy could be considered as renewable offering thus a high degree of availability and energy security. Uranium extracted from the water comes from the rocks present on bottom of the sea. Once it is extracted it is considered to be replaced by dissolution of these rocks/land.
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
Fig. 1. Absorbing “net” for Uranium particles [6] One other option is the use of smart grids and a very good interconnection with other regional power grids. Romania has a very balanced energy mix. One can find: hydro power plants, wind, solar, nuclear, biomass, coal, gas and petrol. According to [8], at the end of 2015 Romania reached 3129 MW of installed capacities in wind sector, 1325 MW in the solar sector, more than 70 MW in biomass and more than 2700 MW in hydro power plants. Nuclear sector had a steady 1327 MW. Thus Romania already reached its 20% target of renewable. Despite huge investments in the sector and important incentives offered by Romanian state, according to Figure 2, the share of wind and solar in the total energy supplied, at the end of 2015 was rather low.
Fig. 2. Romania’s energy production (MWh) during 2015 [9] Due to a very balanced energy mix but also due to favorable geographical conditions hydro power plants can successfully cover the wide power variations introduced by wind or solar power sources. As it can be seen in Figure 3, on May 29 2015 the total share of hydropower production was more than 50%. Hydro power plants can easily and fast be started so that they can provide the necessary power.
415
416
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
Fig. 3. Power production on May 29, 2015.[9] From this perspective Romania has an obvious advantage. As nuclear power plants are designed to work for a long period of time (usually for one-two years) without refueling this way of operation can ensure long and safe usage. On the other hand, countries with energy production coming mainly from base-load technologies, like nuclear in France had to adapt. According to [10], about 75% of energy production in France comes from nuclear sector. If it is taken into considerations power consumption variations only during 24 hours one can observe the high degree of versatility (combined with very good inter-regional power grid connection) nuclear power plant have in France. This was achieved with the help of huge investments in research related to nuclear power sector. Also, according to World Nuclear Association [10], France intends to reduce the share of nuclear to 50% by the end of 2025. Supporting this idea, a recent report [11] released on March 2016 revealed that use of renewable energy in France was found on an almost vertical trend line over the least 10 years, reaching the level of 20% by the end of 2014 and more than 23 % by the end of 2015 [12]. As seen in Figure 4, renewable in France were up to 9120 MW wind power generated installed by the end of 2014 and almost 5300 MW installed at the end of same year. This situation imposed even more flexibility to nuclear power plants involved in power production.
Fig. 4. Wind and solar in France 2014 [11]
Gabriel Lazaro Pavel et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 412 – 417
4. Conclusions Power generation in EU is driven by an open market. One of the two aspects dealing with power productions concerns the economical one and the other one deal with technology availability in a specific are. In order to achieve the 20-20-20 target important incentives were given to renewable sector. This lead, in the last decade, to a spectacular increase in building of wind and solar power producing units. This had a major impact over the power grid and on other sources of energy. Two cases were presented. The first was the Romanian one with a balanced energy mix and the second the case of France where more than 75% of energy is produced via nuclear units. In Romania, due to high presence of hydro power plants the variations due to solar and wind power can be rather easy balanced in such way power producing technologies used for base loads could be affected. In France, the trend is to downgrade the share of nuclear to 50% by the end of 2025 and replacement of obsolete nuclear units with renewable power sources. Even so, the energy mix is poor and nuclear units sometimes must be used to balance the energy necessary.. References [1] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=URISERV:em0045&from=EN&isLegissum=true, as of 28.05.2016 [2] http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/energy/external_dimension_enlargement/l27037_en.htm, as of 28.05.2016 [3] http://europa.eu/documents/comm/green_papers/pdf/com2006_105_en.pdf , as of 28.05.2016 [4] http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020/index_en.htm , as of 28.05.2016 [5] http://www.c2es.org/international/negotiations/cop21-paris/summary , as of 28.05.2016 [6] Pacific Northwest National Laboratory http://www.pnnl.gov/news/release.aspx?id=4271 , as of 22.09.2016 [7] Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research http://pubs.acs.org/toc/iecred/55/15#UraniuminSeawater , as of 22.09.2016 [8] http://www.business-review.eu/sidebar-featured/romanias-renewable-investors-struggling-with-financial-pressures-100762 , as of 28.05.2016 [9] http://www.transelectrica.ro/widget/web/tel/sen-grafic/-/SENGrafic_WAR_SENGraficportlet , as of 28.05.2016 [10] http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx , as of 28.05.2016 [11] http://www.rte-france.com/sites/default/files/2015_01_27_pk_rte_2014_french_electricity_report.pdf , as of 28.05.2016 [12] http://www.ambafrance-uk.org/Renewable-energy-production-in-France-rose-23-in-2015 , as of 28.05.2016
417