Organisational forms and entrepreneurship in public transport: classifying organisational forms

JTRP 125

PERGAMON

Transport Policy 6 (1999) 147–157 www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol

Organisational forms and entrepreneurship in public transport Part 1: classifying organisational forms D.M. van de Velde* Department of Transport Economics, Erasmus University, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, Netherlands Received 1 November 1998; received in revised form 1 May 1999; accepted 1 June 1999

Abstract This paper develops two classification frameworks in order to clarify the discussion on regulatory reform in public transport and in order to compare the organisational forms which have appeared during the last 15 years. The concept of levels of planning and control is applied to the supply of public transport services and various forms of organisation are classified such as to allow a positioning of the various real-world organisational forms in relation to ‘pure’ organisational forms. Illustrations of a number of ideal-typical organisational forms are then provided. This also illustrates the various roles competition plays within those organisational forms. q 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Entrepreneurship; Concessioning; Regulatory reform; Public transport

1. Introduction The organisation of local and regional public transport in Europe has been submitted to considerable changes during the last two decades. A common feature of the changes implemented is the growing usage of some form of competition. These can broadly speaking be classified under the headings ‘competition on the road’ and ‘competition off the road’ but the actual organisational forms implemented in the various countries exhibit more variety than suggested by this division. While competition on the road gives operators the possibility to develop services as they like, systems using competition off the road usually prescribe rather strictly which services have to be produced but vary considerably in their implementation. With the exception of Great Britain where free competition on the road, privatisation and deregulation were introduced, Western European countries, where competition has been introduced have moved towards various forms of regulated regimes using competition off the road. Such regimes have now been implemented at a wide scale in Sweden, Denmark and France, while in other countries their usage is either growing (Germany) or planned (The Netherlands). Transport authorities retain (or get) in such regimes all powers to define the transport services, if they so wish. * Tel.: 1 31-10-408-2178; fax: 1 31-10-408-9156. E-mail address: [email protected] (D.M. van de Velde)

This includes the politically important definition of the social function of public transport. Competitive tendering procedures are then used in such regimes to select efficient operators for the realisation of the services that are mostly centrally planned by the authority or its planning company. A main perceived disadvantage of both the authorityowned monopolies and the new competitive tendering regimes based on central planning is the danger that both lack incentives to respond to market needs due to monopolistic tendencies and bureaucratic ossification. On the contrary, a main perceived disadvantage of the deregulation regime (in the version as implemented in Great Britain in 1986) is the danger for an inadequate response to market needs due to a fundamentally different problem: market failure. If route by route tendering systems as used in Scandinavia and London have indeed shown their adequacy in improving productive efficiency, they have however not led to significantly more passengers, even if their performance in this respect seems at a macro level to be better than that of free competition as implemented in the rest of Great Britain (see Mackie and Preston, 1996). Without refuting the importance of implementing mechanisms designed to tackle productive inefficiencies—which themselves often result from regulatory failure—we would like to put forward here that more attention should be paid to the implementation of mechanisms that will reveal true market demand. This is often forgotten, and as regulatory reform in public transport

0967-070X/99/$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0967-070 X( 99)00 016-5

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Fig. 1. Levels of planning and control in public transport.

mostly arises from political concern about growing deficits, this easily results in a wrong discussion where competition off the road is seen to be ‘the’ alternative to competition on the road. Things are more complex than this. Unfortunately mutual knowledge of organisational systems across Europe is limited, both at the level of authorities and operators. This combined with a lack of truly comparable data 1 about performances hampers the mutual learning process. With this defective source of inspiration and a largely unfavourable perception of the British deregulation (often based on scant information), most regulatory reform processes in which European countries have embarked lately have not opted for deregulation but, perhaps unconsciously as in The Netherlands, for more regulation. The policy wording used in that context often suggests the contrary as a larger involvement from the private sector in strictly controlled forms of competition off the road is often unduly called ‘deregulation’ (e.g. in Sweden). This paper will develop two classification frameworks in order to clarify the discussion on regulatory reform in public transport and in order to allow the comparison of the various 1 The European Commission (1996), recognising this problem, has attempted to ease it by measures originally presented in a Green Paper that—with its sibylline title “The Citizen’s Network”—was aiming at the exchange of successful practices. This move, resulting partly from the Commission’s concern that the quality of its Trans-European Networks (TEN’s) will depend on the quality of local transport at the nodes and terminals, is however seen by some as an infringement upon the principle of subsidiarity formulated in the European Union (Maastricht) Treaty. In a follow-up to that Green Paper, the Commission has set up the European Local Transport Information Service (www.eltis.org) to stimulate information exchange and the Commission is also supporting benchmarking by self-assessment in local and regional passenger transport (see European Commission, 1998). Research on the field of organisational forms has also been sponsored by the European Commission through the ISOTOPE research consortium (1997) in which the author of this paper participated.

organisational forms which have appeared during the last fifteen years. The second section after this introduction will apply the concept of levels of planning and control to the supply of public transport services. The third section will then classify the various forms of organisation of public transport such as to allow a positioning of the various real-world regimes in relation to ‘pure’ regimes. The fourth section will then provide illustrations of a number of idealtypical organisational forms by combining the elements of the two preceding sections. This will illustrate both the conceptual differences between organisational forms chosen in various countries and the role competition plays within those.

2. Levels of planning and control in public transport Public transport is a service provided on a market; i.e. there is a supply, there is a demand and there is a price— even low or subsidised—to be paid to use the service. Similarly to other markets for goods or services and whatever the legal and regulatory setting, a number of decisions will have to be made before passenger transport services can actually be produced and sold. It is generally accepted that planning and control systems within companies can be divided into hierarchically ordered types of activities which differentiate themselves according to the scope of the planning issues addressed and the planning horizon. This can be carried out for public transport just as for other products offered on markets. Based on various theoretical definitions (see, e.g. Anthony, 1988 or Hellriegel and Slocum, 1992), we will use here the following denominations 2 2 This division has been used in van de Velde (1992) in a first attempt to compare organisational forms in public transport. It has subsequently been redeveloped in van de Velde (1997).

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Fig. 2. Organisational forms in public transport.

Strategic level: strategic planning is involved in the formulation of general aims and in the determination in broad terms of the means that can be used to attain these. In short: what do we want to achieve? Tactical level: tactical planning is about making decisions on acquiring means that can help reaching the general aims, and on how to use these means most efficiently. In short: what product can help us to achieve the aims? Operational level: makes sure the orders are carried out, and that this happens in an efficient way. In short: how do we produce that product? Fig. 1 translates these to the public transport sector, without yet referring to any specific legal or regulatory setting. At the strategic level we can find things such as the general aims and service characteristics, which include such topics as the profit and market share aims, the general description of the services that will be provided, the area of supply, the definition of the main target groups and the positioning of the services in relation to substitutes and complements (intermodality). We define this level as being at the core of ‘entrepreneurship’ and the actor responsible for these crucial decisions as the ‘entrepreneur’ as he takes the initiative for the creation and supply of services, thereby takes some form of risk, and as he delineates at least the main characteristics of the services that will be provided. The tactical level translates these aims into detailed service characteristics. The actual ‘design’ of the services takes place at this level. We find here the traditional parameters of public transport such as the definition of the routes, timetable, vehicles and fares, but also ‘softer’ aspects such as the image of the services and the provision of additional services to the passengers (such as catering, news, etc.) At the operational level we find the translation of the tactical aspects into day-to-day practice. This includes the management of the sales staff, of the drivers, of the vehicles

and of the infrastructure to ensure the realisation of the services according to the tactical planning. In opposition to the hardware side, which is the production of vehicle-kilometres, we define the software side as everything that will help to sell the vehicle-kilometres, i.e. transforming them into passenger-kilometres. Seen from a dynamic perspective, there has of course to be a feedback between the decision levels involved, notably based on the feedback provided by (potential) clients. Moreover, there will ideally be a link between the hardware and software side at the tactical level to ensure an adequate evolution of the services, in accordance with market needs and the stated general aims. Fig. 1 does not, for clarity’s sake, focus on these dynamically essential links and feedback of information. It focuses on the way management decisions pertaining to the appearance of public transport services on markets are ordered, whatever the organisational form in place and whatever the extent of public intervention. Up to this point nothing is said neither on the exact aims of the public transport system (strategic level) nor on the identity of the actors involved at the various levels—leaving open whether these are one or several public or private companies, authorities or other actors, nor on the competitive nature of the organisational form. As for any production, one or several actors can be responsible for each of the decisions presented in the table. In general the strategic-tactical-operational chain can be seen as a (series of) principal-agent chain(s). Numerous forms of organisation of this chain of principal(s) and agent(s) are possible and the following classification will clarify this by delineating a number of ‘pure organisational forms’ in relation to which real-world organisational forms can then be positioned. 3. Classification of organisational forms in public transport The tree-diagram presented in Fig. 2 presents a global classification of organisational forms as can be encountered

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in public transport in Europe. The first distinction presented in the diagram is the dichotomy between ‘authority initiative’ and ‘market initiative’. This distinction refers to two fundamentally different categories of organisation of the supply of public transport services and relates closely to the legal framework within which services are meant to appear. In authority initiated regimes, transport authorities have the legal monopoly of initiative in the sense that autonomous market entry is legally impossible and that all production or market entry is the result of a conscious one-sided authority initiative to produce or request the production of services (this is the current legal situation in local passenger transport in France and Belgium). In market initiated regimes, the supply of transport services is based upon the principle of autonomous market entry resulting from a market process with more or less regulatory checks at the entrance (this is the current legal situation in local passenger transport in Great Britain, The Netherlands and Germany). As will become clear from the rest of the presentation of this classification, two axis can be distinguished in the figure: the level of authority intervention in the appearance of public transport services increases from right to left, while from top to bottom the level of authority intervention increases in terms of design and production. It should also be noted that all regimes presented in this figure can make use of competitive tendering to contract out parts or whole of their activities. This stresses that competitive tendering is merely a selection mechanism in the context of outsourcing, it is a method of production available to any initiator of services whatever the organisational form 3, but it is not an organisational form in itself. Concessioning, regulation or direct competition can therefore not be seen as alternatives to competitive tendering. The following paragraphs will describe market initiative regimes and authority initiative regimes. The following paragraphs will illustrate the possibilities for combining both regimes but also the confusions that sometimes appear. 3.1. Market initiative The market initiative regimes in the tree-diagram have as common characteristic that commercially viable services are meant to appear out of autonomous market processes. The role of the authority can be three-fold in these regimes: • Watchdog: the authority can be a watchdog (regulatory authority), controlling and restricting the actions of autonomous companies on the market. Examples of this are the control on predatory behaviour (such as by the Office of Fair Trade in Great Britain), the control on the safety of operations, the granting of a temporary level 3 Contracting out can indeed sometimes be observed in the free competition environment (see, e.g. the experience of Southern Vectis, House of Commons, 1995, p. 227).

of exclusivity and/or the co-ordination of supply (such as the authorisations granted by the German Traffic Commissioners), etc. • Subsidiser: the same or different authorities can grant fare rebates to specific target groups of users and/or subsidise transport companies (e.g. by means of fuel duty rebates). Such subsidies, by means of redistribution of wealth, aim at reaching a different market equilibrium than what would prevail otherwise. These subsidies artificially transform a number of unprofitable markets into profitable markets and thereby increase the number of services that can appear autonomously in market initiative regimes. • Supplier: the authority can itself also play a role in this regime by creating its proper supply. By so doing, the authority too becomes an entrepreneur on the markets considered. This action can be limited to additional services that do not appear out of the market process (non-profitable services) but that are deemed to be socially desirable on the basis of the policy aims of the authority. The realisation of such services can be secured by own means or by means of contracting-out (see further the section on combined regimes). In the extreme the authority can also become the main supplier of services (authorisation system dominated by public companies); a situation that is very common in a number of countries such as Germany and The Netherlands. Market initiative regimes vary from fully competitive open entry regimes to restricted authorisation regimes where the operators are granted a more or less permanent and extensive levels of exclusivity. Open entry regimes, which are only optimal in the absence of market failures, can in principle be based on various reference frameworks such as pure and perfect competition, contestable markets or monopolistic competition. The British bus sector is supposed to work according to the contestability framework but the question is whether the rather strict theoretical conditions are met, the answer here is probably negative. These frameworks will only lead to a first or second best equilibrium if specific theoretical conditions are fulfilled in the markets at stake. A second best equilibrium can be acceptable when the alternative regulatory costs to reach a first best equilibrium are taken into account. Authority intervention is not fully absent even in this regime as a proof of professionality, credit-worthiness and reliability in the form of a licence 4 will usually be required to guarantee the safety and continuity of the service. In authorisation regimes, the market is also the initiator but licensed transport companies have to apply for an 4 The words ‘licence’, ‘authorisation’ and ‘concession’ tend, unfortunately, to have different meanings in each country. For the sake of clarity, we define here the recognition of professional qualifications (together with credit-worthiness and reliability) as a ‘licence’. This should not be confused with an ‘authorisation’ which is the document allowing actual market entry.

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‘authorisation’ before being able to provide services. This then protects them from competition for a period of time and to such an extent as is thought to be desirable by the relevant legislator or regulator. A wide range of possibilities exists here, granting more or less exclusivity to the operator. Regulation could, e.g. state that entry is prohibited if it influences existing services or that entry is only allowed when it improves the existing services (such as an increased frequency while retaining co-ordination). The advantage of such regimes is that the initiative to create or improve services remains on the side of the market, avoiding the requirement for an authority to engage into the creation of services. The danger is, however, that the regulations and protections against competition become so extensive that firms are no longer disciplined by market forces and/or that regulatory capture takes place. This would, e.g. be the case when the incumbent operator benefits from an almost automatic renewal of its authorisation when it is due for renewal; as was the case in Germany until recently. Within this regime a further distinction can be made between those organisational forms where autonomous private companies still dominate the market and those organisational forms where publicly owned companies dominate the market. The first variant tends to become exceptional nowadays outside some more rural areas (Norway, Portugal). The second variant, on the contrary, is the common situation in the Netherlands and Germany, especially in the urban areas, and it was applicable to Britain before the 1986 deregulation. 3.2. Authority initiative Authority initiative regimes have as common characteristic that services can only result from a conscious action by the authority. As such no services can appear as result of simple market forces as no legal provision makes such autonomous entry possible (a legal public monopoly of initiative exists in France). In this sense, the authority is in this regime a monopolistic ‘entrepreneur’ as no services will appear without its action or order. Within these systems, a distinction can be made between regimes based on concessioning and on public ownership. In concessioning the authority selects a (private) company to set-up and operate public transport services (usually a network) and this company is usually owner of its installations and vehicles 5 (an example can be found in France in Rouen). The selection procedure can take place 5 It has to be noted that the word ‘concession’ has been used here in a rather strict sense where the right to exploit is transferred from an authority to a private company that will bring the necessary investments. The case where an authority transfers a right to its own public company has been classified under the heading ‘public ownership’, even if—legally speaking—this may also fall under the term ‘concession’. This is carried out to avoid making a distinction between the various cases where the whole company or its main assets are public (such as production by the internal services of the authority, production by a publicly owned company, and production with public assets by under private management).

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according to various procedures (such as direct selection, negotiations after pre-selection or competitive tendering). Public ownership regimes can be divided into two forms. In public management the vehicles and other installations are owned and run by the authority directly by its own administration (this can be found in smaller French cities, such as in Carcassonne), or through a publicly owned company at arm’s length (this can be found in a few larger French cities, such as in Marseille). Alternatively, in delegated management, the authority makes the assets available to a (private) operator and to whom the authority delegates the management of the network (this can be found in many French cities, such as Lille or Lyon). Here too several procedures can be used. Such arrangements lead to a wide scope of contracts giving more or less operational and commercial risks to the operators and a more or less service design freedom to the operators. These examples illustrate that the statement ‘the authority is the entrepreneur’ in authority initiative regimes does not mean that the actual operator necessarily has no room for own initiatives in term of services provided. It rather refers to the fact that: firstly, the room for initiative is limited to those sets of markets for which the authority has decided to select the operator; and secondly, that the scope for initiative is more or less severely limited by the contract linking the authority to the operator. In many real world cases, the operator has effectively only a limited or no possibility to explore new markets. Besides its role as entrepreneur, the authority retains in this regime too a watchdog task, mainly controlling the safety of operations by means of licensing of operators. This function is often not carried out by the authority responsible for creating the transport services, and there are indeed reasons to think that the organising and controlling tasks should not be carried out by the same authorities. 3.3. Combinations It is important at this point to state that the classification presented up till now is only meant to represent a number of ‘pure organisational forms’. Probably no single real-world example will fully correspond to any of the organisational forms presented in Fig. 2. Therefore, only a careful reading and understanding of the legal, regulatory and organisational frameworks will be a able to deliver the necessary information to position each real-world organisational form in relation to these ‘pure organisational forms’. Intermediate forms may be desirable, are possible and do exist in reality. This is exemplified by the French practice combining what has been called ‘delegated management’ and ‘concessioning’ in Fig. 2. The assets can partly be brought by the authority (such as infrastructures and specific rolling stock) and partly by the operator (such as buses). Parts of the risk related to the investment can be born by the authority rather than fully by the operator, e.g. by guaranteeing a take-over of the investments and the personnel at

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the end of the contract. Parts of the production cost and the revenue risk related to the operations can also be born by the authority. Observation of the real world will also show that several regimes can even co-exist within one area. Market initiative can be complemented by authority initiative but authority initiative can also be complemented by market initiative. Two (British) examples can be given to illustrate this point. In the British bus sector the initiative is left to autonomous accredited entrepreneurs to create public transport services. The local authorities can then intervene as a second order entrepreneur to create additional ‘social’ services (authority initiative), usually additional evening and Sunday services together with services to very low population density areas, which are not provided on a commercial basis by market initiative. A combination in the reverse order is also possible and is encountered in Britain in the railway sector. There the authority (in this case the Office of Passenger Rail Franchising on behalf of the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions) takes the initiative to create railway services by means of tendering (the so-called ‘franchising’). In a second step the existing railway companies (and possibly also entrants) are allowed on the basis of their own initiative to venture into each other’s territory up to a limit of 20% of the total revenues of a franchisee (limited market initiative), this according to the so-called stage two of the ‘moderation of competition’ (Office of the Rail Regulator, 1998). A different version of the combination of market initiative with authority initiative is also present in the current German local passenger transport legislation. According to the principles of that legislation autonomous market entry regulated by a system of authorisation provides for all profitable services. Additional non-profitable services can then be provided but have to be tendered by the responsible transport authority. These legal principles do not always correspond to the reality as various subsidies and crosssubsidies blur the distinction between profitable and nonprofitable services. 3.4. Confusions The authorisation regime when dominated by authorityowned companies is, interestingly, often confused with the public management situation under the authority initiative regimes. These organisational forms do indeed resemble each other as in both case one publicly owned company provides all services. They are however legally speaking fundamentally different. The public company has in the first case only a de facto monopoly position, while it has in the second case a de jure monopoly position. Seen from a dynamic point of view, the monopoly position of the public company in the authorisation case is conditional upon the validity period of the authorisation or upon the preservation of specific protective regulations pertaining to the allocation

procedure for the authorisation. In this sense an entry threat at the moment of the renewal of the authorisation cannot legally be ruled out. In the public management situation on the contrary, no entry threat legally exists. We have been able to observe this confusion, or at least the lack of a clear distinction between both cases, in various discussions on regulatory reform. Policy makers as well as operators often have an understandable tendency to amalgamate both situations as the practice of the authorisation system, where companies are owned and controlled by the authority, such as in most cases in The Netherlands and Germany, has indeed become almost identical to a situation where the authority has the legal initiative. This illustrates how discussions can be hampered by the lack of adequate legal information besides the understanding of the day-to-day functioning of the systems in place. In the context of a discussion on a regulatory reform, the difference between both situations should however carefully be kept in mind as it determines the acceptability and legal feasibility of some reforms. A regulatory reform towards less regulation is, e.g. much easier to realise starting from a legislation based on authorisation than from a legislation based on concessioning. An example of such a confusion is that between the legal position of the French publicly owned transport companies (Re´gies and assimilated) and the position of the German publicly owned transport companies (Stadtwerke and assimilated). The French public transport law (outside the Paris region), which is based upon the authority initiative regime, gives the transport authority the first right to create passenger transport services. In doing this it also gives the authority the right to decide whether these services will be provided directly by the authority (own production or own company with specific public status) or whether the services will be delegated to a different manager (using a specific awarding procedure). The German public transport law, which is based upon the principle of market initiative, gives the first right to create passenger transport services to the market. This does not give any specific legal right of first initiative to authority owned companies. However, the low profitability of those services together with, on the one hand, some features of the German law which until recently strongly protected the incumbents and, on the other hand, a widely used practice of cross-subsidising public transport with the profits of other urban utilities (such as electricity distribution) resulted in a situation were publicly owned companies were not directly threatened by the existing German legal requirement to competitively tender all unprofitable services. This situation may change with the current tendency in Germany to interpret the law in a stricter sense and with the increase of competition in the electricity sector which may soon make crosssubsidisation impossible. This example further illustrates the point made above that an adequate understanding of the existing legal situation is essential for the analysis and design of regulatory reform.

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Fig. 3. Central planning and tendering of the realisation.

4. Examples of organisational forms Using the levels of planning and control as presented above, together with the insights provided by the classification of organisational forms, it becomes possible to draw graphical presentations of both existing and conceptual organisational forms in public transport. 6 As an illustration, a few organisational forms will be presented briefly hereafter. All are closely related to existing organisational forms in Europe or in the rest of the world. The actors involved, their number and the way in which they come to play will depend on the organisational framework in place. In some cases all actors will be part of the same organisation or company (‘in-house’ or integrated production case), in other case contracting-out will be used and the actors involved will be part of different organisations or companies. The following examples will illustrate that the contracting out question is present at two different levels: for the link between the strategic and the tactical level and for the link between the tactical and the operational level. In particular the issue of tendering and contracting between authorities and operators, which has attracted a lot of attention in recent years (the main examples being Scandinavia, London and France), will be clarified by this approach. In all but the last example the authority plays the role of ‘principal’ in the chain of actors. In these organisational forms the authority, which can be called organising transport authority, supplants the market and behaves as an entrepreneur by taking the initiative to ‘create’ transport services. In the last example, the authority is not part of a 6 See van de Velde and van Reeven (1996) for an earlier description of such models, at greater length, in a report on the implementation of tendering in public transport in the Netherlands, written for the Dutch Ministry of Transport.

principal–agent relationship, it is therefore not an organiser or entrepreneur as such. However, if the authority owns a transport company and determines transport supply through this ownership link, it thereby transforms its role into a de facto organising authority. 7 In all cases, but especially in the latter, distinct regulatory authorities can also exist. These are the authorities issuing authorisations and those paying subsidies to users and producers. The democratic relationship which exists between ‘the People’ and the (transport) authority should also be added to the principal-agent chain. This link exists as both organising and regulatory authorities are supposed to act on behalf and represent the interests of ‘the People’. Similar to the case where an authority chooses a transport operator in a tendering procedure, ‘the People’ chooses here an authority, or at least its controlling organs, in a democratic process. The graphical exercise of converting existing regulatory arrangements into comparable grids can serve several purposes. It can be used to allow people who are not familiar with a regime to catch its essential features in a glimpse. It can also be used when designing regimes in order to keep the threads of reasoning well structured. Key for reading the figures: • The first row of each figure indicates which actors are involved in the organisational form described. The nature of each actor is given below its general name. • The second row of each figure indicates by arrow-shaped blocks which control relationship there is between the actors involved. • The lower part of each figure indicates which actors are 7 A municipal authority can, e.g. decide on the actions of its own passenger transport company even if, legally, there is a free market which is regulated by a different authority, such as a regional traffic commissioner (a situation existing in Germany).

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Fig. 4. Central planning at arm’s length and tendering of the realisation.

responsible for the various decisions presented in Fig. 1 by positioning each decision below the responsible actor. A white block indicates that the actor under which the block falls is the main or sole responsible for that decision. A shaded block indicates that the actor concerned also has some competence for the decision located immediately to the left or right. Text between brackets and within a shaded block indicates the type of influence given to the actor considered. The following examples are used in the tables (between quotes here): the ability to ‘discuss’, to make ‘proposals’, to set ‘minimum standards’ by means of contract, to create fare ‘rebates’, to impose vehicle ‘accessibility standards’, to require service ‘co-ordination’ and to require service ‘publication’. • Text located vertically indicates the instrument or selection mechanism used to put in place the relationship represented in the second row of the figure. 4.1. Example 1: central planning and tendering of the realisation The transport authority determines a number of transport and social policy goals which then serve as planning framework for its own transport department. By doing this, the authority states its ‘public service aims’. The transport department is obliged by the authority to contract out the realisation of all (or part of the) planned services to private transport operators using competitive tendering procedures (see Fig. 3). This organisational form, also known as ‘Scandinavian model’ or ‘London model’, can be witnessed amongst other places in the Copenhagen area. In this area several regional and local governments co-operate to form a transport authority (the political board of HT) which has its own

planning body (HT—Hovedstadsomra˚dets Trafikselskab), itself resulting from the split-up of the former regional transport company into a planning division and a bus division. HT organises the tendering for the realisation of the services it has planned. 4.2. Example 2: central planning at arm’s length and tendering of the realisation The transport authority determines a number of transport and social policy goals which then serve as planning framework for its own transport planning company. By doing this, the authority states its ‘public service aims’. This first relationship is organised by a kind of management contract. This contractual relationship is not the result of a selection mechanism based on competition, although this could— conceptually at least—be the case. This separate transport planning company is obliged by the management contract to contract out the realisation of all (or part of the) planned services to private transport operators using competitive tendering procedures (see Fig. 4). This organisational form is akin to what is known as the ‘Scandinavian’ or ‘London model’ with the difference that it includes a better formalisation of the relationship between the strategic and the tactical level by means of a separate planning body itself submitted to a (non-competitive) management contract. Such a organisational form was used in the Malmo¨hus region in Sweden until a recent local authority merger after which the arm’s length relationship between planner and authority disappeared due to the scepticism of one of the merging authorities about this organisational form. 4.3. Example 3: tendering of the realisation with re-design incentives in sub-areas This organisational form is similar to the previous

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Fig. 5. Tendering of the realisation with re-design incentives in sub-areas.

one with the difference that transport operators are given some freedoms to re-design the services in their area of operation and that contracts are organised at the level of small networks (sub-areas) and not at the route level. The definition of the ‘public service aims’ takes place in the same way as in the previous organisational forms. The planning company acting as an agent of the authority only influences the tactical decisions of the operators by pre-determining a ‘minimum level of service’ (which, if set at a high level, limits considerably the freedom of the operators) and an integrated fare system. The redesign freedoms of the operators are limited in order to maintain service integration (correction of market failure to realise network benefits). The planning company sets the fares and carries the revenue risk, taking into account the budget allocated by the transport authority, while incentivising the operator by paying a passenger(-kilometer) based fee (see Fig. 5). This organisational form is similar to the essence of the so-called ‘Adelaide model’ (South Australia), albeit that the real world implementation of this organisational forms in Adelaide was less thorough and ambitious than it potentially could have been. 8

defined in Britain by the Office of Passenger Rail Franchising 9) which organises the tendering of all services, areawise, according to the instructions of the transport authority. The split between the ‘transport department’ of the authority and the tendering agency introduces a relationship at arm’s length but is not strictly necessary. The authority could also set the minimum standards and levels of the service itself, thereby determining the ‘public service obligations’ (see Fig. 6). This organisational form, which was used for the franchising of British Rail, is akin to the French practice for urban public transport networks. However, the distinction between the transport department of the authority and the concessioning agency either does not exist in the French practice or is not as strict as presented in this organisational form. Further, the difference between this organisational form and the practice in urban networks in France is located in the balance of power between operator and authority. While the operator has a rather strong position in negotiating the contract in France, its position is often weaker during the contract as most of its ‘freedoms’ often boil down to being allowed to suggest modifications to the services to the authority.

4.4. Example 4: tendering of the design and realisation (concessioning) This organisational form goes a step further in giving redesign freedoms to the transport operators. These are limited by the minimum standards defined by the concessioning agency (such as the passenger service requirements

8

See Radbone (1997) for more details on the implementation and Cox and van de Velde (1998) for the comments given by a conference workshop on this implementation.

9 It can be argued that the word ‘franchise’ is not the most appropriate here as the common usage of this word refers to commercial brand franchising (fast-food restaurants, hotel chains, retailing, etc.) The so-called ‘franchising of the British railways was characterised by a desire from the Department of Transport to give a substantial level of freedom to the ‘franchisee’ in terms of the definition of product and its marketing. This is exactly the opposite of what happens with the commercial franchises mentioned above; there the product is well defined and the franchisee is not allowed to modify its specifications, he is however encouraged to sell more of the same. We prefer therefore to use the word ‘concession’ in the context defined in this section.

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Fig. 6. Tendering of the design and realisation (concessioning).

4.5. Example 5: free competition with (light touch) regulation In this example, profitable services appear autonomously out of a market process. Some subsidies may indirectly be involved in the appearance of the commercial services (such as compensation of fare rebates for specific target groups, compensation of fuel duties in specific areas, etc.) By these means the authority may achieve some redistribution. Regulation may be needed to correct market failures without necessarily closing off all possibilities for competitive threat and autonomous innovation. Such a ‘light touch’ regulation could be devised to avoid the most negative consequences of free competition which have been observed in Britain. The light re-regulation advocated in the bus sector in Britain, based for example on quality partnerships between operators and authorities, is an example of such a organisational form (see Carr, 1997). Besides anti-predatory

measures, such regulation can include various ‘rules of the game’, such as: • obligations to operate the services registered, to carry passenger according to published fares and timetables, etc.; • provisions for service co-ordination, integrated information and integrated ticketing; • an obligation to use vehicles accessible for prams, handicapped, etc.; • an obligation to use specific fares, to provide a minimum level of frequency, etc. It has to be remembered that an increase in requirements/ obligations will in most cases result in fewer services being profitable. Such requirements/obligations do not, however, influence competition as long as they are equally valid for all incumbents and entrants (see the left-hand part of Fig. 7). Additional, non-profitable services can be ordered by the

Fig. 7. Free competition with (light touch) regulation.

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authority on the basis of negotiation and/or tendering procedures. The transport and social policy aims, within the budget limits, define the extent of those services (see the right hand part of Fig. 7). The operators acting upon their own initiative in this setting are free to use sub-contracting in whatever way they like. This means that they may want to sub-contract (parts of) the operational level to different (local) operators, they may also want to give to these operators more or less tactical powers (service re-design incentives) and may even want to contract out the whole design and operation. In all cases the selection mechanisms that these initiative takers can use vary from open competitive tendering, at one extreme, to direct selection and negotiation at the other extreme. In other words, the whole scale of organisational forms presented above in the context of authority initiative, is also available to the private entrepreneur within this organisational form. 5. Conclusions The graphical approach presented in this paper allows for a simple comparison of the main features of most organisational forms in public transport. The five examples presented above are, however, only a limited illustration of the wide variety or organisational forms present in public transport in Europe. These examples also illustrate the differences that exist between the pure organisational forms presented in Fig. 2 and the real world. As such the approach presented here is only a tool to facilitate mutual understanding and learning. It does not draw conclusions on the adequacy of the organisational forms presented but it is useful when considering alternative regimes in the context of a regulatory reform. The framework presented illustrates clearly the importance of distinguishing between three levels (strategic, tactical and operational) when analysing organisational forms in public transport. An important point of attention for a further analysis is the level at which competition is used within each of these organisational forms, together with the timing and method according to which competition is used. A second paper will focus on the growing usage of competition within the various organisational forms put in place during the last fifteen years. It will reflect on the place of demand revelation within those organisational forms and summarise the elements of the discussion. By doing this the importance of the figure of the ‘entrepreneur’ in creating

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passenger transport services and of the mechanisms disciplining his actions will be stressed. We will then illustrate why, beyond the success of competitive tendering in achieving more productive efficiency, the search for a better demand revelation and realisation of the social goals of public transport may not easily be realised within some organisational frameworks commonly put in place with tendering. We will also suggest that other organisational forms based on market initiative but combined with adequate regulation may be more appropriate.

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