Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products

13 Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products A. Totosaus, Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Ecatepec, Mexico

Abstract: Packaging of muscle-based foods has been a common practice since frozen foods were first exploited commercially. Like any other preservative technique, freezing muscle foods retards microbial growth and enzymatic activity, but also has implications for food quality. Ice crystal size represents a major concern because tissue damage can result in dripping losses during thawing. Recent advances in freezing techniques include methods for developing small ice crystals and modifying crystallization rates, such as high-pressure assisted freezing. Selecting appropriate freezing temperatures can contribute to extending shelf life, as can using packaging materials with selective permeability. The development of new synthetic packing materials has made it possible to package meat, poultry and seafood products more safely and attractively. Key words: spoilage microorganisms, microflora, semicrystalline plastics, sealant layer, atmosphere modification, cryoconcentration.

13.1 Introduction In the introduction, we look at the developments that have led us to where we are today in terms of packaging methods for frozen meat, seafood and poultry.

13.1.1 From Birdseye to freezing today Many years ago, freezing foods was common practice in regions of the world that experience cold winters, so that important muscle food reserves like meat and fish could be preserved. Trading of frozen meat began with shipments from Australia to England in 1882. However, commercial domestic refrigerators were not available until the development of mechanical ammonia freezing systems,

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364 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging which would later allow more consumers to access frozen foods. This reduced shopping trips, saved time and money, and allowed a large amount and a wide variety of foods to be stored for convenience and future consumption. The commercial development of frozen foods is attributed to an American explorer by the name of Clarence Birdseye. He observed, circa 1915, how the native people of the Canadian Labrador province preserved fish by freezing, using a combination of chilling wind and cold water. He observed that when the fish were thawed, no difference in texture or flavor was noticeable in the products. After some experimentation, Birdseye patented the packaging-freezing machine, which used a refrigerated plates system. This system quickly froze foods into a solid congealed block comprised of numerous tiny ice crystals, limiting damage caused by freezing (Birdseye, 1931). He realized that the key to successful freezing was the rapidity at which one froze water in foods, fast freezing being desirable because it prevented the growth of large ice crystals. Quick-freezing of packaged muscle foods thus became a commercial alternative, having the advantages of reducing humidity loss and freezer burn, and the associated negative changes in color and odor (Birdseye, 1929a, 1929b). Many other companies have since developed quickfreezing systems, taking advantage of novel packaging materials and formats that have optimized and economized the process. The development of synthetic packaging materials greatly improved the quality and safety of frozen foods.

13.1.2 Packaging and freezing Packaging provides food protection against chemical, biological and physical contaminants. Chemical protection acts like a barrier to minimize compositional changes triggered by environmental factors like oxygen, moisture or light. Biological protection prevents the growth of pathogens or spoilage microorganisms, yet maintains a suitable environment within the pack to allow for the development of desirable microflora. Physical protection secures products from mechanical or physical damage during distribution (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007). On the other hand, freezing involves lowering the product’s thermal center to 0°C, resulting in crystallization of most of the water and some solutes. The freezing rate, heat transfer coefficient and amount of heat removed directly impact on ice crystallization, loss of moisture and microbial growth, and thus determine the final quality of the frozen product (Bejarano Wallens and Venetucci, 1995). For any specific frozen product, shelf life depends on its specific characteristics (raw materials, ingredients, formulation, etc.), pre-freezing treatment, freezing process, packaging film and storage temperature (Zaritzky, 2008). Meat and muscle-based products are perishable. Even after processing, the packaging and freezing of these foodstuffs must operate together to ensure the microbiological safety of the product, and avoid biochemical deterioration during transportation and storage. Packaging plays a key role in maintaining the quality of frozen foods. Poorly packaged frozen foods undergo weight losses due to the sublimation of surface ice (Campañone et al., 2001). Lower weight losses occur at lower storage temperatures, due to the difference between vapor pressure at the

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Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products 365 meat surface and the surrounding air (Mendez Bustabad, 1999). The dry porous layer that forms in badly packaged frozen foods alters the sensory characteristics of the product, leading to quality loss due to spoilage, changes in color, taste and texture (Campañone et al., 2002). An effective packaging system is essential to offset the detrimental quality changes that occur during the frozen storage, with packaging materials and methods that protect the product from microbial and chemical contamination, dehydration and physical damage, and also protect the environment of the packaged product (Jiang and Lee, 2006, 2007).

13.1.3 Packaging material Packaging materials employed in frozen meat, seafood and poultry products comprise a wide range of materials, from paperboard in secondary packaging (Santos et al., 2008) to laminated plastics in contact with the muscle-based food. Modern synthetic packaging materials, or polymer technologies, allow manufacturers to offer a wide range of packaging materials for the frozen food industry, such as flexible multilayer packaging. Production of flexible packaging suitable for frozen meat, poultry and seafood is predicted to increase in coming years as a result of ongoing demand for these foodstuffs, which are perceived as economical protein sources (Harrington, 2010). Flexible packaging must fulfil a protective function, as well as being economically viable and environmentally friendly. In order to ensure product protection, it must have excellent barrier properties against gases (water vapor, oxygen and others) and good-quality seals. The use of environmentally friendly materials is also important, as is efficiency (Breil, 2010). Selecting the right type of film depends on the requirements of the product. Table 13.1 shows the properties of some polymers used for flexible packaging. Key requirements for flexible packaging for frozen foods include: toughness at low temperatures, adequate modulus or stiffness, high hot-tack strength and high seal strength. Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), ultra low-density polyethylene (ULDPE), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyolefin plastomer (POP) resins, are all commonly used, because they have the necessary stiffness for high-speed packaging and the tear and puncture strength to prevent damage during transportation and storage (Butler and Morris, 2010). In flexible packaging, different types of polymeric materials are used to create multilayer films, which enhance mechanical and barrier properties. The orientation of the films changes their physical properties due to the alienation of structural components. Generic packaging materials comprise an outside printable skin layer, one or more core layers and an inside skin layer in contact with the foodstuff. These layers can be glued by their own thermo-sealant properties or an adhesive resin can be employed (Fig. 13.1a). The orientation of plastic films is manipulated by stretching the materials while they are still hot and flexible, to create stretchable films, heat-shrinkable films, or stiff laminates. Films can be either monoaxially or biaxially stretched (Fig. 13.1b). The properties of oriented or un-oriented polymer films are essentially the same, and permeability is

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Table 13.1

Properties of common polymers films employed in flexible packaging Gases permeabilityb

Polymer name

Abbreviation Density (g/cc) Moisture vapor transmission ratesa

O2

N2

High density polyethylene Low density polyethylene Polypropylene Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinylidene chloride

HDPE LDPE PP PVC PVDC

600 550 240 150 14

70 180 60 65 12

0.940–0.965 0.915–0.925 0.89–0.902 1.16 1.7

Source: Adapted from Butler and Morris, 2009; Hanlon, 1992. a MVTR: g/24 h/100 in2 /mL @ 38°C, 90% RH. b Gases permeability: cc/24 h/100 in2 /mLil @ 25°C, 50% RH.

150 420 150 5–20 0.15

CO2 4500 2900 800 970 4

Elongation Heat seal (°C) (%) 100 400 300 20 60

135 121 177 107 138

Printability Fair Fair Good Excellent Poor

Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products 367 (a)

(b)

Monoaxially oriented

Tie layer One core layer (or many) Skin layer

Skin layer

Outside (freezer)

Inside (frozen food) Biaxially oriented Stiff/flexible

Fig. 13.1 (a) Generic multilayer film design with different film compositions depending on packaging necessities and material properties. (b) Sheet axial orientation of polymers to change film properties.

not usually affected (Hanlon, 1992). Monoaxial stretching is designed to form a wide, thin sheet of plastic film (greater than 80 times its original length), orienting the molecular structure of monomers, resulting in an easily stretchable film (in the direction of the stretching). Biaxial stretching, or tender process pouring, pulls the film in both directions at once, resulting in a firm plastic with different properties than the non-stretched plastic sheet (Driscoll and Rahman, 2007). Oriented plastic films improve the characteristics of the original polymer, resulting in exceptional mechanical properties in combination with barrier and optical properties. Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) and biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) films are both low-cost packaging materials, in comparison with non-oriented films. The overall improved barrier properties attained result from the orientation of the molecule chains. In non-oriented polymers these are random, whereas the stretching process results in a clear molecule chain orientation. Biaxial orientation of plastic films represents a refinement process that is applicable to almost all plastics. The crystallinity of polypropylene (PP) and polyester (semicrystalline plastics) is augmented by the stretching process, which considerably improves their mechanical properties (Breil, 2010). In practice, these two kinds of packaging films can be applied in the following ways: • Multilayer packaging films can be used as shrink films in primal packaging. The film used in this application is a polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) barrier film, with the sealant layer designed to provide toughness and puncture resistance, and oriented to provide acceptable shrink properties. Packages are

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368 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging

Fig. 13.2

Raw meat, poultry or seafood products packaging in stretchable materials.

normally vacuum packaging with a good sealant polymer such as EVA, ionomer, or LLDPE, where moisture barrier properties are more critical (Butler and Morris, 2010). Poultry breast, legs, nuggets and breakfast sausages, among others, are packaged in stretchable films either with or without trays (Fig. 13.2). • Multilayer packaging films can be used as barrier films, designed to keep oxygen from entering the package in order to extend shelf life and give the retailer extended product display time. This packaging also allows the consumer to keep the product in their refrigerator, unopened, for some time after purchase. These packages can be printed with attractive graphics to increase sales. The films may contain a barrier polymer, printing surface (such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or nylon, which also provides thermal resistance during sealing and helps provide abuse resistance during distribution, LLDPE or ULDPE toughness layers, a sealant layer that could be LLDPE, and a polyolefin plastomer or an ionomer (Butler and Morris, 2010). Frozen meat, poultry or fish products, like hamburgers, nuggets and marinated poultry breast, among others, are packed in laminated printed bags (Fig. 13.3).

13.1.4 Atmosphere modification in frozen meat products Vacuum and atmosphere modification are the most commonly employed techniques in packaging frozen meat and meat products. The display life, color and appearance of meat and meat products is also influenced by the degree of vacuum

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Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products 369

Fig. 13.3

Printed flexible packaging application to processed meat, poultry or seafood products.

or atmosphere modification, though film shrinkage, the duration of freezing prior to packaging and display conditions are also contributing factors (Jeremiah, 2001). Low temperatures can be used to achieve special effects in modified atmospherepackaged (MAP) seafood products. For example, in frozen cod fillets it not only provides a more stable MAP product, but also allows much greater flexibility for production and distribution (Rosnes et al., 2003). Although chemical reactions proceed very slowly under freezing temperatures, they may still cause significant quality changes over time. The oxidation of unsaturated fats, vitamins and pigments continues to take place during frozen storage, resulting in loss of color, flavor and nutritive value, but these problems can be significantly reduced or completely eliminated by vacuum packaging (Floros and Matsos, 2005). It has been reported that combining freezing and vacuum packaging reduces moisture losses and rancidity, presenting less pigment oxidation, and a tender texture in beef, venison and poultry (Farouk and Freke, 2008; Kenawi, 1994; Lee et al., 2008). In the same way, modified atmosphere packaging of mackerel, salmon (60% N2–40% CO2) and whiting (30% N2–40% CO2–30% O2) presented lower total viable counts, with no influence on odor or acceptability scores (Fagan et al., 2004). Although low-oxygen permeability packing of Atlantic hake was more effective in retarding lipid oxidation than high-oxygen permeability packing, cholesterol degradation and oxidation were not hindered (Saldanha and Bragagnolo, 2008). Exclusion of oxygen from such packs extended shelf life of shrimp for at least 9 months when packed in a full N2 atmosphere, and gave better overall quality in terms of color stability, lipid oxidation and toughness (Bak et al., 1999).

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370 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging

13.2 Quality improvement through frozen packaging If the changes that a specific frozen food undergoes are known, it is possible to select appropriate packaging material and package format options, and so minimize quality loss (Krotcha, 2006). The quality improvement of meat and muscle-based products can be related to their microbiological and physicochemical quality characteristics.

13.2.1 Microbiological quality Meat presents a nutritious substrate for microorganisms and so, depending on the packaging used, either aerobic or anaerobic bacteria can dominate the microflora (Moorhead, 2006). The rate at which a microorganism is frozen relates to its ability to survive, and its growth phase may affect its susceptibility or resistance to freezing, since Gram-positive bacteria are generally more resistant to freezing and thawing than Gram-negative species (Archer, 2004). Packaging must therefore ensure the inhibition of freeze-resistant microorganisms. For example, in poultry, Campylobacter spp. may lead to infection through improper handling and insufficient cooking, and although freezing cannot replace sanitary production and handling, it could reduce the chance of high initial contamination during the production process (Sampers et al., 2010). Antimicrobial compounds can be added to packaging materials; for example, allyl-isothiocyanate incorporated into the packaging (Nylon/EVOH/PE with N2) surrounding frozen beef patties was shown to be capable of eliminating 3 log10 CFU/g of E. coli O157:H7 from frozen (−18°C) patties within 10 days of storage (Nadarajah et al., 2005).

13.2.2 Physicochemical quality The physicochemical quality changes that take place in meat during frozen storage are: (i) denaturizing of proteins, (ii) ice recrystallization, (iii) oxidation of lipids, (iv) sublimation (freezer burn), (v) enzymatic reactions, (vi) degradation of pigments and vitamins and (vii) flavor deterioration (Calvelo, 1981; Zaritzky, 2008). These occurrences can be partially controlled by the correct selection of suitable packaging and through reduced oxygen concentrations in meat packs, especially processed meats, in order to reduce lipid oxidation (Moorhead, 2006). It should be stated, however, that the latter is affected by numerous factors, including the product’s lipid content and its type and degree of pigmentation. For example, lipid and protein oxidation appeared to occur simultaneously in chicken meat during frozen storage, and was more intense in leg than in breast meat, probably as a result of pro-oxidative and anti-oxidative factors in chicken leg and breast meat (Soyer et al., 2010). Fish and pork, which contain higher proportions of more reactive polyunsaturated fatty acids, are more susceptible to the development of rancidity (Zaritzky, 2008). Packaging must provide a good barrier to oxygen in order to prevent the development of off-flavor, dehydration and consequent freezer burn (Kotrola, 2006).

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Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products 371 The size of ice crystals is an important issue in the packaging of frozen musclebased products, since a lack of control over the freezing process will lead to large ice crystal formation, causing tissue damage. In the course of converting muscle to meat (ageing), a part of the intracellular liquid migrates to the extracellular spaces. During freezing, water outside the muscle fibers freezes first, thus intracellular water tends to be drawn out of the fibers by osmotic effects, increasing the intracellular concentration of solutes, or cryoconcentration. This cryoconcentration of the intracellular media and the growth of crystals result in protein denaturation and cell membrane breakdown, as a consequence of changes in osmotic pressure, pH, ionic force, viscosity and water activity. These factors in turn produce alterations in the water-holding capacity of muscle on thawing, changes in texture and changes in surface color (Calvelo, 1981; Genot, 2000; Pérez-Chabela and Mateo-Oyagüe, 2006). Different freezing rates result in different-sized ice crystals, directly affecting the meat and meat product’s properties during thawing. If the zone of maximum ice crystal formation (around −4°C) is reached rapidly, tiny ice crystals will form, causing no damage to meat tissue. Larger individual crystals are formed at lower freezing rates (Birdseye, 1929a, 1933). When the temperature falls, ice is reformed on the remaining crystals, causing them to grow (Ranken, 2000). Irregular needle-shaped ice crystals form a fibrous microstructure during slow freezing, resulting in a lot of physical damage. Meat fiber damage and drip loss can be reduced in meat using a faster freezing rate and by employing inhibitors of ice crystal growth (Mousavi et al., 2007). When low freezing rates are employed, ice crystals are formed in the less concentrated extracellular liquid, and grow progressively. Juiciness and tenderness are negatively affected on thawing, due to exudation from the meat. During middle or average freezing rates (2–5 cm/h), ice is formed in both the interior and exterior of muscle cells. Tissue damage during middle freezing is significant, and the amount of exudates lost from the meat product is directly proportional to the freezing rate used. Quick-freezing rates allow for crystallization to occur in the cell interior. Numerous small-size crystals are formed, and protein denaturation is limited, together with tissue structure damage, thereby provoking less liquid exudation. Ice crystals grow progressively over storage time and fluctuations in temperature provoke a diminution in meat water-holding capacity due to protein dehydration (Genot, 2000). During frozen storage, changes in protein conformation occur. Protein–protein aggregation can result from the dehydration of protein molecules, due to water molecule displacement from hydrated protein side-chains and surrounding areas, to a lower vapor pressure zone, resulting in the formation of ice crystals. This water displacement provokes the protein molecules to come into closer contact with each other, probably causing intermolecular cross-linkages. As the product thaws, liquid water returns to the vicinity of the protein aggregates. However, since protein–protein interactions are stronger than protein–water interactions, rehydration of the protein molecules is incomplete (Matsumoto, 1980) (Fig. 13.4). There are three accepted theories to explain denaturation of structural proteins during freezing: (i) an increase in solute concentration, (ii) dehydration

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372 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging Muscle fibers

Aging Meat fibers Freezing rate Quick (>5 cm/h)

Slow (<1 cm/h) Middle (2–5 cm/h)

Storage time and/or T°C fluctuations

Storage time and/or T°C fluctuations

Protein denaturation +

–

+

+ –

–

+

–

–

+ – + –

+ – –

+

–

–

+

Frozen storage

–

+

+

+

+ – –

– –

+

+ – +

Ice crystals formation

Fig. 13.4 Schematic representation of the freezing rate effect on ice crystal’s size and localization in meat fibers and the consequences in exudation loss and protein denaturation caused during frozen storage (adapted from Genot, 2000; Matsumoto, 1980).

of the cell and (iii) auto-oxidative changes that alter the balance of protein–protein and protein–water interactions (Venugopal, 2006). Under the same freezing conditions, heat transferred parallel to the muscle fibril direction takes place quicker than that perpendicular to the muscle direction, since heat resistance is offered by meat components such as epimysium, perimysium, endomysium and ligament sheaths (Su and Zhu, 1999). The fibrous nature of meat and the entangled fiber network arising from ice crystal compression, where a more entangled network of fiber strands in frozen meat is accompanied with fiber shrinkage caused by compression forces from intra- and extracellular ice crystals, governs the direction of freezing as ice crystals, which orient themselves in the direction of the fibers (Mousavi et al., 2007).

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Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products 373

13.3 Recent advances in frozen packaging Among traditional freezing techniques, air is by far the most widely used method of freezing food, due to the economical, hygienic and relatively non-corrosive nature of the equipment used. However, air provides relatively low rates of heat transfer. Batch or continuous freezing systems are also commonly employed, achieving much more efficient heat transfer with significant energy savings, when contact freezing is used. Contact freezing involves heat transfer by contact between the product and metal surfaces, which in turn are cooled by either primary or secondary refrigerants, or direct immersion in a refrigerated liquid. In cryogenic freezing, normal refrigerants, such as liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide, are employed directly to freeze the food product (James, 2008). New technologies have now been proposed that promise significant improvements in accelerating the freezing process, and thus product quality (Sun and Zheng, 2006), including: • high-pressure shift freezing, • ultrasound-assisted freezing, and • antifreeze or ice nucleation proteins.

13.3.1 High-pressure shift freezing At atmospheric pressure, when water is frozen, its volume increases due to ice formation causing tissue damage. Since the density of high-pressure ice is greater than water density, during phase transition, high-pressure ice does not expand in volume, reducing tissue damage. There is a commercially available application of this technology in the high-pressure freezing machine HPM 010 from ABRA Fluid AG (Widnau, Switzerland, www.abra-fluid.ch). Product safety could be enhanced by assumed synergetic inactivation effects on enzymes and microorganisms during high-pressure processes at subzero temperatures (Sanz and Otero, 2005). In pork frozen with high-pressure assisted freezing (200 MPa, −20°C), small ice crystals formed at the product’s surface and central zones (Martino et al., 1998).

13.3.2 Ultrasonic-assisted freezing The application of ultrasound or acoustic energy causes the compression and refraction of sound waves in the freezing system’s aqueous phase, and the resulting cavitation produces gas bubbles, which act like nucleating agents. If it is applied to the process of freezing fresh foodstuffs, ultrasound cannot only increase the freezing rate; it can also improve the quality of the frozen products (Zheng and Sun, 2006). To achieve this, it is essential to form ice crystals as small as possible, with as similar an ice crystal distribution across the product as possible to that of the water in the unfrozen product. This requires that freezing takes place simultaneously in both intracellular and extracellular regions (Zheng and Sun, 2005).

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374 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging 13.3.3 Antifreeze or ice nucleation proteins The function of these proteins is to influence ice crystal development; they interact directly with ice thereby inhibiting ice recrystallization. These proteins are useful in maintaining the high quality of chilled and frozen meats, as in slow freezing large ice crystals may form within cells, resulting in drip loss during thawing. Meat quality can be maintained by employing antifreeze proteins (soaking in PSB or injecting before slaughter, prior to freezing), reducing crystal size when frozen at −20°C (Payne and Young, 1995; Payne et al., 1994).

13.4 Future trends Muscle foods are economically and nutritionally important in the food industry, so the importance of quality conservation during transport and handling is very important. Frozen packaging is an excellent way to extend shelf life. The simultaneous effect of low temperatures and selective permeability of the package delay most of the enzymatic and microbiological activity that causes quality deterioration in muscle-based foods, if good manufacture practices and cold chain are adequately maintained. The development of new combinations of packing materials allows manufacturers to offer safer and more attractive ways of packaging meat, poultry and seafood products. Novel techniques such as high-pressure freezing could offer better quality products since small ice crystals would improve thawing quality.

13.5 References ARCHER, D. L.

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Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry products 375 CALVELO, A.

(1981) Recent studies on meat freezing, in R. LAWRIE (ed.), Developments in meat science 2. London: Applied Science, 125–58. CAMPAÑONE, L. A., ROCHE, L. A., SALVADORI, V. O. and MASCHERONI, R. H. (2002) Monitoring of weight losses in meat products during freezing and frozen storage, Food Science and Technology International, 8, 4, 229–38. CAMPAÑONE, L. A., SALVADORI, V. O. and MASCHERONI, R. H. (2001) Weight loss during freezing and storage of unpacked foods, Journal of Food Engineering, 47, 69–79. DRISCOLL, R. H. and RAHMAN, M. S. (2007) Types of packaging materials used for foods, in M. S. RAHMAN (ed.), Handbook of food preservation, 2nd edn, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 919–38. FAGAN, J. D., GORMLEY, T. R. and UÍ MHUIRCHEARTAIGH, M. M. (2004) Effect of modified atmosphere packaging with freeze-chilling on some quality parameters of raw whiting, mackerel and salmon portions, Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 5, 205–14. FAROUK, M. M. and FREKE, C. (2008) Packaging and storage effects on the functional properties of frozen venison, Journal of Muscle Foods, 39, 275–87. FLOROS, J. D. and MATSOS, K. L. (2005) Introduction to modified atmosphere packaging, in J. H. HAN (ed.), Innovations in food packaging, New York: Elsevier Applied Sciences, 159–72. GENOT, C. (2000) Congélation et qualité de la viande, Paris: INRA Editors, 23–30. HANLON, J. F. (1992), Handbook of package engineering, 2nd edn, Lancaster: Technomic, 3-1–3-59. HARRINGTON, R. (2010) Frozen food packaging growth trends, Food Production Daily. Available at: http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/Packaging/Frozen-food-packaginggrowth-trends. Accessed September 9, 2010. JAMES, S. (2008) Freezing meat, in J. A. EVANS (ed.), Frozen food science and technology, Oxford: Blackwell, 124–50. JEREMIAH, L. E. (2001) Packaging alternatives to deliver fresh meats using short- or longterm distribution, Food Research International, 34, 749–72. JIANG, S.-T. and LEE, T.-C. (2006) Freezing seafood and seafood products: Principles and applications, in Y. H. HUI (ed.), Handbook of food science, technology, and engineering, Volume 1. Boca Raton: CRC Taylor & Francis, 39-1–39-35. JIANG, S.-T. and LEE, T.-C. (2007) Processing frozen seafood, in Y. H. HUI (ed.), Handbook of food products manufacturing, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 855–92. KENAWI, M. A. (1994) Evaluation of some packaging materials and treatments on some properties of beef during frozen storage, Food Chemistry, 51, 1, 69–74. KOTROLA, N. (2006) Quality and safety of frozen poultry and poultry products, in D.-W. SUN (ed.), Handbook of frozen food processing and packaging, Boca Raton: CRC Taylor & Francis, 325–40. KROTCHA, J. M. (2006) Introduction to frozen food packaging, in D.-W. SUN (ed.), Handbook of frozen food processing and packaging, Boca Raton: CRC Taylor & Francis, 615–40. LEE, Y. S., XIONG, R., OWENS, C. M. and MEULLENET, J. F. (2008) Changes on broiler breast fillet tenderness, water-holding capacity, and color attributes during long-term frozen storage, Journal of Food Science, 73, E162–E168. MARSH, K. and BUGUSU, B. (2007) Food packaging: Roles, materials, and environmental issues, Journal of Food Science, 72, 3, R39–R55. MARTINO, M. N., OTERO, L., SANZ, P. D. and ZARITZKY, N. E. (1998) Size and location of ice crystals in pork frozen by high-pressure-assisted freezing as compared to classical methods, Meat Science, 50, 3, 303–13. MATSUMOTO, J. J. (1980) Chemical deterioration of muscle proteins during frozen storage, in J. R. WHITAKER and M. FUJIMAKI (eds), Chemical deterioration of proteins. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society Symposium Series 123, 111–17. MENDEZ BUSTABAD, O. (1999) Weight loss during freezing and the frozen storage of frozen meat, Journal of Food Engineering, 41, 1–11.

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376 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging MOORHEAD, S.

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