Caçador Summit Surface – Southern Brazil

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Catena journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Paleoenvironmental dynamics of low-order paleovalleys in the Late Quaternary – Palmas/Caçador Summit Surface – Southern Brazil

T

⁎

Julio Cesar Paisani , Sani Daniela Lopes-Paisani, Solange Lima, Fabiano de Jesus Ribeiro, Marga Eliz Pontelli, Rafaela Harumi Fujita State University of Western Paraná (Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná), Rua Maringá, 1200, Vila Nova, Francisco Beltrão, Paraná 85605-010, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Colluvium Colluvium-alluvium Paleosol Subtropical landscape Climate change

The Quaternary dynamics of landscapes in the subtropical continental region of Brazil is not still well understood. Pedostratigraphic records of low-order paleovalleys (paleovalley heads and 1st- and 2nd-order paleovalleys) of the Palmas/Caçador summit surface serve as important resources for the identification of landscape component responses (relief, soil, sediment, and vegetation) of plateau areas of southern Brazil in the light of environmental changes driven by climatic variations of the Late Quaternary. We integrated litho-, pedo-, alloand chronostratigraphic descriptions with carbon stable isotope analysis, phytoliths indices, and 14C and OSL dating. We found that at > 44.86 ky BP, there was a change in the hydrodynamics of 2nd-order perennial channels (humid climate) controlled possibly by tectonics. At ~28.35 to < 44.86 ky BP, there was a predominance of progressive pedogenesis (Johnson's Model) in wet and cold climates with minimal erosion and stable landscape components. At > 23.69 to ~28 ky BP, regressive pedogenesis in dry climate began with a predominance of erosion by overland flows. At > 2.60 to ~23.69 ky BP, full regressive pedogenesis occurred under a continuous climate regime of drier characteristics punctuated by millenary climatic fluctuations to a wetter regime of between ≤4.60 and 19.77 ky BP, echoing the results postulated by the Knox's model. During this period, the most pronounced modifications to the landscape were made with a change in vegetation from Campo Cerrado to Campo Limpo; with changes in erosion patterns caused first by overland flows and then earthflows/debris flows; and with the gradual silting (filling and burying) of gullies, valley heads and 1st and 2nd order valley bases. Since 2.60 ky BP the area returned to a predominance of progressive pedogenesis in wet and cold climates. Finally, we found that at the local scale, low-order basins (< 4th-order) quickly responded to climate changes and millenary fluctuations with changes in vegetation and changes in the course of pedogenesis and morphogenesis. These results suggest that the responses of low-order bases landscapes to regional climatic changes should be considered in the formulation of evolutionary models of subtropical landscapes.

1. Introduction The Quaternary dynamics of landscapes in the subtropical continental region of Brazil remain an underexplored subject. Studies carried out in the 1950s and 1960s have revealed that they consist of plateau landscapes (Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus – Paisani et al., 2019) in which Quaternary climatic shifts between dry-to-wet and wetto-dry regimes were responsible for the evolution of slopes and valleys in light of morphogenesis (Bigarella and Andrade, 1965; Damuth and Fairbridge, 1970; Ab'Sábber, 1977). This interpretation is generalized both chronologically and spatially, covering the entire Quaternary period, and it does not explain the existence of remnants of ferralitic regoliths are found on certain geomorphic surfaces (Paisani et al.,

⁎

2013a). Overall, the regoliths were truncated by erosion in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene, predominating in polygenetic relict paleosols and colluvial/alluvial sediments of the Late Quaternary (Paisani et al., 2013a; Riffel et al., 2016). Colluvial sediments are easily identified on summit surfaces, where they fill valley heads (zero-order basin – Thomas, 1994) and 1st- and 2nd-order channel valleys of the Late Quaternary. Due to the resumption of the expansion of the drainage network of the Upper Holocene, these small paleovalleys (< 4th order in the Strahler, 1952 classification) became ridges of convex hills and were delimited by newly formed valleys on each side (Paisani et al., 2016), promoting the inversion of the relief in this sector and fossilizing in the landscape in old valleys of low-order channels (Paisani et al., 2014), in which these old relief units are classified as paleovalley heads

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.C. Paisani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104171 Received 19 March 2019; Received in revised form 3 July 2019; Accepted 9 July 2019 0341-8162/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Fig. 1. Palmas/Caçador summit surface on the Paraná Basin Volcanic Plateau (southern Brazil) and with the sampling sections locations.

shifted to Campo Limpo (steppes – predominance of Poaceae) due to recurrent burning for grazing and reforestation with Pinus elliottii with alternations between Campos Cerrado and Forest (Mixed Ombrophilous Forest with Araucaria augustifolia) in back valleys (Maack, 1948, 1949) (Fig. 2). The regional climate is designated as Cfa of the Köppen classification (Alvares et al., 2014) with mean rainfall levels of 1590 mm.year−1 that are well distributed and with a mean annual temperature of 15 °C (mean maximum and minimum temperatures of 26 °C and 4 °C, respectively) (Paisani et al., 2014). This mean annual temperature is responsible for the development of mollic and humic epipedons.

and paleovalleys of the 1st and 2nd hierarchical order or simply as loworder paleovalleys. High-order valleys (≥4th hierarchical order) remained active during this period although the slopes recorded erosion/ sedimentation. Given this, we believe that paleovalley heads and 1stand 2nd-order paleovalleys (understood jointly as low-order paleovalleys) are key relief units in the identification of the responses of the components of landscapes (relief, sediments, soils, and vegetation) of subtropical areas of southern Brazil in light of environmental changes driven by climatic variations of the Late Quaternary. In this study we integrated litho-, pedo-, allo- and chronostratigraphic descriptions with carbon stable isotopes and phytolith analyses to understand the landscape dynamics of valleys of the ≥4th hierarchical order of the Palmas/ Caçador summit surface on the Paraná Basin Volcanic Plateau in southern Brazil (Biffi and Paisani, 2018) (Fig. 1) in the Late Quaternary.

2.2. Procedures We investigated sixteen stratigraphic sections distributed along the Palmas sector contained in the Palmas/Caçador Surface in floodplaines of tributaries of the Iguaçu and Uruguay rivers that represent quaternary records of paleovalley head hollows (Hs3, Hs11, Hs13, Hs14, Hs16, and Hs17 sections), 1st-order (Hs4, Hs6) and 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1, Hs2, Hs10 and Hs20) as well as a colluvial ramp (Hs5 and Hs18, both pediment), a small alluvial fan (Hs12) and a floodplain (Hs7), which includes an active 4th-order valley base (Figs. 1, 2,3, Table 1). We did not find sections stratigraphically representative of 3rd-order paleovalley base. Stratigraphic records reveal the presence of saprolite; sediments of colluvial, colluvial-alluvial and alluvial origin, pedological and erosive discontinuities (paleogullies – Botha et al., 1994) and pedogenesis overlapping sediments (Fig. 3). Sequences of saprolites, sediments and soils are common of plateaus in Brazil and have been described by stratigraphic criteria and have been assigned a diverse nomenclature (Bezerra et al., 2008; Modenesi-Gauttieri et al., 2011; Hiruma et al., 2013; Gurgel et al., 2013; Riffel et al., 2016). Here

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Geographic setting The Palmas/Caçador summit area is situated on the eastern border of the Paraná Basin Volcanic Plateau (Gondwana III Supersequence – Milani et al., 1998) (Fig. 1) whose Palmas sector is maintained by rhyolites while the Caçador sector is maintained by rhyolites and basalts (Peate et al., 1992; Nardy et al., 2002). The summit surface is located at ≥1200 m a.s.l. and includes a relief of convex hills and valleys of an alternating V-shape with a flat base with the newest features including wide plains in which drainage lines dissipate into a floodplain (de Sordi et al., 2018) (Fig. 2). Drainage flows into a tributary of regional hydrographic systems of the Uruguay and Iguaçú Rivers (Fig. 1). Vegetation on the hills was composed of Campo Cerrado (savanna – grasses with shrubs) until the end of the 19th century and 2

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Fig. 2. Landscape of the Palmas/Caçador summit surface. Observe Convex hills, a 4th order valley with a flat bottom and floodplain, Mixed Ombrophilous Forest with Araucaria augustifolia at the base of 1stand 2nd-order valleys and Campos Limpos at valley heads can be observed. A hollow is the term given to the central axis of the valley head (Hack and Goodlert, 1960) and is equivalent to the valley base of channels with floodplains. A “colluvium ramp” is a term used in Brazil to refer to a pediment (de Meis and Monteiro, 1979).

derived from the last two laboratories. Fifteen ages of alluviums, colluviums-alluviums and colluviums were determined by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) at the Dating Laboratory of Datações, Comércio e Prestação de Serviços Ltd., Brazil. The equivalent dose (De) was measured for fifteen quartz grains using the single aliquot protocol (SAR) (Murray and Olley, 2002; Rhodes, 2011) while annual doses (Da) for gamma, beta and cosmic radiation were calculated according to Prescott and Hutton (1994). 235 Th, 238U, 235U and 40K content levels were determined by gammaray spectrometry using a Thallium-Doped Sodium Iodide detector (NaI Tl Osprey/Canberra – Genie 2000 software/Gamma Acquisition and Analysis). The performance of the SAR protocol was evaluated with the recycling ratio and with a dose recovery test applied the measurement sequence (Murray and Wintle, 2000, 2003). A carbon stable isotope analysis (13C/12C ratio = δ13C) was conducted on pedostratigraphic sequences of paleovalley head hollows (Hs13 and Hs17 sections), the 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1), a colluvium ramp (Hs18) and a small alluvial fan (Hs12) of a 4th-order active valley. δ13C of the main pedostratigraphic levels (Rsample) was measured by mass spectrometry at the carbon isotope laboratories of the Center for Applied Isotope Studies (University of Georgia – USA)

we initially individualized lithofacies into a simplified form based on Ghibaudo (1992). Following this, we classified the matrix based on grain size percentages of clay, silt and ≥ sand fractions using a ternary diagram following the USDA standards (Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005). We then recognized environmental facies (colluvium, colluvium-alluvium, and alluvium), pedogenized levels (A and B horizons), erosive discontinuities and established an absolute chronology, which resulted in the joint use of litho-, pedo-, allo- and chronostratigraphic criteria (Hughes, 2010). Due to the recurrent incidence of pedogenesis, the records were assigned final pedostratigraphic nomenclature (Birkeland, 1999). Nineteen ages of the humin fraction of Ab horizons, organo-mineral sediments and charcoals were determined by radiocarbon dating and were processed at the Radiocarbon laboratories of Beta Analytic/USA (AMS radiocarbon dating technique) of the Center for Applied Isotope Studies-University of Georgia/USA (AMS radiocarbon dating technique) and at the Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture-CENA, University of São Paulo/Brazil (using the benzene method and liquid scintillation counting - Pessenda et al., 2001). Ages obtained with this method were calibrated by Beta Analytic using the program Calib Radiocarbon Calibration, version 7.0.4 (Stuiver et al., 2018) for results

Fig. 3. Quaternary pedostratigraphy records of paleovalley head hollows, paleovalley base of 1st- and 2nd-order paleovalleys, a colluvial ramp (Hs5 and Hs18 sections), a small alluvial fan (Hs12), a floodplain (Hs7), and the 4th-order active valley of the Palmas/Caçador summit surface. 3

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Table 1 Morphopedological characteristics. Horizon

Thickness (cm)

Color1

Texture2

Structure3

Consistency 4

Paleovalley head Section Hs3 (coord. UTM 0441934/7060282/1319 m Ap 25 10 YR 2/1 AC 35 7.5 YR 3/4 CA 20 7.5 YR 4/4 2Ab 20 7.5YR 2.5/3 2ACb 20 7.5YR 3/4 3Ab 25 10 YR 2/1 4CRgb +15 –

a.s.l) Clay to Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay Clay, Silty clay Silty clay Clay, Silty clay –

Section Hs11 (coord. UTM 0442089/7056613/1326 m a.s.l) Ap 10 10 YR 3/2 Silty clay 2CAb 20 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay loam 3Cb 10 7.5 YR 3/3 Silty clay loam 4Cb 15 7.5 YR 3/3 Silty clay loam 5Cb 10 7.5 YR 3/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 6Cb 10 7.5 YR 3/3 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 7Cb 10 7.5 YR 3/3 Silty clay loam 8Cb 15 7.5 YR 3/4 Silty clay loam 9Cb 5 7.5 YR 3/3 Silty clay loam 10Cb 15 7.5 YR 3/3 Silty clay loam 11Cb 5 7.5 YR 3/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 12Cb 10 7.5 YR 3/4, 10 YR 3/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 13Cb 5 10 YR 3/4 Silty clay loam 14Cb 40 7.5 YR 3/2, 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 15Ap 10 10 YR 3/2 Silty clay loam 15C 30 10 YR 5/4 Silty loam 16Cb 10 10 YR 5/4 Silty loam 17Cb 30 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty loam, Silty clay loam 18Ab 15 5 YR 2.5/1 Silty clay 18Cb 35 5 YR 5/2 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 19Cb 50 5 YR 5/2 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 20CRgb +20 2.5 YR 5/8 Silt loam Section Hs13 (coord. UTM 0424923/7057347/1262 m a.s.l) Ap 20 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay loam, Silt loam 2ACb 10 10 YR 4/2 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 2Cb 25 10 YR 4/6 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 3Cb 60 7.5 YR 4/4, 4/6 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 4Ab 15 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay loam 4Cb 25 7.5 YR 4/3 Silty clay loam 5Ab 20 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay loam 5Cb 30 10 YR 4/3 Clay, Silty clay 6Ab 30 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay 6ACb 25 7.5 YR 2.5/1 Silty clay 6Cgb 20 10 YR 6/3, 2.5 YR 6/3, Silty clay, Silty clay 7/6 loam 7CRgb +20 – – Section Hs14 (coord. UTM 0433801/7064152/1295 m a.s.l) Ap 20 10 YR 2/1 Clay 2Cb 230 10 YR 3/3 Clay, Silty clay 3Cb 35 10 YR 4/6 Clay 4Cb 30 7.5 YR 4/4, 4/6 Clay 5Cb 65 7.5 YR 4/4 Clay loam 6Cb 50 7.5 YR 4/3, 4/4 Clay 7Cb 40 7.5 YR 4/4, 5 YR 4/4 Clay 8Cb 40 7.5 YR4/4 Clay 9Cb 40 5YR 3/4,4/6, 2.5/1 Clay 10Cb 10 5 YR 6/8, 10 YR 5/8 Clay 11Cb 10 10 YR 5/8 Clay 12Cb 65 7.5 YR 4/4 Clay

Other characteristics 5

Dry

Wet

ga,b gb-sbb m-sbb ga,b gb-sbb ga,b –

s-h s-h sy s-h s-h s-h –

fi fi fr fi fi fi –

Root and bioturbation traces

ga,b gb-sbb gb gb-sbb gb

s-h s-h s-h

fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr

Root and bioturbation traces, Pebbles clusters

s-h

fi-fr

Fine pebbles clusters

gb-sbb

s-h

fi-fr

gb gb-sbb gb gb-sbb gb

s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h

fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr

gb-sbb

s-h

fi-fr

g gb-sbb

s-h s-h

fi-fr fi-fr

gb-sbb m m m

s-h s-h s-h s-h

fi-fr fi fi fi

gb-sbb m-sbc

s-h sy

fi-fr fr

Root and bioturbation traces, Pebbles clusters

m

s-h

fi

Discontinuous pebbles clusters

–

–

–

m-sbb

s-h

fi

Root and bioturbation traces

sbb

sy

fr

Discontinuous pebbles clusters

m-sbb

s-h

fi

Discontinuous pebbles clusters

b

sb

sy

fi-fr

Discontinuous pebbles clusters

m-sbb sbb m-sbb m-sbb sbb sbb sbb

sy sy sy sy h-s s sy

fi fr fr fr fi fi-fr fr

Root and bioturbation traces A horizon relicts Root and bioturbation traces

–

–

–

ga-sbb sbb sbb m-sbc sbc sbc sbc

h sy sy sy sy sy sy

fi-fr fr fi-fr fr fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr

Root and bioturbation traces

sbc-lc sbb sbb sbb

sy sy sy sy

fi-fr fr fr fr

Thin fine sandy laminae, A horizon relicts

b

Root traces Root and bioturbation traces

Fine pebbles clusters

Fine pebbles clusters Fine pebbles clusters Fine pebbles clusters

Fine pebbles clusters Thin fine sandy laminae, Pebbles clusters, Discontinuous stone lines, A horizon relicts Root and bioturbation traces Discontinuous pebbles clusters Discontinuous pebbles clusters, A horizon relicts

Root and bioturbation traces

Discontinuous stone lines Discontinuous stone lines Discontinuous stone lines Discontinuous stone lines

(continued on next page) 4

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Table 1 (continued) Horizon

Thickness (cm)

Color1

Texture2

Structure3

Consistency Dry4

Wet5

Other characteristics

Clay Clay, Clay loam Clay Clay Clay Clay, Silty clay Clay

sbb sbc-lc sbb m-sbb sbb m-sbb sba,b-gc

sy sy sy sy sy sy sy

fr fi-fr fr fr fr fi-fr fr

Clay Clay Clay loam, Loam –

m-sbb sbb m –

sy sy h –

fi-fr fr fi –

Root and bioturbation traces

Section Hs16 (coord. UTM 0446277/7037208/1299 m a.s.l) Ap 10 10 YR 3/2 Silty clay 2Apb 20 10 YR 3/1 Silty clay 2ACb 20 10 YR 2/2 Silty clay 3Cb 40 10YR 3/4 Silty clay 4Ab 30 10YR 2/1 Silty clay loam 4ACb 10 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay 5ACb 10 10YR 2/1 Silt loam 5ACgb 10 10YR 4/6 Silt loam 6CRgb +20 10YR 7/8, 6/8 Silte loam

gb-sbb gb-sbb m-sbb m gb-sbb sbb gb-sbb sbb –

s-h s-h s-h sy s-h h s-h h –

fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr fi fi-fr fi fi-fr fi –

Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters

Section Hs17 (coord. UTM 0421697/7058725/1268 m a.s.l) Ap 20 7.5 YR 3/2 Silty clay 2ACb 20 7.5 YR 2/1 Silty clay 3Cb 5 7.5 YR 2/1 Silty clay 4Cb 35 10YR 4/6 Silty clay 5Ab 15 7.5 YR 3/2 Silty clay 5Cb 40 5YR 5/6 Silty clay 6Cb 40 2.5YR 4/6 Silty clay loam 7Ab 30 7.5YR 2.5/2 Silty clay 7ACb 40 7.5YR 3/3 Silty clay 7CRgb +30 10YR 5/6, 2.5 YR 6/3 –

sbc sbc-gc m m sbc sbc-m m sbc-pc sbc –

s-h s-h h sy h s-h h s-h s-h –

fi fi fi fr fi fi fi fi fi –

Stone lines Discontinuous pebbles clusters Root and bioturbation traces Discontinuous pebbles clusters Discontinuous pebbles clusters Root and bioturbation traces

Paleovalley base - 1st -order stream Section Hs4 (coord. UTM 0441942/7056314/1322 m Ap 30 10 YR 2/1 2Cb 30 7.5 YR 4/4 3Cb 20 10 YR 4/4 4Cb 70 7.5 YR 4/6

Root and bioturbation traces Discontinuous pebbles clusters, discontinuous stone lines Discontinuous pebbles clusters Discontinuous stone lines

13Cb 14Cb 15Cb 16Cb 17Cb 18Cb 19Ab

10 60 80 40 30 40 125

19ACb 19Cgb 20Cgb 21CRgb

75 25 30 +15

5 YR 6/8, 10 YR 5/8 5 YR 3/4, 4/6, 2.5/1 7.5 YR 3/2, 4/4 7.5 YR 4/4, 5 YR 4/4 7.5 YR 4/4 5 YR 3/4, 4/6, 2.5/1 10 YR 2/1, 7.5 YR 2.5/ 2 7.5 YR 3/2 2.5Y 4/4 2.5 Y 5/4, 7/6, 8/4 –

Thin fine sandy laminae, A horizon relicts A horizon relicts

Discontinuous pebbles clusters, A horizon relicts Root and bioturbation traces

Pebbles clusters Root and bioturbation traces Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters Pebbles clusters

Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters

a.s.l) Clay loam Silty clay loam Silty clay loam Silty clay loam, Silty clay Sandy loam –

ga,b m m m

s-h s-h s-h s-h

fi fi-fr fi fi-fr

m –

s-h –

fi –

Section Hs6 (coord. UTM 0437572/7058229/1313 m Ap 15 10 YR 2/1 2Cb 85 7.5 YR 3/4 3Ab 50 7.5 YR 3/3 4Cb 35 7.5 YR 5/4 5CRgb +20 –

a.s.l) Clay Clay Clay Clay –

ga,b m ga m –

s-h s-h s-h s-h –

fi fi-fr fi fi-fr –

Root and bioturbation traces Discontinuous stone lines, A horizon relicts Root and bioturbation traces Pebbles clusters

Paleovalley base - 2nd -order stream Section Hs1 (coord. UTM 0444055/7059044/1319 m Ap 15 10 YR 4/4 2Ab 20 7.5 YR 2.5/1 2Cb 35 7.5 YR 5/2 3Cb 10 10 YR 3/2 4Cb 75 7.5 YR 5/4 5Cb 25 2.5 YR 6/2, 5/3 6Ab 80 7.5 YR 3/2 6ACb 25 7.5 3/2 6Cgb 20 7.5 YR 4/3, 2.5 YR 6/2 7Cgb 45 2.5 YR 6/2, 5/3 8CRgb +15 –

a.s.l) Silty clay Clay Silty clay Silty clay loam Clay – Clay Clay, Silt loam Silt loam – –

m-sbc sbc m m

s-h s s s-h

fi fi fi fi

Pebbles clusters

m ga,b-sbb,d sbc-m m m –

h sy-s s-h h h –

fi fi fi fi fi –

Section Hs2 (coord. UTM 0441891/7060355/1305 m Ap 15 7.5 YR 2.5/3 2Cb 110 10 YR 2/2 3Cb 10 7.5 YR 4/4 4Cb 15 7.5 YR 3/3 5Cb 5 7.5 YR 3/4 6Cb 15 7.5 YR 3/3 7Ab 35 10 YR 2/2, 2/1 7ACb 20 7.5 YR 3/3, 10 YR 3/1

a.s.l) Clay Silty Silty Silty Silty Silty Clay Silty

ga,b sbc m m m m ga,b sbc

s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h

fi fi fi fi fi-fr fi fi fi

5Cb 6CRgb

20 +15

7.5 YR 5/4 –

to Clay loam loam, Loam to Clay loam loam

clay clay clay clay clay clay

loam loam loam loam

Stone lines A horizon relicts Conglomerate of pebbles Root and bioturbation traces

Conglomerate of pebbles

Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters A horizon relicts, discontinuous stone lines

Pebbles clusters Root and bioturbation traces

(continued on next page) 5

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Table 1 (continued) Horizon

Thickness (cm)

Color1

Texture2

Structure3

Consistency

Other characteristics

Dry4

Wet5

m –

h –

fi –

sbb-ga,b sbb sbb sbb-ga,b sbb m –

s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h h –

fi fi fi fi fi fi –

Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters

sbc m-sbc sbc-lc m-sbc m-sbc m-sbc m m

s sy sy sy sy sy h h

fr fr fr fr fr fr fr fi

Root and bioturbation traces Discontinuous pebbles clusters 8Cgb horizon relicts 8Cgb horizon relicts 8Cgb horizon relicts Thin fine sandy laminae, duricrust fragments Root traces, Discontinuous pebbles clusters

m –

h –

fi –

Conglomerate of pebbles Thin fine duricrust laminae

Valley base - 4th -order stream Section Hs7 (coord. UTM 0444396/7058321/1290 m a.s.l) A 40 10 YR 2/1, 3/1 Clay Cg 30 10 YR 4/2, 6/3 to 5/8 Clay, Silty clay

m m

s-h s-h

fi fi

Root and bioturbation traces

Section Hs5 (coord. UTM 0437209/7058321/1327 m Ap 30 7.5 YR 2.5/3 2Bib 30 7.5 YR 4/4 3ACb 20 7.5 YR 2.5/2 3CAb 50 7.5 YR 3/4 4CRb 15 7.5 YR 5/4

ga,b-sbb sbb ga,b-sbc m- sbc m

s-h s-h s-h s-h s-h

fi fi fi-fr fi fi

Root and bioturbation traces

sbc-gc m-sbc

s-h s-h

fr fr

Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters

m-sbc

s-h

fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

c

m-sb m-sbc

s-h s-h

fi-fr fi-fr

Pebbles clusters Pebbles clusters

m-sbc m-sbc

s-h s-h

fi-fr fi-fr

Pebbles clusters Pebbles clusters

m-sbc

s-h

fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

m-sbc m-sbc m-sbc

s-h s-h s-h

fi-fr fr fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

b

sb m

s-h s-h

fi fr

Root traces, pebbles clusters

m

s-h

fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

sbb m-sbc

s-h s-h

fi fi-fr

Root traces, Pebbles clusters

m

h

fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

m-sbc m-sbc

s-h s-h

fi-fr fi-fr

Pebbles clusters Pebbles clusters

sbb m-sbc m-sbc

s-h s-h s-h

fi fi-fr fi-fr

Root and bioturbation traces

m m-sbc

h s-h

fi fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

sbb

s

fi

Root traces and charcoal

7Cgb 8CRgb

15 +15

7.5 YR 3/4, 4/4 –

Silty clay loam –

Section Hs10 (coord. UTM 0425511/7057810/1276 m a.s.l) Ap 20 10 YR 3/2 Clay 2Ab 55 10 YR 2/1 Clay, Silty clay 2Cb 55 10 YR 3/2 Clay, Silty clay 3Ab 25 10 YR 2/1 Clay, Silty clay 3Cgb 15 10 YR 4/2 Clay loam 4Cgb 40 10 YR 5/8 – 5CRgb +10 2.5 Y 7/2 – Section Hs20 (coord. UTM 0424373/7057024/1242 m a.s.l) Ap 40 5 YR 3/2 Silty clay 2Cb 120 10 YR 4/4 to 5/8 Silty clay 3Cb 70 7.5 YR 4/6 Silty clay 4Cb 10 7.5 YR 4/4, 6/1 Silty clay 5Cb 20 5 YR 4/6, 7.5 YR 6/1 Silty clay 6Cb 30 7.5 YR 4/4, 6/1 Silty clay 7Cb 30 7.5 YR 4/4 Silt loam 8Cgb 120 10 R 8/1, 5/8, 2 YR 7/ Silty clay 3 9Cgb 20 10 YR 7/8, 7.5 YR 6/8 – 10CRcgb +20 10 YR 6/8 –

a.s.l) Clay Clay Silty Silty Silty

loam loam loam loam loam loam loam

loam clay loam loam clay loam

Section Hs12 (coord. UTM 0435000/7065342/1228 m a.s.l) Ap 80 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay loam 2Cb 20 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 3Cb 15 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 4Cb 80 10 YR 4/4 Silty clay 5Cb 20 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 6Cb 65 10 YR 4/4 Silty clay loam 7Cb 20 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 8Cb 50 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 9CAb 30 7.5 YR 4/3 Silty clay loam 10Cb 20 10 YR 4/4 Silty clay 11Cb 5 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 12Ab 15 10 YR 3/3 Silty clay 12Cb 15 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 13Cb 10 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 14Ab 15 10 YR 2/2 Clay 14Cb 10 10 YR 3/6 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 15Cb 5 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 16Cb 15 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay loam 17Cb 15 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay 18Cb 25 19Ab 10 7.5 YR 3/3 Clay to Silty clay 19Cb 10 7.5 YR 3/4 Silty clay 20Cb 25 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 21Cb 5 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay 22Cb 25 7.5 YR 4/4 Silty clay, Silty clay loam 23Ab 10 7.5 YR 3/3 Clay

Root and bioturbation traces Conglomerate of pebbles

Root and bioturbation traces, pebbles clusters Pebbles clusters

Pebbles clusters

Pebbles clusters

(continued on next page) 6

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Table 1 (continued) Horizon

Thickness (cm)

Color1

23Cb 24BCb 24Cb

15 10 40

7.5 YR 4/4 10 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6

25Cb

20

5 YR 4/6

26Cb

45

7.5 YR 4/4

27CRgb

+15

–

Texture2

Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay, Silty clay loam Silty clay, Silty clay loam Silty clay, Silty clay loam –

Section Hs18 (coord. UTM 0434981/7065426/1242 m a.s.l) Ap 30 10 YR 2/1 Silty clay loam 2Bb 15 10YR 3/4 Silty clay 3Cb 5 10 YR 5/4 Silty clay 4Cb 10 7.5YR 5/6 Clay 5Cb 25 7.5 YR 5/6 Clay 6Cb 30 7.5 YR 5/6 Clay 7CAb 35 7.5 YR 5/4 Silty clay loam 8CAb 10 7.5 YR 5/4 Clay 9CRcgb +35 5 YR 5/8, 7/1, 4/3 Clay, Silty clay loam

Structure3

Consistency

Other characteristics

Dry4

Wet5

m sbb-pc sbb

h s-h s

Fi fi-fr fi

Pebbles clusters

sbb

s

fi-fr

Pebbles clusters

sbb

s

fi

–

–

–

gb-sbc sba,b-pc m m-sbc m sbc m-sbc m-sbc –

s-h h h h h s h h –

fi fi fi-fr fi-fr fi-fr fr fi-fr fi-fr –

Root and bioturbation traces Pebbles clusters Pebbles clusters

Bioturbation traces, Pebbles clusters Thin fine duricrust laminae

– Undetermined. 1 Munsell chart. 2 Two variations on the soil textural triangle, based on the USDA standards. 3 g: granular, sb: subangular blocky, l: platy, p: prismatic developed as astrong, bmedium, clow, m: massive. 4 h: hard, s: soft, sy: slightly. 5 fr: friable, fi: firm.

rhyolite lithic fragments (gravel) were incorporated into the flows, generating gravelly mud sediments (Fig. 3). Conversely, this lithofacies was also produced through the reworking of colluvium and through the covering of gravel by earthflows (Thomas, 1994) as evidenced by the thinness of colluvial layers with gravel (< 30 cm – Fig. 3). Thus, gravelly mud colluvium sediments were generated by mixing mud with gravel from the source material and through colluvium reworking (de Meis and Moura, 1984). Mud and gravelly mud colluvium sediments dominate the landscape of the Palmas/Caçador summit surface, filling and burying (siltation) paleovalley heads and bases of 1st- and 2ndorder paleovalleys (Fig. 3). The siltation of these low-order valleys was not continuous over time without sedimentation in areas where erosion predominated. Gullies developed in hollows of valley heads; in floodplains of the valley bases of 1st- and 2nd-order valleys and in cut paleosols and paleosol/ colluvium, paleosol/colluvium-alluvium, alluvium/colluvium and colluvium/colluvium sequences (Figs. 3, 4a). With the resumption of sedimentation, these erosive features were silted by mud sediments and gravelly mud, forming paleogullies (Botha et al., 1994). Sediments that filled the gullies, valley heads and 1st- and 2nd-order channels (Fig. 4a, e, f) occasionally underwent subtle textural modifications with the development of plane-parallel laminations due to the addition of water both by sheet-wash overland flow and through the confinement of viscous flows within the gullies. Due to the short distance (on average 100 m) traveled by the viscous flows, these sediments retain characteristics of the colluvial material (Paisani et al., 2016) although they are not exclusively colluvial. Given this, they are considered sediments of colluvial-alluvial origin (Fig. 3), but they can also be referred to as co-alluviums (Cremeens and Lothrop, 2001; Cremeens et al., 2003; Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005). Alluvial layers are thin (< 1.5 m in thickness) with a lateral extension of < 50 m and with massive subfacies of gravel, gravelly mud, and mud. These gravels are oligomictic (rhyolite, chalcedony, and quartz geodes) with a gibbsite matrix film placed in abrupt contact with hydromorphic rhyolite/saprolite with a predominance of drainage axes in the paleovalley base of 2nd-order valleys (Figs. 3, 5b). Gravelly mud (silty clay to clay loam) is common in the paleovalleys base of 1st-order,

and of the Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA, University of São Paulo – Brazil) using the PDB standards (Belemnitella americana fossil of the Peedee Formation – RPDB) as a reference as demonstrated by expression δ13C (‰) = [(Rsample − RPDB) / RPDB] × 1000 (Pessenda et al., 2005). To facilitate the stable carbon isotope analysis, phytolith indices were established for the main pedostratigraphic levels of the geomorphic units. The extraction, measurement and identification of phytoliths were based on Alvarez et al. (2008), Calegari et al. (2013) and ICPN 1.0 (Madella et al., 2005), respectively, and were carried out at the Phytolith Extraction and Optical Microscopy laboratories of the Center for Paleoenvironmental Studies (NEPA) of the State University of Western Paraná. We applied the tree cover density index (D/P ratio), which measures the ratio between a typical phytolith of dicotyledons (globular granule) and the sum of typical Poaceae phytoliths (bilobate short cell, cross, saddle, acicular, elongate, cuneiform and parallelepiped bulliform cells) and the humidity-aridity index (Iph), which is the percentage ratio between phytoliths of Chloridoideae grasses (saddle) and the sum of saddles with phytoliths typical of Panicoideae grasses (cross and bilobate short cells) (Twiss, 1992; Alexandre et al., 1997; Bremond et al., 2005; Coe et al., 2014).

3. Results 3.1. Facies Colluvial strata are thin (< 1 m in thickness) with a lateral extension of < 100 m, are massive and composed of mud (clay to silty clay) to gravelly mud (Figs. 3, 4), are yellowish red to dark yellowish brown in color (5YR 5/6 to 10YR – Munsell Chart), and include fragments of duricrusts (< 0.05 m) and peds (pedorelics/pedosediments – Mücher and Morozova, 1983; Fedoroff et al., 2010) from A and B horizons (Paisani et al., 2016), (Fig. 4b, d). Mud colluvium were generated from the recurrence of earthflows observed on hillslopes eroding partially melanized soils. Clays to silty clays are composed of a mixture of materials derived from B (clay-rich) and C (silt-rich) horizons from the regolith source of the sediments (Paisani and Geremia, 2010). When the regoliths were shallow (≤1 m), chalcedony granules and altered 7

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic records in hollows of paleovalley heads (a, b, c, d, and e) and 2nd –order paleochannel (f). (a) Two generations of paleogullies cutting into paleosol (19Ab-20Cgb horizons) covered with colluvium-alluvium. (b) Pedorelics (black sediments) at the base of the 12Cb horizon originate from 19 Ab horizon in Hs14 section. (c) Abrupt contact between gravelly mud colluvium (6Cb horizon) and buried paleosol (7Ab to 7CRgb horizons). (d) Abrupt contact between pedogenized colluvium (4Ab horizon), organo-mineral gravelly mud colluvium (3Cb horizon) and organo-mineral mud colluvium (2ACb horizon). (e) Plane-parallel laminations (11 Cb horizon) in colluvium-alluvium filling gully in paleovalley head. (f) Plane-parallel laminations (7Cb horizon) in colluvium-alluvium filling 2nd –order paleovalley.

channels (Reineck and Singh, 1980). Saprolite is shallow (< 3 m) and residual in the phases of pre-removal of the regoliths, being buried and preserved at the foot of the slopes, hollows of the valley heads and at the base of the valleys (Figs. 4a, 5b). It consists of mud (clay loam, loam, silty loam) and has colors ranging from pale red (2.5YR 7/2), yellowish red (5YR 5/8), brownish yellow (10YR 6/8), light olive brown/pale brown (2.5YR 5/ 4–8/4) (Figs. 4c, e, 5b), with possible presence of fine (< 3 cm)

presenting imbricated pebbles, subtle plane-parallel stratification, and undergoing pedogenesis (Fig. 3, 5a). The mud (clay, silty clay, clay loam) presents randomly distributed granules (rhyolite, chalcedony, and quartz geodes) but stands out for having the greatest expression of pedogenesis (Fig. 3, 5). The continuous gradation of gravelly facies, gravelly mud and mud expresses a predominance of a flow regime from high to low capacity/competence linked to a hydrodynamic phenomenon that occurred along the entire cross section of 1st- and 2nd-order

8

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic records in small alluvial fan (Hs 12 section) in active 4th- order valley base and in 2nd- order paleochannel (Hs 10 section). (a) Gravelly mud alluvium and gravelly mud alluvium overlapping gravelly mud colluvium and paleosols in a small alluvial fan. (b) Gravelly mud (4Cgb horizon) and pedogenized mud alluvium (3Ab-3Cgb horizons) buried under pedogenized mud colluvium (2Ab-2Cb horizons) along a 2nd-order paleovalley.

floodplains date to the Middle-Upper Holocene. Ages ≥28.35 ± 0.24 ky cal BP are recorded in pedogenized colluvium of the small alluvial fan (14Ab, 24BCb-Hs12), in organo-mineral sediments and in pedogenized alluviums found along paleovalley base of 1st- and 2nd-order valleys (3Ab-Hs6, 6Ab-Hs1, 7Ab-Hs2) and especially in the Ab paleohorizons of the valley heads (4Ab, 5Ab, 6Ab-Hs13, 19Ab-Hs14, 4Ab-Hs16, 7Ab-Hs17) (Table 2, Fig. 3). These results show that prior to this age, an extended period of pedogenesis affected the hillslopes and base of low-order valleys. One cannot specify the start of this period. It is known that organic matter at the base of one of the Ab horizons dates to the last 44.86 ± 0.73 ky cal BP (6Ab-Hs1), covering the Upper Pleistocene (Table 2, Figs. 3, 7a). When correlating the time of the oldest ages of pedostratigraphic records of the study area with isotopic oxygen stratigraphy (Brandley, 1999), calibrated ages refer to the interval of 28.35 ± 0.24 (4Ab-Hs16) at 44.86 ± 0.73 Ky cal BP (6Ab-Hs1) occurring near at the end of the Last Interstadial (Marine Isotopic Stage 3 – MIS 3) (Cortese and Abelmann, 2002; Long and Stoy, 2013; Rabassa and Ponce, 2013). Conversely, pedogenized colluvium in hollows of valley heads (5AbHs17) and organo-mineral sediments in small alluvial fans (9CAb-Hs12) record ages of 21.81 ± 0.12 and 23.69 ± 0.19 ky cal BP (Table 2). These ages suggest that some sites at the base of low-order valleys remained stable until the Last Glacial Maximum (Marine Isotopic Stage 2 – MIS 2), as is the case of the 2nd-order paleovalley base (4Cb-Hs1) as evidenced by the ages of 13.28 ± 0.07 and 13.49 ± 0.11 ky cal BP found from pedorelic of epipedon in colluvium (Table 2, Figs. 3, 7a).

duricrust (CRcgb horizon – Fig. 3). The pedo-geochemistry of saprolite suggests that it has been formed under a relatively humid/cold climatic regime under hydromorphic conditions and is in the stage of partial acidolysis (Paisani et al., 2014). Buried paleosols developed from saprolite and on colluvium and alluviums in valley heads and in the bases of 1st- and 2nd-order valleys. Due to recurrent phases of landscape instability, paleosols developed from saprolite are rare and restricted to the hollows of two cases of paleovalley heads (Hs14, Hs17 sections – Fig. 3, Table 1). In these locations, as well as in the paleovalley bases of 1st- and 2nd-order valleys (Hs1, Hs2, and Hs10 sections – Fig. 3), they established themselves in proximity to the water table (hydromorphy) and presented a sequence of Ab-ACb-Cgb-CRgb horizons of black/very dark black in color (10YR 2/1–2/2), which shifts with depth to dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2). On the other hand, the tops of the Ab horizons present peds of loose subangular blocks resulting from periods of desiccation (Paisani et al., 2014) that were incorporated into the base of the overlying colluvium. Generally speaking, Ab horizons are composed of clay when developed from saprolite and can include clay, silty clay or silty clay loam when established on colluviums and alluviums, where they express the sedimentological inheritance of parent materials. Fossilized fasciculate roots and high carbon content levels (~80 g·kg−1) are markers of pedogenesis in these horizons (Paisani et al., 2014). Paleosols with a sequence of horizons truncated by erosion (Ab, Ab-Cb, Ab-ACb, Ab-Cgb, BCb-Cb, Cgb, and CAb) are frequent in the pedostratigraphic sequences studied (Fig. 3). The recurrence of horizons expressing epipedons (Ab, ACb, and CAb) and a case of an endopedon (BCb – Hs12) in the same stratigraphic sequence constitute a complex pedostratigraphic record known as pedocomplex or compound paleosol (Catt, 1991; Wright, 1992; Fedoroff et al., 2010). They serve important records of pedogenetic/geogenetic dynamics, as they suggest the presence of erosion/ sedimentation phases over the course of environmental stability that favored pedogenesis and the formation of epi- and endopedons. 3.2. Chronology of pedogenesis periods by

3.3. Chronology of sedimentation/erosion periods by OSL The ages of the colluvial-alluvial/colluvium quartz grains determined by OSL ranged from 0.51 ± 0.05 to 45.10 ± 5.35 ky BP (Table 3) with concentrations of 4.60 ± 0.67 (9Cb-Hs14) at 10.30 ± 0.92 ky BP (4Cb-Hs1) and 16.75 ± 2.43 (18Cb-Hs14) at 22.20 ± 1.72ky BP (5Cb-Hs2) corresponding to the Middle/Lower Holocene (MIS 1) and Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2), respectively. Nevertheless, the colluviums-alluviums established at 45.10 ± 5.35 ky BP (7Cb-Hs20) suggest that in some cases, 2nd-order valley base still initiated the siltation process in the Last Interstadial (MIS 3) (Table 3, Fig. 3) after the sudden erosion of the floodplain (Ribeiro, 2016). This phenomenon was the only one recorded in our survey and appears to represent the adaptiveness of the 2nd-order valley base to changes in the level of the local base in view of tectonic control. Local phenomena were responsible for shaping the youngest colluvium (0.51 ± 0.05 ky BP) recorded in the paleovalley head (2Cb-Hs13). In this case, the process corresponds to an erosive/depositional event occurring over the course of the natural stability of the Upper Holocene landscape

14

C

The age of the humin fraction of Ab horizons, organo-mineral sediments and charcoal determined by radiocarbon dating varied from 0.74 ± 0.06 to 44.86 ± 0.73 ky cal BP (Table 2). These records allow us to identify two periods of pedogenesis in which hillslopes and valley base of low-order valleys experienced the least erosion. Younger ages (≤ 2.60 ± 0.28 ky cal BP) were found in A horizons of the modern 4th-order channel floodplain (A horizon-Hs7) and at the top of the pedostratigraphic sequence of the 2nd-order paleovalley base (2AbHs1) (Table 2, Figs. 3, 7a). These ages demonstrate that modern pedogenesis on the hillslopes, hollows of valley heads, and valley base of 9

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Table 2 Ages of paleo-epipedons, organic-mineral sediments, charcoals and pedorelics determined by Section

Horizon

Paleovalley head Hs11 14Cbd Hs13h 4Ab 5Ab 6Ab Hs14h 19Ab Hs16 4Ab Hs17 5Ab 7Ab

Calibrated age (cal kyr BP)b

ƍ13C (‰)

UGAMS-8875 Beta-351573 Beta-351572 Beta-351571 Beta-351574 Beta-420525 Beta-420527 Beta-420526

1.44 ± 0.02 25.41 ± 0.12 26.69 ± 0.14 37.78 ± 0.39 27.36 ± 0.14 24.35 ± 0.10 18.05 ± 0.06 24.69 ± 0.10

1.33 ± 0.67g 30.32 ± 0.13f 31.18 ± 0.11f 42.38 ± 0.50f 31.46 ± 0.14f 28.35 ± 0.24f 21.31 ± 0.12f 28.69 ± 0.16f

−14.7 −16.8 −17.0 −13.9 −17.1 −16,8 −17,4 −15,6

Top

CENA-1168

24.85 ± 0.67

29.66 ± 1.28g

−18.4

Beta-282539 Beta-282540 Beta-351568 UGAMS-8874 Beta-280518 CEN-1167

0.83 ± 0.04 11.42 ± 0.05 11.64 ± 0.05 29.05 ± 0.08 41.16 ± 0.08 30.60 ± 0.70

0.74 ± 0.06f 13.28 ± 0.07f 13.49 ± 0.11f 33.75 ± 0.50g 44.86 ± 0.73f 35.07 ± 1.54g

−14,7 −19,2 −17,5 −17.4 −16.8 −16.6

CEN-1169 Beta-351570 UGAMS-8876 Beta-351569

2.52 ± 0.02 19.84 ± 0.08 23.80 ± 0.05 28.88 ± 0.16

2.60 ± 0.28g 23.69 ± 0.19f 28.57 ± 0.51g 33.45 ± 0.42f

−23.1 −19.6 −22.9 −24.6

Depth

Laboratory code

40 15 20 30 125 30 15 30

Top Center Center Center Top Top Center Top

Paleovalley base - 2nd-order stream Hs1 2Ab 20 75 4Cbd 6Abg

80

7Ab

35

Center Base Base Top Base Top

Valley base - 4th -order stream Hs7 A 40 HS12h 9CAbc 30 14Ab 15 e 24BCb 15

Base Center Center Top

Hs2h

a b c d e f g h

C dating.

Measured age (14C ky BP)

Thickness (cm)

Paleovalley base - 1st-order stream Hs6 3Abc 50

14

a

UGAMS (Center for Applied Isotope Studies – University of Georgia/USA), Beta (Beta Analytic/USA), and CEN (Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture/Brazil). 2σ, 95% probability. Organic-mineral sediment. Pedorelic. Charcoal. Mean calibrated by Beta Analytic Inc. Calibrated by CALIB Radiocarbon Calibration, version 7.0.4 (Stuiver et al., 2018). Based on Paisani et al. (2014).

3.4. δ13C and phytolith indices

generated by the management area by pre-colonization Native Americans (Jeske-Pieruschka et al., 2010). In general, the ages obtained by OSL are consistent with the positioning of colluvial and colluvial-alluvial layers within the pedostratigraphic sequences (Fig. 3).

δ13C values of pedostratigraphic units for the paleovalley heads (Hs13 and Hs17 sections), 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1), colluvial ramp (Hs18) and small alluvial fan (Hs12), which integrate the base of the 4th-order active valley, varied from −12.52 to −24.60 (Fig. 6). In turn, the concentration of phytoliths in relation to minerals in the silt

Table 3 Ages of colluviums and colluviums-alluviums determined by OSL dating. Dec (Gy)

Age (ky BP)

0.12 0.11 0.14 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.08

25.26 23.42 24.3 19.7 23.4 26.4 18.64 17.50

3.42 3.46 3.58 3.68 3.43 3.68 3.81 3.99

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

0.18 0.19 0.35 0.24 0.18 0.35 0.21 0.16

1.75 21.20 16.50 25.00 23.80 61.50 32.45 23.45

0.51 ± 0.05 6.13 ± 0.65 4.60 ± 0.67 6.80 ± 0.78 6.95 ± 0.71 16.75 ± 2.43 8.52 ± 0.89 5.88 ± 0.53

0.03 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.08

11.5 27.7 33.8 4.0 21.40 23.70

3.31 3.90 3.45 3.07 3.98 4.15

± ± ± ± ± ±

0.13 0.21 0.15 0.09 0.21 0.29

34.10 33.00 30.00 68.20 86.60 187.3

10.30 ± 0.92 8.50 ± 0.88 8.66 ± 0.81 22.20 ± 1.72 21.70 ± 2.22 45.10 ± 5.35

0.65 ± 0.09

16.32

3.74 ± 0.26

73.93

19.77 ± 2.35

Lab. code

232

Paleovalley head 2Cb Hs13d 3Cb d Hs14 9Cb 14Cb 14Cb 18Cb Hs16d 3Cb Hs17d 4Cb

Center Base Base Base Base Base Base Base

4195 4196 3950 3953 3951 3952 4197 4199

18.65 19.89 21.43 25.34 21.67 24.24 20.55 24.32

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

0.67 0.72 0.77 0.91 0.78 0.87 0.74 0.88

4.88 4.82 4.16 5.06 4.83 5.48 6.06 6.13

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

0.01 0.10 0.57 0.39 0.13 0.80 0.19 0.02

0.81 0.75 0.94 0.47 0.59 0.53 0.69 0.57

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

Paleovalley base - 2nd-order stream Hs1 4Cb Top 3480 4Cb Center 3479 Hs2 2Cb Base 3483 5Cb Center 3481 Hs20d 2Cb Base 4485 7Cb Center 4484

22.87 19.13 21.97 17.35 24.03 22.76

± ± ± ± ± ±

0.82 0.69 0.79 0.63 0.87 0.82

7.33 7.23 7.19 5.47 6.83 7.70

± ± ± ± ± ±

0.47 0.25 0.26 0.04 0.29 0.55

0.21 0.09 0.16 0.18 0.46 0.54

± ± ± ± ± ±

Valley base - 4th-order stream Hs18d 4Cb Center

20.67 ± 0.76

a b c d

4201

U + 235U (ppm)

Dab (μGy.ano−1)

Depth

Th (ppm)

238

Moisturea (%)

Level

Section

40

5.71 ± 0.40

K (%)

Present-day water content determined by this gravimetric day. Annual dose rates. Equivalent dose. Based on Lima (2016), Lopes-Paisani et al. (2016), Paisani et al. (2016) and Ribeiro (2016). 10

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Fig. 6. δ13C depth profiles of the pedostratigraphic units of paleovalley heads, the 2nd-order paleovalley base, the colluvium ramp (Hs18 section) and the small alluvial fan (Hs12 section) that integrate the active 4th-order valley base.

order paleovalley base (Hs1), and of the small alluvial fan (Hs12) positioned at 13.28 to < 28.57 ky BP (Fig. 6). Though not observed in the 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1) we find an isotopic signal indicating a mixture of C3 and C4 plants with a predominance of C4 towards the Holocene (MIS1) (Fig. 6). C4 plants dominated hydromorphic paleosols (Ab horizons) established during the Last Interstadial (MIS3) (> 28.69 to > 44.86 ky BP) in hollows of the paleovalley heads and in 2nd-order valley base and maintain an isotopic sign of vegetation composed of mesophytic grasses due to their proximity to the water table while the pedocomplex of the valley head hollow (Hs13) carries an isotopic signal from the Campo Cerrado covering hillslopes between > 30.32 and < 42.38 ky BP (Fig. 6). A significant isotopic signal is detected in the colluvium ramp (Hs18) and colluvium of the small alluvial fan (Hs12) where δ13C values become more negative (−19.87‰ to −22.70‰) with depth, pointing to a growing mixture of C3/C4 plants with a predominance of C3 with plant formations composed of shrubs, trees, and some Poaceae (Pessenda et al., 1996, 2005) (Fig. 6). This pattern of δ13C values is compatible with the isotopic signal of modern soil below the Mixed Ombrophilous Forest with Araucaria augustifolia (MOFA) in the Paraná Basin Volcanic Plateau (Calegari, 2008) and can be used as a parameter for the identifying MOFA along the 4th-order valley base between 28.57 and 33.45 ky BP (Paisani et al., 2014).

fraction of pedostratigraphic records ranged from < 1% to 63.78%, being closer to the surface (Ap horizon) and decreasing to the point of disappearing with depth (Paisani et al., 2013b; Lopes-Paisani, 2015; Lopes-Paisani et al., 2016), preventing the continuous application of phytolith indices (Table 4). The isotopic sign modified through the agricultural use of the area is perceived from the Ap horizons of Hs13 and Hs1 sections whereas less negative values of between −17‰ and − 13‰ are recorded for Ap horizons of the other sections while underlying horizons introduce isotopic signals of natural vegetation in the area characterized by Campos Limpos (steppe – predominance of Poaceae) (Fig. 6). From the valley heads we identified an isotopic signal of vegetation composed of plants with a C4 photosynthetic pattern (grasses – mostly Poaceae) from 0.51 ky BP to the erosive/depositional gap of > 6.13 ky BP (Hs13), as the δ13C values are less negative que −17‰ (Fig. 3), which is consistent with the D/P phytolith indices (Table 4). Nevertheless, there is a trend of more negative values with depth, indicating intensifying mixture with C4 shrub species (Paisani et al., 2013b), characterizing the isotopic signals of Campo Cerrado (savanna – grass with shrubs). This characteristic extends to ~10.30 ky BP of the 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1) colluvial sequence and is detected from the colluvial ramp (Ap-2Bb horizons/Hs18) whereas in the small alluvial fan the sequence maintains the Campo Limpo signal with depth (Ap-7Cb/Hs12) (Fig. 6). Phytolith index values Iph for the time interval of 0.51 (Hs13) to 10.30 ky BP (Hs1) are high (> 20–40%) with grasses dominated by Choridoideae (savanna with short xerophytic grasses) and consequently with relatively warm and dry climatic conditions (Bremond et al., 2005). Given that the colluvial sequences represent vegetation that occupied convex summits and hillslopes that delimited low-order valleys and the catchment area of the 4th-order active valley base, it can be said that there was a gradual replacement of Campo Cerrado by Campo Limpo from the Lower Holocene to the Upper Holocene (MIS1). The substitution of Campo Cerrado vegetation (relatively more closed) by Campo Limpo is seen as indicative of climate changes to drier conditions and vice-versa (Maack, 1948, 1949) (Fig. 7c). In this sense, the subtle register of negative values of the δ13C in the colluvium of the 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1 section) denotes fluctuations to wetter conditions at between < 13.28 and > 10.30 ky BP (Fig. 6), which is coherent with redoximorphic micro-morphological patterns observed from the microfabric of its material (Lima et al., 2017). δ13C values drawn from pedostratigraphic records for the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2) are present in the colluvium sequences of paleovalley heads (Hs17), of the colluvium ramp (Hs18), of the 2nd-

4. Discussion 4.1. Changes in hydrodynamics of 2nd-order channels in a humid climate (> 44.86 ky BP) Ancient pedostratigraphic records are restricted to remnants of saprolite found in the foothills of hillslopes and valley base as well as to alluvial sequences, gravel, gravelly mud and mud found along the floors of drainage axes of paleovalley base of 2nd-order valleys. While it is not possible to date these records, the 14C calibrated age of the oldest paleosol organic matter established on alluvial mud (44.86 ± 0.73 ky cal BP-Hs1) suggests that in a preceding period (Last Interstadial) the 2ndorder drainage channels underwent a change in flow regime from high to low stream capacity/competence (Fig. 7). This change in the flow regime is unrelated to the formation of a bar by lateral channel migration and is linked to the hydrodynamic phenomenon occurring along the entire cross-section of the channel, because the sediments occur in a plane-parallel form throughout the central extension of the canal. This 11

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

capacity/competence detected in 2nd-order channels can be attributed to local base-level changes caused by ascending knickpoints positioned in front of normal faults (Lima and Binda, 2013; Jacques et al., 2014; Ribeiro, 2016). This phenomenon must have occurred along the base of 3rd-order valleys and would explain the absence of stratigraphic records available for this hierarchical order and for the fossilization of low-order valley while high-order valleys (≥4th-order) have remained active to the present.

Table 4 Phytolith indices. Section

Level

Depth

D/Pa

Iph (%)b

Paleovalley head Hs13c

Ap

Top Base Center Top Base Center Top Base Top Top Base Top Base – Top Center Base Top

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 0 0 0 – 0 0 0 –

11 – – – 21 40 88 d – – 60 79 44 74 – 75 100 d – –

Top Base Top Base Top Base Center Top Center Based

0 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 –

3 6 5 – – – – – – –

Center Top Base Center Center Center – –

0 0 0 0 0 0 – –

35 65 83 43 – 80d – –

2ACb 2Cb 3ACb 3Cb

Hs17

4Abe Ap 2ACb 3Cb 4Cb

5Abe Paleovalley base - 2nd-order stream Ap Hs1c 2Ab 2Cb 3Cb 4Cb

Valley base - 4th-order stream Hs18c Ap 2Bb

Hs12e

3Cb 4Cb 5Cb 6Cbe –

4.2. Domain of progressive pedogenesis for humid and cold climates (~28.35 to < 44.86 ky BP) At ~28.35 to < 44.86 ky BP (Last Interstadial – MIS3) hydromorphic soils developed in hollows of valley heads and along low-order valley bases (< 4th-order), showing that erosion/sedimentation was minimal on the hillslopes and that the stable phase of the landscape predominated with progressive pedogenesis (horizonation, developmental upbuilding, and soil deepening (Johnson et al., 1990) occurring in these geomorphic units (Fig. 7). Conversely, steep hillslopes on the ≥4th-order valley base flanks have developed colluvium ramps (Hs18 section) that persist in the landscape to the present day (Figs. 7b, 2). In addition to this geomorphic unit, there is a small alluvial fan (Hs12 section) with buried paleosol pedocomplexes denoting the recurrence of erosion/sedimentation controlled by the slope. Ages of paleosols in paleovalley heads and in < 4th-order paleovalley base of other summit surface areas of the Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus for a time interval of 31.65 to 41.04 ky BP (Oliveira et al., 2008; Pereira, 2017; Pagotto, 2018) showing the earliest progressive pedogenesis period of the study area as an example of the regional scope of the landscape's morphoclimatic stability phase. The δ13C value suggests the field of progressive pedogenesis was dominated by covered Campo Cerrado (savannah with steppes and Poaceae) hillslopes, Campo Limpo with mesophytic grasses predominating the hollows of valley heads and floodplains of the < 4th-order valley base whereas the forest (MOFA) included vegetation of the flanks of 4th-order valley base (Fig. 7b). Forests observed in < 4th-order valley base and along Campo Cerrado hillslopes and summit surfaces of southern Brazil are similar to those of modern conditions and are seen as indicative of a humid hydrological regime (Maack, 1948, 1949). Thus, at the end of the Last Interstadial, the landscape of the Palmas/Caçador summit surface was stable with progressive pedogenesis under humid climatic conditions with only a subtle decline in humidity as it traveled away upstream from the main drainage axes (≤4th-order). The climate was cold enough to allow for melanization and for the formation of humic and mollic horizons similar to the current one. The paleoclimatic regime correlates with palynological data interpretations of the Cambará do Sul core (Vacaria Summit Surface – Fig. 1) located ~300 km south of the study area (Behling et al., 2004) (Fig. 7c), which suggests that summit surfaces of the Paraná Basin Volcanic Plateau were of the same wet and cold regional climatic regime of the Last Interstadial (MIS 3) (Behling et al., 2009) (Fig. 7c). It should be noted, however, that palynological records of other cores present local climatic signals that contrast with regional signals of the time (Spalding and Lorscheitter, 2015).

a Density index = typical phytolith of dicotyledons and the sum of typical Poaceae phytoliths. b Humidity-aridity index = phytoliths of Chloridoideae grasses and the sum of saddles with phytoliths typical of Panicoideae grasses (%). c Based on Lopes-Paisani (2015), Lopes-Paisani et al. (2016), and Paisani et al. (2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2017). d The low concentration of phytoliths increases the index to its maximum percentage, distorting the results. e Not determined from this level due to an absence or very low concentrations of phytoliths (< 2.5%).

significant change in stream capacity/competence led to a change in the sedimentation contributions of channels and in the current flow regime of the hypodermic flow passing through the swamp along the base of 2nd-order valleys. Consequently, on the clayey alluvial sediments Campo Limpo vegetation established with mesophytic grasses in which deep gley soils developed, transgressing alluvial sediments and shaping the formation of saprolite along the base of the valleys (Birkeland, 1999). The vegetation and Gley soil confirm that changes in the capacity/competence of the 2nd-order channel stream were controlled by fluvial hydrodynamics unrelated to climate change (Leopold et al., 1995) and by a predominance of humid climatic conditions at the basin scale for the low-order valleys. This climatic regime was also recorded from high-order valleys base (≥4th-order) as demonstrated by the forest register for the flank of the 4th-order valley base for the period of > 33.45 ky BP (Hs12 section). ≥4th-order base included drainage channels of maximum stream capacity/competence (Fig. 7b) as suggested by an absence of old sedimentary sequences in the 4thorder valley base analyzed (H7 section). Thus, changes in stream

4.3. Start of regressive pedogenesis in dry climatic conditions (> 23.69 to ~28 ky BP) At > 23.69 to ~28.35 ky BP (Last Glacial/Last Interstadial transition – MIS2/MIS3) from pedostratigraphic records of the colluvium ramp we found valley head hollows and low-order valley base at the start of the domain of regressive pedogenesis (haploidization, retardant upbuilding and soil thinning - (Johnson et al., 1990) (Fig. 7b). In this period, colluvial sedimentation was limited to the colluvial ramp (Hs18) and small alluvial fan (Hs12) of the 4th-order valley base while valley head hollows and low-order valleys submitted hydromorphic 12

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

Fig. 7. Paleoenvironmental dynamic of paleovalleys for the last 50 ky BP based on the pedostratigraphic records (inspired by Knox, 1972). (a) Calibrated 14C and OSL ages. oms = organo-mineral sediment. (b) Stream competence/capacity dynamics; hillslope erosion; erosion by gullies; sedimentation; pedogenesis (model developed by Johnson et al., 1990) and vegetation formations on hillslopes, valley heads and valley base. (c) Inheritance of the paleoclimatic regime to the Palmas/Caçador Summit Surface based on sedimentological, pedological and stable isotope carbon proxies originating from the pedostratigraphic records analyzed and their correlations with regional paleoclimatic information (Behling et al., 2004).

The start of the filling of low-order valley base was not synchronous while 2nd order valley base were filled from the dry phase of the start of the regressive pedogenesis (< 23.69 ky BP). Valley heads underwent a previous erosion phase with the formation of gullies and with filling at < 16.75 ky BP, as demonstrated by the ages of the stratigraphic records of Hs18 section. Erosion with gully development was recurrent and corresponded to three phases (28.35 to > 16.75 ky BP, < 16.65 to > 6.80 ky BP, and < 6.80 to > 4.60 ky BP) dominated by overland flows, which truncated paleosols and sedimentary sequences deposited mainly into the hollows of valley heads (Fig. 7b). Interspersed to these erosive phases, extreme hydrological events generated earthflows and debris flows that culminated in the formation of colluvial and colluvial-alluvial mud and gravelly mud sediments that filled the hollows of valley heads, gullies and 1st- and 2nd-order valley base. The filling of the valley base of < 4th-order valleys extended to the Middle Holocene with the complete siltation of low-order valleys while sedimentation in the ≥4th-order valleys was restricted to the colluvium ramp and small alluvial fan. Vegetation in this period is marked by the progressive replacement of Campo Cerrado with Campo Limpo on the hillslopes of the bases of ≤4th-order valleys (Fig. 7b), suggesting a gradual shift from the hydrological regime to a drier one as indicated by δ13C and phytolith index Iph. In fact, regional palynological data suggest that the Late Maximum Glaciation to the Middle Holocene prevailed in Brazil's southern plateau under dry and locally semi-arid climates (Behling et al., 2004; Leonhardt and Lorscheitter, 2010; Spalding and Lorscheitter, 2015). Nevertheless, the recurrence of mud and gravelly

paleosols to desiccation and truncated by sheet-wash Overland flow. This flow controlled erosion and extended from the hillslopes to the base of ≤4th-order valleys while not accumulating sediments. The δ13C value for the colluvium ramp and small alluvial fan indicate a shift in vegetation from forest to Campo Cerrado on the flank of the 4th-order valley base in this phase. Thus, one might argue that the desiccation and erosion of hydromorphic paleosols in the low-order valley base denotes responses of the landscape to wet-to-dry climatic changes with concentrated episodic precipitation and with upstream predominance in the 4th-order valleys. The maintenance of regoliths on hillslopes and inexpressive colluvial sedimentation in the base of low-order valleys do not correspond with the assumption that the transition from wet to dry climate regimes triggered the destabilization of regoliths and the formation of colluvial deposits in Brazil during the Quaternary (Bigarella and Andrade, 1965; Bigarella et al., 1965). 4.4. Filling of low-order base in dry climatic conditions with fluctuations in the wetness and fullness of regressive pedogenesis (> 2.60 to ~23.69 ky BP) At > 2.60 and ~23.69 ky BP (the Upper Holocene to the Last Glacial Maximum), the landscape of the Palmas/Caçador surface summit underwent its greatest modification. The continuous erosion of hillslopes and the sedimentation of the base of low-order valleys culminated in the complete filling of valley heads and 1st- and 2nd-order valleys with the predominance of regressive pedogenesis on the hillslopes (Fig. 7). 13

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

mud sediments generated by earthflows and debris flows is indicative of a dry hydrological regime punctuated by millenary wet fluctuations (Thomas, 2004; Lima et al., 2017) at least from ≤4.60 to 19.77 ky BP. This is the case of the 2nd-order paleovalley base (Hs1 section) whose negative δ13C values indicate fluctuations to wetter conditions from > 10.30 to < 13.28 ky BP (Figs. 6, 7c). This correlation has been observed in the palynological cores of São Francisco de Paula (Leonhardt and Lorscheitter, 2010; Scherer and Lorscheitter, 2014; Spalding and Lorscheitter, 2015). The low chronological resolution of the pedostratigraphic records does not allow for the verification of the correlations of fluctuations to humid millenary paleoclimatic events detected in Greenland and Antarctica (EPICA, 2006). Conversely, climatic fluctuations to wetter conditions in a dry regime generating expressive morphogenesis on hillslopes and sedimentation in low hierarchical basins correspond to the Knox (1972) model of geogenetic responses to abrupt climatic changes observed at the millenarian scale. At < 10.30 ky BP Campo Limpo included full settlement on the hillslopes of its ≤4th-order valley base (Fig. 7b), indicating a return of the climatic regime at > 13.28 ky BP but with drier conditions and with the maintenance of intercalation between phases of erosion/sedimentation to > 2.60 ky BP (Fig. 7b, c). A similar climatic regime was observed in palynological cores taken from São Francisco de Paula (Vacaria Summit Surface) at < 10 ky BP (Spalding and Lorscheitter, 2015; Scherer and Lorscheitter, 2014; Leonhardt and Lorscheitter, 2010). Nevertheless, there are divergences between palynological records on the resumption of humidification, which vary from 5.6 to 7.5 ky BP, whereas for the regional core a value of ≤4.32 ky BP was found (Fig. 7c). In any case, it is possible that the rewetting has reestablished the expansion of the drainage network by paths other than those through which the low-order streams flow, generating new 1st- and 2nd-order drainage channels and valley heads with a subsequent fossilization of old low-order valley bases. In this phase of climate rewetting it appears that a reactivation of faults occurred with subsequent tectonic control in the reorganization of the drainage network (Ribeiro, 2016).

integration of litho-, pedo-, allo- and chronostratigraphic descriptions with stable carbon isotopes analyses, phytolith indices and 14C and OSL dating revealed that at > 44.86 ky BP, there was a change in the hydrodynamics of 2nd-order channels in wet climatic regimes controlled possibly by tectonics. At ~28.35 to < 44.86 ky BP, there was a predominance of progressive pedogenesis (Johnson's Model) under wet and cold climatic conditions with minimal erosion and stable landscape components. These features suggest that the Last Interstadial (MIS 3) was marked by a wet and cold hydrological regime with a dynamic equilibrium landscape, while other periods closer to the present express instabilities in the landscape were controlled by diverse climatic regimes. At > 23.69 to ~28 ky BP, regressive pedogenesis under dry climate conditions began with a predominance of erosion by overland flow. At > 2.60 to ~23.69 ky BP, fullness in regressive pedogenesis was observed under a continuous dry weather regime punctuated by millenary to wetter climatic fluctuations of between ≤4.60 and 19.77 ky BP, as postulated by Knox's model. During this period, there was an exchange of vegetation from Campo Cerrado to Campo Limpo and an alternation of erosion by overland flow to earthflow/debris flow on the hillslopes, generating colluvial and alluvial deposits that gradually filled and buried gullies, valley heads and 1st- and 2nd-order valley bases. Thus, from the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2) to the Middle Holocene (2/3 MIS1), maximum modifications to the landscape of the low-order basins occurred. At < 2.60 ky BP, the predominance of progressive pedogenesis returned under wet and cold climates and to forests on the flanks of ≥4th-order valley base and Campo Limpo on the hillslopes as established by the management practices initiated by precolonization Native Americans (Indians) and diffused by modern pastoral use. In short, the features of the plateau landscapes of southern Brazil heterogeneously responded to the climatic changes of the Late Quaternary. At the spatial scale, low-order (< 4th order) basins rapidly responded to changes and climatic fluctuations at the regional scale with changes in vegetation and in the course of pedogenesis and morphogenesis. These results suggests that the responses of low-order bases landscapes to regional climatic changes should be considered in the formulation of evolutionary models of subtropical landscapes.

4.5. Domain of progressive pedogenesis under humid and cold climatic conditions (< 2.60 ky BP)

Acknowledgments

At < 2.60 ky BP, modern climatic humidification and a predominance of progressive pedogenesis in the bases of valleys of the 4thorder are observed (Fig. 7c). On the hillslopes of the low-order valleys this phenomenon only occurred from the last millennium (Fig. 7b) in line with regional palynological records (≤1.10 ky BP – Behling et al., 2004) (Fig. 7c). Nevertheless, the short period of pedogenesis was insufficient in generating the expressive thickening of soils with a predominance of litolithic soils with an A humic horizon on the hillslopes and of hydromorphic materials in the hollows of valley heads and valley bases. Overland flow is the main morphogenetic agent, generating a cumulative A horizon at the bases of hillslope foothills and on colluvium ramps. At the local scale, young colluviums and gullies (< 1.33 ky BP) depict management of the area by pre-colonization Native American Indians (Jeske-Pieruschka et al., 2010). The landscape featured Campo Cerrado and forest vegetation in the flanks of ≥4thorder valleys to the present century, when it was replaced with Campo Limpo due to burning for the purposes of grazing and reforestation with Pinus elliotti (Paisani et al., 2014).

This paper was written based on research funded by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq) (Proc.300902/2015-8), the Brazilian Federal Agency for the Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – CAPES), and the Graduate Program in Geography of the State University of Western Paraná (Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná), Brazil. References Ab’Sábber, A.N., 1977. Espaços ocupados pela expansão dos climas secos na América do Sul por ocasião dos períodos glaciais quaternários. Paleoclimas 3, 1–19. Alexandre, A., Meunier, J.D., Lézine, A.M., Vincens, A., Scwartz, D., 1997. Phytoliths: indicators of grassland dynamics during the late Holocene in intertropical Africa. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 136, 213–229. Alvares, C.A., Stape, L., Sentelhas, P.C., Gonçalves, J.L.M., Sparovek, G., 2014. Köppen’s climate classification map for Brazil. Meteorol. Z. 22, 711–728. https://doi.org/10. 1127/0941-2948/2013/0507. Alvarez, M.F., Borrelli, N., Osterrieth, M., 2008. Extracción de biominerales silícios en distintos sedimentos utilizando dos técnicas básicas. In: Korstanje, M.A., Babot, M.P. (Eds.), Matices interdisciplinariosen estudios fitolíticos y otros microfósiles. British Archaeological Reports (BAR), Oxford, pp. 31–38. Behling, H., Pillar, V.D., Orlóci, L., Bauermann, S.G., 2004. Late Quaternary Araucaria forest, grassland (Campos), fire and climate dynamics, studied by high-resolution pollen, charcoal and multivariate analysis of the Cambará do Sul core in southern Brazil. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 203, 277–297. https://doi.org/10. 1016/S0031-0182(03)00687-4. Behling, H., Jeske-Pieruschka, V., Schüler, L., Pillar, V.P., 2009. Dinâmica dos campos no

5. Conclusions Pedostratigraphic records of low-order paleovalleys of Palmas/ Caçador summit surfaces (valley heads and 1st- and 2nd-order valleys) were shown to serve as important sources for the identification of components of landscapes (relief, soil, sediment, and vegetation) of plateau areas of southern Brazil in view of the environmental changes driven by climatic variations during the Late Quaternary. The 14

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

basalts of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 48, 262–270. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jsames.2013.10.004. Lima, F.J., Paisani, J.C., Côrrea, A.C.B., Pontelli, M.E., 2017. Micromorfologia de colúvios em sequencias pedoestratigráfica e litoestratigráfica – o caso das superfícies de Palmas/Água Doce (sul) e Planalto Sedimentar do Araripe (Nordeste do Brasil). Rev. Bras. Geomorfol. 18, 329–348. https://doi.org/10.20502/www.ugb.org.br rbg.v18i2. 983. Long, J.A., Stoy, P.C., 2013. Quantifying the periodicity of Heinrich and DasgaardOeschger events during Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3. Quat. Res. 79, 413–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2013.02.003. Lopes-Paisani, S.D.L., 2015. Significado paleoambiental de silicofitólitos em rampa de colúvio e paleocabeceira de drenagem na superfície de Palmas-Água Doce. Master's thesis. Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná. Lopes-Paisani, S.D.L., Paisani, J.C., Osterrieth, M.L., Pontelli, M.E., 2016. Significado paleoambientalde fitólitos em registro pedoestratigráfico de paleocabeceira de drenagem – superfície de Palmas-Água Doce (Sul do Brasil). Geocienc 35, 426–442. Maack, R., 1948. Notas preliminares sôbre clima, solos e vegetação do Estado do Paraná. Arq. Biol. Tecnol. III 101–225. Maack, R., 1949. Notas complementares à apresentação preliminar do mapa fitogeográfico do Estado do Paraná (Brasil). Arq. Mus. Parana. 7, 351–361. Madella, M., Alexandre, A., Ball, T., 2005. International code for phytolith nomenclature (ICPN 1.0). Ann. Bot. 96, 253–260. de Meis, M.R.M., Monteiro, A.M.F., 1979. Upper quaternary “rampas”: Doce river valley, Southeastern Brazilian plateau. Z.Geomorph. N.F. 23, 131–151. de Meis, M.R., Moura, J.R.D.S., 1984. Upper Quaternary sedimentation and hillslope evolution: Southeastern Brazilian Plateau. Am. J. Sci. 284, 241–254. Milani, E.J., Faccini, U.F., Scherer, C.M., Araújo, L.M., Cupertino, J.A., 1998. Sequences and stratigraphic hierarchy of the Paraná Basin (Ordovician to Cretaceous), Southern Brazil. Bol. IG USP, Ser. Cient. 29, 125–173. Modenesi-Gauttieri, M.C., Toledo, M.C.M., Hiruma, S.T., Taioli, F., Shimada, H., 2011. Deep weathering and landscape evolution in a tropical plateau. Catena 85, 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2011.01.006. Mücher, H.J., Morozova, T.D., 1983. The application of soil micromorphology in quaternary geology and geomorphology. In: Bullock, P., Murphy, C.P. (Eds.), Soil Micromorphology: Techinques and Applications. A B Academic Publishers, Rothamsted, pp. 151–194. Murray, A.S., Olley, J.M., 2002. Precision and accuracy in the optically stimulated luminescence dating of sedimentary quartz: a status review. Geochronom 21, 1–16. Murray, A.S., Wintle, A.G., 2000. Luminescence dating of quartz using an improved single aliquot regenerative-dose protocol. Radiat. Meas. 32, 57–73. Murray, A.S., Wintle, A.G., 2003. The single aliquot regenerative dose protocol: potential for improvements in reliability. Radiat. Meas. 37, 377–381. Nardy, A.J.R., Oliveira, M.A.F., Betancourt, R.H.S., Verdugo, D.R.H., Machado, F.B., 2002. Geologia e estratigrafia da Formação Serra Geral. Geocienc. 21, 15–32. Oliveira, M.A.T., Behling, H., Pessenda, L.C.R., 2008. Late-Pleistocene and mid-Holocene environmental changes in highland valley head areas of Santa Catarina state, Southern Brazil. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 26, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames. 2008.03.001. Pagotto, D., 2018. Pedogênese e morfogênese em cabeceira de drenagem no Planalto de Canoas (SC) no Quaternário tardio. Master's thesis. Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná. Paisani, J.C., Geremia, F., 2010. Evolução de encostas no planalto basáltico com base na análise de depósitos de colúvio – médio vale do rio Marrecas, SW do Paraná. Geocienc 29, 321–334. Paisani, J.C., Pontelli, M.E., Corrêa, A.C.B., Rodrigues, R.A.R., 2013a. Pedogeochemistry and micromorphology of oxisols – a basis for understanding etchplanation in the Araucárias Plateau (Southern Brazil) in the Late Quaternary. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 48, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2013.07.011. Paisani, J.C., Calegari, M.R., Pontelli, M.E., Pessenda, L.C.R., Côrrea, A.C.B., Paisani, S.D.L., Raitz, E., 2013b. O papel das mudanças climáticas do quaternário superior na dinâmica evolutiva de paleovale de segunda ordem (sul do Brasil). Rev. Bras. Geomorfol. 14, 103–116. Paisani, J.C., Pontelli, M.E., Osterrieth, M.L., Paisani, S.D.L., Fachin, A., Guerra, S., Oliveira, L., 2014. Paleosols in low-order streams and valley heads in the Araucaria Plateau – record of continental environmental conditions in Southern Brazil at the end of MIS 3. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 54, 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2014. 04.005. Paisani, J.C., Fachin, A., Pontelli, M.E., Osterrieth, M.L., Lopes-Paisani, S.D.L., Fujita, R.H., 2016. Evolução de paleocabeceira de drenagem do rio Chopinzinho (Sul do Brasil) durante o Quaternário Superior. Rev. Bras. Geomorfol. 17, 43–59. https://doi. org/10.20502/rbg.v17i1.735. Paisani, J.C., Lopes-Paisani, S.D.L., Osterrieth, M.L., Pontelli, M.E., Fujita, R.H., 2017. Dinâmica de rampa de colúvio na Superfície de Palmas/Água Doce durante o Quaternário Tardio- bases para compreender a evolução das encostas no Planalto das Araucárias. Rev. Bras. Geomorfol. 18, 783–799. https://doi.org/10.20502/www.ugb. org.br rbg.v18i4.1247. Paisani, J.C., Santos, L.J.C., Goudard, G., Goulart, A.A., Biffi, V.H.R., 2019. Subtropical Araucarias Plateau. In: Salgado, A.A., Santos, L.J.C., Paisani, J.C. (Eds.), Physical Geographic of Brazil. Springer, Switzerland AG, pp. 21–39. Peate, D.W., Hawkesworth, C.J., Mantovani, M.S.N., 1992. Geochemecal stratigraphy of the Paraná Lavas, South America: classification of magma types and their spatial distribution. Bull. Volcanol. 55, 119–139. Pereira, J.S., 2017. Pedogênese e morfogênese na Superfície de São José dos Ausentes (RS) no Quaternário Tardio: evidências em paleofundo de vale de segunda ordem hierárquica da bacia do Rio dos Touros. Master's thesis. Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná.

sul do Brasil durante o Quaternário Tardio. In: Pillar, V.P., Müller, S.C., Castilhos, Z.M.S., Jacques, A.V.A. (Eds.), Campos sulinos: conservação e uso sustentável da biodiversidade. MMA/SBF/DCB, Brasília, pp. 13–25. Bezerra, F.H.R., Neves, B.B.B., Corrêa, A.C.B., Barreto, A.M.F., Suguio, K., 2008. Late Pleistocene tectonic-geomorphological development within a passive margin-the Cariatá trough, northeastern Brazil. Geomorphol 97, 555–582. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.geomorph.2007.09.008. Biffi, V.H.R., Paisani, J.C., 2018. Superfícies de cimeira do Planalto das Araucárias – Sul do Brasil. Rev. Bras. Geomorfol. 19, 465–481. https://doi.org/10.20502/rbg.v19i3. 1336. Bigarella, J.J., Andrade, G.O., 1965. Contribution to the study of the Brazilian Quaternary. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. Spec. Pap. 84, 433–451. Bigarella, J.J., Mousinho, M.R., Silva, J.X., 1965. Considerações a respeito da evolução das vertentes. Bol. Parana. Geogr. 16/17, 85–116. Birkeland, P.W., 1999. Soils and Geomorphology. Oxford University Press. Botha, G.A., Wintleb, A.G., Vogel, J.C., 1994. Episodic late Quaternary palaeogully erosion in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Catena 23, 327–340. Brandley, R.S., 1999. Paleoclimatology-Reconstructing Climate of the Quaternary. Int. Geophysis Ser Elsevier, pp. 68. Bremond, L., Alexandre, A., Peyron, O., Guiot, J., 2005. Grass water stress estimated from phytoliths in West Africa. J. Biogeogr. 32, 311–327. Calegari, M.R., 2008. Ocorrência e Significado Paleoambiental do Horizonte A Húmico em Latossolos. PhD Tesis. Universidade de São Paulo - USP. Calegari, M.R., Madella, M., Vidal-Torrado, P., Otero, X.L., Macias, F., Osterrieth, M., 2013. Opal phytolith extraction in oxisols. Quat. Int. 287, 56–62 (doi:1016/ j.quaint.2011.11.005). Catt, J.A., 1991. Soils as indicators of quaternary climate change in mid-latitude regions. Geoderma 51, 167–187. Coe, H.E.G., Osterrieth, M., Honaine, M.F., 2014. Phytoliths and their applications. In: Coe, H.E.G., Osterrieth, M. (Eds.), Synthesis of Some Phytolith Studies in South America (Brazil and Argentina), Botanical Research and Practices. Nova Inc, New York, pp. 1–26. Cortese, G., Abelmann, A., 2002. Radiolarian-based paleotemperatures during the last 160 kyr at ODP Site 1089 (Southern Ocean, Atlantic Setor). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 182, 259–286. Cremeens, D.L., Lothrop, J.C., 2001. Geomorphology of upland regolith in the Unglaciated Appalachian Plateau: implications for prehistoric archaeology. In: Sullivan, L., Prezzano, S. (Eds.), Archaeology of the Appalachian Highlands. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 31–48. Cremeens, D.L., MacDonald, D.H., Lothrop, J.C., 2003. Holocene colluvial soils and geoarcheol. In the Unglaciated Appalachian Plateau: two examples from West Virginia, USA. Geoarcheol 18, 799–826. Damuth, J.E., Fairbridge, R.W., 1970. Equatorial Atlantic deep-sea arkosic sands and iceage aridity in tropical South American. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 81, 189–206. EPICA Community Members, 2006. One-to-one coupling of glacial climate variability in Greenland and Antarctica. Nature 444, 195–198. https://doi.org/10.1038/ nature05301. Fedoroff, N., Courty, M.A., Guo, Z., 2010. Palaeosoils and relict soils. In: Stopps, G., Marcelino, V., Mees, F. (Eds.), Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths. Elsevier, pp. 23–662. Ghibaudo, G., 1992. Subaqueous sediment gravity flow deposits: practical criteria for their field description and classification. Sedimentol 39, 423–454. Gurgel, S.P.P., Bezerra, F.H.R., Corrêa, A.C.B., Marques, F.O., Maia, R.P., 2013. Cenozoic uplift and erosion of structural landforms in NE Brazil. Geomorphol 186, 68–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.12.023. Hack, J.T., Goodlert, J.G., 1960. Geomorphology and forest Ecololy of a mountain region in the Central Appalachians. U. S. Geol. Sur. Prof. Pap. 347 (66p). Hiruma, S.T., Modenesi-Gauttieri, M.C., Riccomini, C., 2013. Late Quaternary colluvial deposits in the Bocaina Plateau, southeastern Brazil highlands: age and palaeoenvironmental consequences. BOREAS 42, 306–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1502-3885.2012.00272.x. Hughes, P.D., 2010. Geomorphology and Quaternary stratigraphy: the roles of morpho-, litho-, and allostratigraphy. Geomorphol 123, 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. geomorph.201.07.025. Jacques, P.D., Salvador, E.D., Machado, R., Grohmann, C.H., Nummer, A.R., 2014. Application of morphometry in neotectonic studies at the eastern edge of the Paraná Basin, Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Geomorphol. 213, 13–23. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.geomorph.2013.12.037. Jeske-Pieruschka, V., Fidelis, A., Bergamin, R.S., Vélez, E., Behling, H., 2010. Araucaria forest dynamics in relation to fire frequency in southern Brazil based on fossil and modern pollen data. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynology. 160, 53–65. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.revpalbo.2010.01.005. Johnson, D.L., Keller, E.A., Rockwell, T.K., 1990. Dynamic pedogenesis: new views on some key soil concepts, and a model for interpreting Quaternary soils. Quat. Res. 33, 306–319. Knox, J.C., 1972. Valley alluviation in southwestern Wisconsin. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 62, 401–410. Leonhardt, A., Lorscheitter, M.L., 2010. The last 25,000 years in the Eastern Plateau of Southern Brazil according to Alpes de São Francisco de Paula record. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 29, 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2009.09.003. Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., Miller, J.P., 1995. Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology. Dover Publications Inc, New York. Lima, S., 2016. História da pedogênese, morfogênese e colmatação de duas cabeceiras de drenagem da superficie de Palmas/Água Doce durante o Quaternário tardio. Master's thesis. Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná. Lima, A.G., Binda, A.L., 2013. Lithologic and structural controls on fluvial Knickzones in

15

Catena 182 (2019) 104171

J.C. Paisani, et al.

University Press, Cambridge. Scherer, C., Lorscheitter, M.L., 2014. Vegetation dynamics in the southern Brazilian highlands during the last millennia and the role of bogs in Araucaria forest formation. Quat. Int. 325, 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.010. de Sordi, M.V., Salgado, A.A.R., Siame, L., Bourlès, D., Paisani, J.C., Léanni, L., Braucher, R., do Couto, E.V., ASTER Team (Aumaître, G., Keddadouche, K.), 2018. Implications of drainage rearrangement for passive margin escarpment evolution in southern Brazil. Geomorphol. 306, 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.01. 007. Spalding, B.B.C., Lorscheitter, M.L., 2015. Dry and humid phases in the highlands of southern Brazil during the last 34,000 years, and their influence on the paleoenvironments of the region. Quat. Int. 377, 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint. 2014.11.057. Strahler, A., 1952. Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 63, 1117–1142. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1952) 63[1117:HAAOET]2.0.CO;2. Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., 2018. CALIB 7.1 [WWW program]. at. http:// calib.org, Accessed date: 20 August 2018. Thomas, M., 1994. Geomorphology in the Tropics: A Study of Weathering and Denudation in Low Latitudes. Wiley, Hoboken. Thomas, M., 2004. Landscape sensitivity to rapid environmental change—a Quaternary perspective with examples from tropical areas. Catena 55, 107–124. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0341-8162(03)00111-5. Twiss, C., 1992. Predicted world distribution of C3 and C4 grass phytolith. In: Rapp, G., Mulholland, S.C. (Eds.), Phytolith Systematics. Emerging Issues, Advances in Archeological and Museum Science, pp. 113–128. Wright, V.P., 1992. Paleopedology: Stratigraphic relationships and empirical models. In: Martini, I.P., Chesworth, W. (Eds.), Weathering, Soils and Paleosols, Developments in Earth Surface Processes 2. Elsevier, pp. 475–499.

Pessenda, L.C.R., Aravena, R., Melfi, A.J., Telles, E.C.C., Boulet, R., Valencia, E.P.E., Tomazello, M., 1996. The use of carbono isotopes (13C, 14C) in soil to evaluate vegetation changes during the Holocene in Central Brazil. Radiocarbon 38, 191–201. Pessenda, L.C.R., Gouveia, S.E.M., Aravena, R., 2001. Radiocarbon dating of total soil organic matter and humin fraction, and comparison with 14C ages of fossil charcoal. Radiocarbon 43 (Nr2B), 595–601. Pessenda, L.R., Gouveia, S.E.M., Freitas, H.A., Ribeiro, A.S., Aravena, R., Bendassolli, J.A., Ledru, M.P., Siefeddine, A.F., Scheel-Ybert, R., 2005. In: Souza, C.R.G., Suguio, K., Oliveira, A.M.S., Oliveira, P.E. (Eds.), Isótopos do carbono e suas aplicações em estudos paleoambientais. Quaternário do Brasil, Holos, Ribeirão Preto, pp. 75–93. Prescott, J.R., Hutton, J.T., 1994. Cosmic ray contributions to dose rates for luminescence and ESR dating: large depths and long-term time variations. Radiat. Meas. 23, 497–500. Rabassa, J., Ponce, J.F., 2013. The Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger climatic events during Marine Isotopic Stage 3: searching for appropriate times for human colonization of the Americas. Quat. Int. 299, 94–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint. 2013.04.023. Reineck, H.E., Singh, I.B., 1980. Depositional Sedimentary Environments – With Reference to Terrigenous Clastics. Springer-Verlang. Rhodes, E.J., 2011. Optically stimulated luminescence dating of dediments over the past 200,000 years. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39, 461–488. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev-earth-040610-133425. Ribeiro, F.J., 2016. In: Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná (Ed.), Evolução da rede de drenagem na superfície de Palmas/Água Doce durante o Quaternário tardio – o caso dos Córregos do Salto e Vigia. Master's thesis. Riffel, S.B., Vasconcelos, P.M., Carmo, I.O., Farley, K.A., 2016. Goethite (U-Th)/He geochronology and precipitation mechanisms during weathering of basalts. Chem. Geol. 446, 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.03.033. Schaetzl, R., Anderson, S., 2005. Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge

16