Paleotemperatures and paleodepths of the Upper Cretaceous rocks in El Qusaima, Northeastern Sinai, Egypt

Journal of African Earth Sciences 91 (2014) 79–88

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Paleotemperatures and paleodepths of the Upper Cretaceous rocks in El Qusaima, Northeastern Sinai, Egypt O.H. Orabi a,⇑, E. Zahran b a b

Menoufia University, Faculty of Science, Geology Department, El-Menofya, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt Damanhour University, Faculty of Science, Geology Department, Egypt

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 30 May 2013 Received in revised form 8 November 2013 Accepted 14 November 2013 Available online 7 December 2013 Keywords: Paleotemperature Paleodepth Planktonic foraminifera Coniacian-Maastrichtian Sinai Egypt

a b s t r a c t The planktonic foraminiferal morphogroups and planktonic quantitative analysis as well as the lithological variations across the Coniacian to Maastrichtian sediments of El Qusaima section (Northeastern Sinai, Egypt) are studied in detail in order to detect the prevailing paleoecological conditions along these sediments. At the studied area of El Qusaima section there is a gradual cooling started at the base of Globotruncana elevata Zone (early-middle Campanian) of the lower part of the Markha Member and continued till Globotruncana aegyptiaca Zone (Late Campanian) of the upper part of the Markha Member. This trend corresponds to the onset of a global cooling that began at about 73 Ma (Late Campanian) and ended the Cretaceous greenhouse climate mode. At El Qusaima section, a gradual warming started at the base of Pseudogumbelina palpebra Zone (Late Maastrichtian) and continued till Plummerita hantkeninoides Zone (latest Maastrichtian) due to the high abundance of Plummerita hantkeninoides and Plummerita reicheli, which have been flourishing in warm waters. So this warming near the end of the Maastrichtian is a global event as shown by many authors. Crown Copyright Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The faunal and lithological variations across the Coniacian – Maastrichtian succession in Egypt have been dealt with by many workers (e.g., Cherif et al., 1989; Shahin and Kora, 1991; Ayyad et al., 1996; Lüning et al., 1998 and Bauer et al., 2001). However, no attention has been given to the planktonic foraminiferal morphogroups across these sediments and their significance. Therefore, this paper presents detailed information on the planktonic characteristic morphogroups that have prevailed during the Cretaceous and evaluate evidence for sea level fluctuation of El Qusaima section, which located in northeastern Sinai (Egypt), about 13 km west of Sinai-El Naqab boundary and 90 km south-west of El Arish town, (Latitudes 30° 200 and Longitudes 34° 200 . The area of El Qusaima includes a good exposed of Upper Cretaceous sequence in two mountains (Gebel El Risha which includes a Turonian– Campanian sequences and Gebel Al Ain which includes a Maastrichtian-Eocene sequences) separated by a major fault along it runs Wadi El Risha (Fig. 1). 1.1. Paleotemperatures The Cretaceous represents one of the most remarkable episodes of greenhouse climate in Earth’s history. It was characterized by ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 482236745. E-mail address: [email protected] (O.H. Orabi).

high atmospheric CO2 concentrations, low latitudinal temperature gradient and unusually high deep water temperature in the global ocean (Hay, 1995). The release of mantle CO2 from this very active volcanic episode may have in fact directly caused the warm midCretaceous greenhouse climate (Larson, 1991). Barrera and Huber (1990), Barrera (1994), Barrera et al. (1997) and Li and keller (1998a) studied the oxygen isotope in southern middle and high latitudes in sites 525 and 690 and illustrated that the major climatic cooling at the Campanian–Maastrichtian boundary may be associated with continental ice accumulation on Antarctica. A global cooling during the Campanian and Maastrichtian has been suggested based on planktonic and benthic foraminiferal stable isotope data (e.g., Clarke and Jenkyns, 1999; Huber et al., 2002). The Campanian/Maastrichtian cooling is thought to have had significant impact on the formation of deep water masses in the world’s oceans (e.g., MacLeod and Huber, 1996; Barrera and Savin, 1999). The Maastrichtian climate was characterized by long-term cooling followed by short-term warming and rapid cooling near the end of the Maastrichtian (Shackleton et al., 1984; Barrera and Huber, 1990; Barrera, 1994; Li and Keller, 1998a,b, 1999). Salinity fluctuations indicate that during the short-term global warming, high-latitude deep-water production was significantly reduced and warm saline deep waters, probably originating in the shallow middle and low latitude regions of the Tethys, flooded the ocean basins (Li and Keller, 1998b). The rapid warming may have been caused by increased CO2 due to major Deccan Trap volcanism (Courtillot

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Fig. 1. Locality map.

et al., 1996; Hoffmann et al., 2000) and possibly an impact event, as suggested by the recent discovery of glass spherule deposits in upper Maastrichtian sediments (Stinnesbeck et al., 2001 and Keller et al., 2002). Between 450,000 and 200,000 year preceding the K/T boundary, global climate warmed rapidly, rising both sea surface and intermediate water temperature by as much as 3–4 °C. Climate cooling accelerated during the final 100,000 kyr of the Maastrichtian (Li and Keller, 1998a,b), where the planktonic foraminiferal populations were directly affected by these extreme climatic oscillation. Throughout the late Maastrichtian species diversification almost ceased and species extinction exceeds evolution (Abramovich et al., 1998; Li and Keller 1998a,c). Douglas and Savin (1978) recorded the warmest isotopic temperature during the Cretaceous in globigerinids, Rugoglobigerina and Globigerinelloides, and those with the highest ,18 O values (i.e., colder) in the globotruncanids. The adults of ornamented rugoglobigerinids lived at highest temperatures, where the rugotruncanids and the single and double keeled globotruncanids float deeper than the rugoglobigerinids and register slightly temperatures (Boersma and Shackleton, 1981). 1.2. Paleodepths de Rijk et al. (1999) investigated the percentage abundance of planktonic foraminifera in present day sediment assemblages near the Nile Delta, where they found that depth and percentage of planktonics (%P) in the total foraminiferal population are related through the expression:

Depth ¼ e

Plate 1. Scale bar = 100 lm. 1- Pseudogumbelina costulata (Cushman). 2, 3- Heterohelix globulosa (Ehrenberg). 4- Globotruncana aegyptiaca Nakkady, ventral view. 5, 6- Globotruncanita conica (White), (5) dorsal view, (6) side view. 7, 8- Globotruncanita dupeublei, (7) side view, (8) ventral view. 9- Globotruncana esnahensis Nakkady, dorsal view. 10- Plummerita hantkeninoides (Brönnimann), (a) ventral view. 11, 12- Gansserina gansseri (Bolli), (11) ventral view, (12) side view.

applicable in the Trinidadian region because it and the eastern Mediterranean Sea are influenced by freshwater delivered by major rivers. So, on the basis of the above mention, it is suggested to follow this expression in El Qusaima section region in part of the Cretaceous age. Moreover, Olsson and Nyong (1984) argued that the inner shelf depth (10–50 m) is characterized by low planktonic percentages with low species diversity and high benthic foraminiferal percentages. Also, they pointed out that higher planktonic percentages (8–25%) and diversity characterize the middle shelf depth (50–100 m). Meanwhile, the outer shelf depth (100–200 m) is characterized by 30–70% planktonic and middle slope depth (400–800 m) is characterized by 90% planktonic and slight increase in benthic diversity. Paleodepth determination from foraminiferal taxa has been generally based of keeled/non keeled planktonic foraminiferal ration, planktonic species diversity (species richness), planktonic and benthonic foraminiferal percentages and planktonic/benthonic foraminiferal ratio.

2. Geological setting

ð%Pþ819=24Þ

This expression was used also by Wilson (2003) to estimate the range of paleodepths in part of the Miocene age Brasso Formation of Central Trinidad. It is suggested that this expression may be

El Qusaima is a small village lies in Northeastern Sinai. Said (1962) observed the missing of the Santonian unit in many parts of north Sinai, where the Turonian dolomitized limestone is succeeded on top by the Upper Senonian chalk. Bartov and Steinitz

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3.1. Matulla formation (Coniacian) The term Matulla Formation was given by Ghorab (1961) for the Coniacian rocks in Ras Gharib field, which consists of grayish yellow sandy marl with some black shale intercalation rich in Gyrostrea boucheroni (Coquand). Its 11 m thick and is conformably overlying the Wata Formation and unconformably underlying the Sudr Formation of the El Qusaima section. 3.2. Sudr chalk (Campanian–Maastrichtian) It is a sequence of chalk partly changing to marl or argillaceous limestone containing chert bands of Sudr Formation (Ghorab, 1961). Ghorab (op. cit.) further subdivided the Sudr Formation into a lower Markha Member and an upper Abu Zenima Member. The Abu Zenima Member passes upward into the gray shales of the Esna Formation (Said, 1961). It attains a thickness 124 m (43 m Markha Member and 81 m Abu Zenima Member). 3.3. Esna formation (Paleocene) The Esna Formation (Said, 1962) overlies the Sudr Formation and consists of alternations of grayish brown laminated shale and greenish gray fissile marl with marly limestone intercalations. Detailed lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy across the Cretaceous boundaries in the El Qusaima section are shown in Fig. 2. 4. Material and method

Plate 2. Scale bar = 100 lm. 1, 2- Globotruncanita angulata (Tilev), (1) side view, (2) ventral view. 3- Hedbergella planispira Tappan. 4, 5- Globigerenelloides bentonensis (Morrow), (4) side view, (5) ventral view. 6- Rugoglobigerina hexacamerata Bronnimann, ventral view. 7- Rugoglobigerina rugosa (Plummer), ventral view. 8, 9- Abathomphalus mayaroensis (Bolli), (8) ventral view, (9) dorsal view. 10Globotruncana linneiana (d’Orbigny), ventral view. 11- Hedbergella delrioensis (Carsey), ventral view. 12- Globotruncana plicata White, dorsal view.

(1977) believed that the Upper Cretaceous sediments were deposited in a wide shallow shelf which is a part of the Arabo-Nubian plateform that slowly subsided during Upper Cretaceous. This region is one of several ENE-WSW trending anticlines and synclines belonging to the Syrian Arc System. Sinai area is traditionally subdivided into two main structure units, the so called stable shelf also known as Nile Basin in the south, and the unstable shelf, also known as the Syrian Arc, in the north (Said, 1960; Shahar, 1994; Tawadros, 2001). The Nile Basin experienced little structural deformation during the early Paleogene, whereas the Syrian Arc is characterized by a fold belt that has been tectonically active since the Late Cretaceous (Shahar, 1994). In the mid and Late Cretaceous times, Sinai was a broad carbonate shelf with siliciclastic intercalations on the passive margin of the Southern Tethys. The Coniacian–Maastrichtian depositional history of the region was controlled by; probably global eustatic sea-level rise (Haq et al., 1988; Hancock, 1993) at the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary and regional relative sea-level changes of different orders. 3. Lithology and stratigraphy In the following discussion each rock unit of El Qusaima section is dealt with from older to younger, where its lithologic characters, thickness and stratigraphic limits are discussed.

We collected about 80 samples from El Qusaima section, at decimeter intervals, with closer sampling across the top Maastrichtian and basal Danian strata. About 80 g of sediment were dried at 50–60 °C for 24 h or longer and afterwards soaked in a Na2CO3 solution for a day. After disintegration, the samples were washed over a 63 lm sieve and dried at 50–60 °C; this treatment was repeated twice whenever the washed residues remained somewhat aggregated. After complete disaggregation, the dried residues were sieved into three fractions (63–125 lm, 125–630 lm, >630 lm). A representative split for quantitative analysis (approximately >300 planktonic specimens) was obtained from the 125–630 lm fraction using a microsplitter. From these splits, all planktonic specimens were picked, identified, counted and permanently stored on micropaleontological slides. Planktonic foraminiferal numbers (numbers/gram sediment) were calculated for the 125–630 lm fractions. Paleoproductivity levels and dissolution horizons are reflected by changes in numbers foraminifera per gram sediment and can be quantified as foraminiferal accumulation rates (numbers per cm2 per ka). Relative abundances are expressed as the proportion (percentage) of a species in the entire assemblage and foraminiferal numbers are expressed as the numbers of individuals per gram of sediment. Ratios calculated from the foraminiferal abundance data include planktonic ratio, planktonic species diversity, planktonic percentages, Deep/Shallow morphogroups and Low/ High Latitude group (Fig. 3). 5. Biostratigraphy Stratigraphic distribution of the planktonic foraminifera in the studied section at El Qusaima section is shown in text-Fig. 2. The zonal scheme of Caron (1985a), Li and Keller (1998a,b), Li et al. (1999), Arz and Molina (2002) and BouDagher-Fadel (2013) is used here for the Cretaceous planktonic foraminiferal zones. Meanwhile, the planktonic foraminiferal zonation of Berggren et al. (1995) and Berggren and Pearson (2005) is using for the Paleocene zones (See Plates 1 and 2).

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Fig. 2. Distribution range chart of the identified Coniacian-Maastrichtian planktonic foraminiferal zonal at El Qusaima section.

5.1. Marginotruncana schneegansi Zone

5.3. Globotruncana aegyptiaca Subzone (CF8a)

Planktonic assemblage: Whiteinella archaeocretacea Pessagno, Concavatotruncana canaliculata (Reuss), Hedbergella delrioensis (Carsey), Marginotruncana marginata (Reuss), M. paraconcavata Porthault, M. sinuosa Porthault and M. coronata (Bolli). Age: early Coniacian Thickness: It attains a thickness of 11 m of the lower part of the Matulla Formation.

This subzone is defined by the FA of the index taxon Globotruncana aegyptiaca at the base and the FA of Rugoglobigerina hexacamerata at the top. This subzone is equal to CF8a Subzone of Li et al., (1999). Author: Caron (1985b) and Li et al. (1999). Planktonic assemblage: Rugoglobigerina rugosa (Plummer), Globotruncana bulloides Vogler, G. falsostuarti Sigal, G. linneiana (d’Orbigny), G. arca (Cushman), Heterohelix navarroensis Loeblich, H. striata (Ehrenberg), Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer), Hedbergella holmdelensis Olsson, Globotruncanella petaloidea (Gandolfi) and Globotruncanita dupeublei Caron, Gonzalez, Donoso, Robaszynski & Wonders. Age: Late Campanian. Thickness: It attains a thickness of 41 m (29 m of the Markha Member and 12 m in the basal part of the Abu Zenima Member).

5.2. Globotruncanita elevata Zone (CF10) Planktonic assemblage: Marginotruncana marginata (Reuss), M. sinuosa Porthault, Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer), Globotruncana bulloides Vogler, G. linneiana (d’Orbigny), Archaeoglobigerina blowi Pessagno and A. cretacea (d’Orbigny). Age: early – middle Campanian Thickness: It attains a thickness of 45.6 m of the Markha Member. The phosphatic nodules (chert bands) intercalated the Markha Mamber is barren of planktonic foraminifera and equivalent to the Glabotruncana ventrocosa Zone (CF9) of Late Campanian by many authors (e. g., Arz and Molina, 2002) and Zone 3 (Campanian) of BouDagher (2013).

5.4. Rugoglobigerina hexacamerata subzone (CF8b) This subzone is defined by the FA of Rugoglobigerina hexacamerata at the base and the FA of Contusotruncana plicata at the top.

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Fig. 3. Faunal indices of El Qusaima section derived from quantitative foraminiferal analysis.

BouDagher-Fadel (2013) discussed the distribution of planktonic foraminiferal zone, and she assigned Contusotruncana plicata to the Maastrichtian age. This subzone is equal to CF8b Subzone of Li et al. (1999). Author: Masters (1977). Planktonic assemblage: Globotruncana aegyptiac Nakkady, G. ventricosa White, Globotruncanella petaloidea (Gandolfi), Glob’nella havanensis (Voonwijk), (Dalbeiz), Globotruncanita stuarti (Dalbeiz), Rugoglobigerina rugosa (Plummer) and Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer). Age: late Campanian. Thickness: It attains a thickness of 18 m of the middle part of the Abu Zenima Member.

5.5. Gansserina gansseri Zone (CF7) This zone is defined by the FA of Gansserina gansseri at the base and FA of Abathomphalus mayaroensis at the top. This zone is equal to CF7 zone of Li and Keller (1998a,b) and Li et al. (1999). In the studied sections this zone is subdivided into two subzones to yield a higher resolution time control.

5.5.1. Contusotruncana plicata subzone (CF7a) This subzone is defined by the FA of Contusotruncana plicata at the base and FA of Rugoglobigerina scotti at the top. Author: Arz and Molina (2002). Planktonic assemblage: Globotruncana linneiana (d’Orbigny), G. orientalis El-Naggar, G. ventricosa White, G. bulloides Vogler, G. aegyptiaca Nakkady, G. arca (Cushman), Gansserina gansseri (Bolli), Globotruncanella havanensis (Woorwijk), Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer), C. plummerae (Gandolfi), C. patelliformis (Gandolfi), Archaeoglobigerina blowi Pessagno, A. cretacea (d’Orbigny), Rugoglobigerina hexacamerata Brönnimann, R. rugosa (Plummer), Hedbergella holmdelensis Olsson, H. monmouthensis (Olsson), Globotruncanita angulata (Tilev), Glob’ita stuartiformis (Dalbeiz), Glob’ita stuarti (Dalbeiz) and Glob’ita conica (White). Age: latest Campanian. Thickness: It attains a thickness of 1.9 m at the upper part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.5.2. Rugoglobigerina scotti Subzone (CF7b) The subzone is defined by the FA of Rugoglobigerina scotti at the base and FA of Contusotruncana contusa at the top. Author: Jansen and Kroon (1987).

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Planktonic assemblage: Globotruncana linneniana (d’Orbigny), G. orientalis El-Naggar, G. ventricosa White, G. bulloides Vogler, G. aegyptiaca Nakkady, G. arca (Cushman), Globotruncanella havanensis (Woorwijk), Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer), C. patelliformis (Gandolfi), Archaeoglobigerina blowi Pessagno, A. cretacea (d’Orbigny), Rugoglobigerina hexacamerata Brönnimann, R. rugosa (Plummer), R. scotti (Brönnimann), Hedbergella holmdelensis Olsson, H. monmouthensis (Olsson), Globotruncanita angulata (Tilev), Glob’ita. stuartiformis (Dalbeiz), Glob’ita. stuarti (Dalbeiz) and Glob’ita. conica (White). Age: early Maastrichtian. Thickness: It attains a thickness of 2.7 m at the middle part of the Abu Zenima Member. The Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary in the studied sections can be placed at the base of Rugoglobigerina scotti Subzone. 5.6. Contusotruncana contusa Zone (CF6) The zone is defined by the FA of the Contusotruncana contusa at the base and the LA of Globotruncana linneiana at the top of the biozone. This zone is equal to CF6 zone of Li and Keller (1998a,b) and Li et al. (1999). Planktonic assemblage: Resembles that in the underlying zone except the first appearance of Contusotruncana contusa (Cushman), Globigerinelloides prairiehillensis Pessagno and G. ultramicra (Subbotina). Age: early Maastrichtian. Thickness: Covers an interval of 1.8 m at the upper part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.7. Pseudotextularia intermedia Zone (CF5) This zone is defined by the LA of the Globotruncana linneiana at the base and the FA of Racemiguembelina fructicosa at the top. This zone is equal to CF5 zone of Li and Keller (1998a,b,) and Li et al. (1999). Author: Nederbragt (1991). Due to the absence of Pseudotextularia intermedia in the study area, we recommended to rename this zone. On the other hand Darvishzad and Abdolalipour (2009) recorded P. intermedia in Campanian rocks (Zone CF10) at Jorband section, north Iran. Planktonic assemblage: Pseudotextularia elegans (Rzehak), Globotruncana arca (Cushman), Heterohelix globulosa (Ehrenberg) and Globotruncanita conica (White). Meanwhile, Contusotruncana plummerae (Gandolfi), Globotruncana orientalis El-Naggar and G. ventricosa White become extinct in this zone. Age: late early Maastrichtian. Thickness: Covers an interval of 2.6 m at the upper part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.8. Racemiguembelina fructicosa Zone (CF4) The zone is defined by the FA of the Racemiguembelina fructicosa at the base and the FA of Pseudoguembelina hariaensis at the top of the biozone. In the studied sections this zone is subdivided into two subzones to yield a higher resolution time control. 5.8.1. Racemiguembelina fructicosa Subzone (CF4a). This subzone is defined by the FA of Racemiguembelina fructicosa of the nominate taxon at the base and Abathomphalus mayaroensis at the top. In some zonal schemes, the first appearance of R. fructicosa informally marks the late Maastrichtian boundary (Li et al., 1999, 2000 and Abramovich et al., 2002, 2003). This subzone is equal to CF4 zone of Li and Keller (1998a,b) and Li et al. (1999).

Planktonic assemblage: Rugoglobigerina milamensis Smith & Pessagno, R. rotundata Brönnimann, Abathomphalus intermedius (Bolli), beside the planktonic species of the underlying zone. Age: latest early Maastrichtian. Thickness: It attains a thickness of 1.8 m at upper part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.8.2. Abathomphalus mayaroensis Subzone (CF4b) The subzone is defined by the FA of the Abathomphalus mayaroensis at the base and the FA of Pseudoguembelina hariaensis at the top of the biozone. Author: Brönnimann (1952). Planktonic assemblage: Abathomphalus mayaroensis (Bolli), Heterohelix striata (Ehrenberg), H. globulosa (Ehrenberg), Pseudotextularia elegans (Rzehak), Pseudoguembelina costulata (Cushman), Globotruncana petaloidea (Gandolfi), G. esnahensis (Nakkady) and Racemigumbelina fructicosa (Egger). Several species become extinct within this zone as Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer), Globotruncana bulloides Vogler and Archaeoglobigerina cretacea (d’Orbigny). Age: late Maastrichtian. Thickness: This zone occupies a thickness of 2.7 m of the upper part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.9. Pseudoguembelina hariaensis Zone (CF3) The Pseudoguembelina hariaensis Zone is defined by the FA of the Pseudoguembelina hariaensis at the base and the FA of Pseudogumbelina palpebra at the top of the biozone. Li and Keller (1998a,b) and Li et al. (1999) defined the top of this zone as the LA of G. gansseri. This zone is equal to CF3 zone of Li and Keller (1998a,b) and Li et al. (1999). Author: Nederbragt (1991) Planktonic assemblage: The recorded planktonic assemblage is well diversified and completely similar to the underlying zone except for the presence of P. hariaensis Nederbragt. Age: late Maastrichtian. Thickness:s This zone occupies a thickness of 1.5 m at the upper part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.10. Pseudogumbelina palpebra Zone (CF2) This zone is defined by the FA of the Pseudoguembelina palpebra at the base and the FA of Plummerita hantkeninoides at the top of the biozone. This zone is equal to CF2 zone of Li and Keller (1998a, b, 1999). Author: Li and Keller (1998a,b). Planktonic assemblage: The planktonic foraminiferal assemblage is similar to that recorded from the underlying zone in addition to the presence of Pseudogumbelina palpebra Brönnimann & Brown, P. excolata (Cushman) and Rugoglobigerina spinose Masters. This zone is also characterized by the extinction of Contusotruncana patelliformis (Gandolfi), Globotruncana arca (Cushman), G. esnahensis (Nakkady), Globotruncanita stuartiformis (Dalbeiz) and Globigerinelloides prairiehillensis Pessagno. Age: late Maastrichtian. Thickness: It attains a thickness of 1.7 m at the latest part of the Abu Zenima Member. 5.11. Plummerita hantkeninoides Zone (CF1) The zone is defined by the total range of the nominate taxon, Plummerita hantkeninoides (Brönnimann). This zone is equal to CF1 zone of Li et al. (1999). Planktonic assemblage: It differs from the underlying zone by the first appearance of the zonal marker and Plummerita reicheli. Age: latest Maastrichtian.

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Thickness: It attains a thickness of 4.5 m at the basal part of the Esna Shale. The earliest Paleocene (P0) (Guembelitria cretacea) Zone was not recorded in the studied section of El Qusaima section, although there are no recognizable unconformity signs. Therefore, Berggren and Norris (1997) attributed this observation to either its extremely short duration, or its restriction to nearshore, rather than open ocean environments. Thickness: It occupies a thickness of 0.8 m of the Esna Formation. 5.12. Parvularugoglobigerina eugubina Zone Biostratigraphic interval defined by the total range of the nominate species. Assemblage: small-size planktonic assemblages characterize this zone as Parvularugoglobigerina eugubina Luterbacher & Premoli Silva, Eoglobigerina eobulloides (Morozova), Eo. edita (Subbotina), Eo. trivalis (Subbotina), Parasubbotina pseudobulloides (Plummer), Praemurica pseudoinconstans (Blow), Pra. taurica (Morozova), Globoconusa daubjergensis (Brönnimann) and Globonomalina planocompressa (Shutskaya). Age: earliest Paleocene (earliest Danian). Thickness: It covers a thickness of 0.3 m of the Esna Formation. 6. Planktonic foraminiferal morphogroups Planktonic foraminifera are specifically adapted to a given water mass, therefore change in temperature, nutrient supply and oxygen content result in changes of the planktonic foraminiferal assemblages inhabiting this water mass (Bé, 1977). The classification of life habitats of modern planktonic foraminifera (Bé, 1977) has been applied to comparable Cretaceous morphotypes by Hart and Bailey (1979), Hart (1980), Wonders (1980) and BouDagher-Fadel (2013). In this matter three groups can be recognized as follow: 6.1. Shallow-water fauna (0–50 m)-epipelagic This form is characterized by non-keeled tests of the genera Hedbergella, Whiteinella, Rugoglobigerina, Globigerinelloides, Pseudogumbelina, Pseudotextularia, Heterohelix and Guembelitria, with no peripherally keel. 6.2. Intermediate-water fauna (50–100 m) mesoplagic This form is single keeled as in the genera Dicarinella = Concavatotruncana, Rotalipora, Praeglobotruncana, Globotruncanella, Globotruncanita and Gansserina, with only one peripherally keeled. 6.3. Deeper-water fauna (with adults normally below 100 m) bathypelagic The deep-water fauna have double keeled test as in Marginotruncana, Abathomphalus, Rugotruncana, Kassabiana, Bucherina and Globotruncana. Nevertheless, the belief that the test morphology can be used to infer the depth habitat of extinct planktonic foraminifers is still widely held (Hart, 1980; Wonders, 1980; Leckie, 1989). Oxygen isotopic data obtained from the analyses of planktonic foraminiferal tests showed that no correlation exists between test morphology and preferred depth habitat (Corfield and Cartlidge, 1991 and Van Eijden, 1995). As a consequence of these results, Sliter (1972) reported that Globotruncana arca is more common in deeper water deposits, while oxygen isotope ratios indicate it was a near

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surface dweller. Contusotruncana species, which yield low oxygen isotope ratios, are also rare in shallow water deposits. Boersma and Shackleton (1981) found that Contusotruncana fornicata (double-keeled morphotype) is a shallower dweller. In this case, Douglas and Savin (1978), Boersma and Shackleton (1981) suggested that during the Cretaceous time the lowest d18O values (warmest temperature) is recorded in tests of rugoglobigerinids and globigerinellids, meanwhile highest values (cold temperature) is registered in globotruncanids. Hart (1980) argued that keeled, planoconical species (globorotaliids, non-spinose and most globotruncanids) have been inferred always to be deep dwellers, while spinose globigerinids, heterohelicids and Globigerinelloides to be surface dwellers. 7. Results 7.1. Paleotemperatures The paleotemperatures interpretation depends on the variation in abundance of one size fraction. Canudo and Molina (1992) showed that low latitude group includes warm morphogroups such as Rugoglobigerina, Contusotruncana, Hedbergella, and Praemurica. Meanwhile, the high latitude group includes the cold morphogroups such as Globotruncana, Eoglobigerina and Globanomalina. The planktonic foraminiferal genera Hedbergella and Whitenella are commonly assumed to have lived predominantly at shallow depths in surface waters. This assumption is based on morphologic comparison with modern planktonic foraminiferal taxa (Hart, 1980). Gustafsson et al. (2003) regard paleotemperature estimates of 18.6–23.8 °C for Whitenella aprica, and 17–19.3 °C for Hedbergella delrioensis. 7.1.1. Coniacian The Marginotruncana schneegansi Zone of the lower part of the Matulla Formation is characterized by low abundance of planktonic foraminifera range between 19 and 21 individual per 100 g of the high latitude Marginotruncana, which exceed the low latitude Hedbergella. However, these faunal distributions suggest a cooling period. 7.1.2. Campanian There is gradual cooling started at the base of the Globotruncana elevata Zone (early-Middle Campanian) of the lower part of the Markha Member and continued till Globotruncana aegyptiaca Zone (Late Campanian) of the upper part of the Markha Member. These zones are characterized by high abundance and diversification of the high latitude group (globotruncanids), which exceed the low latitude group (contusotruncanids), which suggest a cooling period. This trend corresponds to the onset of a global cooling that began at about 73 Ma (late Campanian) and ended the Cretaceous greenhouse climate mode. The onset of cooling in the late Campanian and its progression into the early Maastrichtian is recorded at various deep sea localities (Barrera and Savin, 1999). These results are in accordance with Li and Keller (1998a) at South Atlantic DSDP Site 525A, where d18O records of single benthic and planktonic foraminiferal species indicate a major temperature drop (5–6 °C, 4–5 °C respectively) between 73 and 70 Ma. The Gansserina gansseri and Contusotruncana contusa zones of the Abu Zenima Member (Sudr Formation) are characterized by high abundance and diversification of the high latitude group (globotruncanids), which exceed the low latitude group (rugoglobigerinids, contusotruncanids and hedbergellids). However, these faunal distributions suggest a cooling period.

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7.1.3. Maastrichtian Following the cooling period of the Gansserina gansseri and Contusotruncana contusa zones, a warming period included the Pseudoguembelina intermedia and Racemigumbelina fructicosa zones, which indicated by the sudden increase in the low latitude group. Moreover, most species of Globotruncanita stuartiformis, Globotruncana arca, Contusotruncana contusa and Gansserina gansseri exhibit dextral coiling, which indicates warm Tethyan localities (Malmgren, 1989). The Pseudoguembelina hariaensis Zone is characterized by dropping in low latitude group and increasing high latitude group, which indicate a cooling period at this zone. Then a gradual warming started at the base of the Pseudogumbelina palpebra Zone and continued till the Plummerita hantkeninoides Zone due to the high abundance of Plummerita hantkeninoides and P. reicheli, which have been flourishing in warm waters (Li and Keller, 1998a, b). So this warming near the end of the Maastrichtian is a global event as shown by many authors (e.g. Keller et al., 1993; Courtillot et al., 1996 and Hoffmann et al., 2000). Stüben et al. (2003) argued that the oxygen isotope data of the Maastrichtian at Elles section (Tunisia) reveal three cool periods between 65.50 and 65.55 Ma; 65.26 and 65.33 Ma and 65.04 and 65.12 Ma, and three warm periods between 65.33 and 65.38 Ma; 65.12 and 65.26 Ma and 65.00 and 65.04 Ma. The carbon isotope composition of planktonic foraminifera indicates a continuous decrease in surface bioproductivity during Late Maastrichtian and the carbon isotope ratios of the planktonic species at the onset of gradual warming at 65.50 Ma reflect a reduction in surface productivity as a result of decreased upwelling that accompanied global warming and possibly increased atmospheric p CO2 related to Deccan Trap volcanism. 7.2. Paleobathymetry Depth preferences of Cretaceous foraminifera are thought to have been similar to present day planktonic species (Savin, 1977) with globular forms, such as the genus Hedbergella inhabiting near surface waters and the flattened, keeled morphotypes representing deeper habitats (Caron, 1983; Leckie, 1989). This general trend has been supported through studies on palaeobiogeographic distributions (e.g., Hart, 1999). Furthermore, shallow water environments generally display more variability in salinity, temperature, nutrient levels, transparency, etc., than the open ocean. Because this favor proliferation of opportunistic species, it is not certain to what extent the distribution of species across a paleodepth gradient reflects their depth stratification in the open ocean (Van Eijden, 1995). The values of P% and the computed paleodepths are given in Fig. 3, which records a gradual increase between Marginotruncana schneegesi to Globotruncana elevata values then peak at Globotruncana aegyptiaca and Contusotruncana contusa zones, finally values of P% recorded relative gradual decrease at the end of the Cretaceous Period between Pseudoguembelina intermedia and Plummerita hantkeninoides zones. 7.2.1. Coniacian The Early Coniacian Marginotruncana schneegansi Zone of the lower part of the Matulla Formation is characterized by non-keeled (22–23%) and single-keeled (11–12%) morphogroups, which suggest relatively shallow environment. 7.2.2. Campanian Globotruncanita elevata zone of lower part of the Markha Member is characterized by high abundance and highly diverse of planktonic assemblage (non-keeled 27–29%, single-keeled 23–26% and double-keeled 17–20%), which indicate deep-water environment as suggested by Olsson and Nyong (1984) and

relatively deeper than the underlying Matulla Formation due to the high abundance of double-keeled morphogroup. 7.3. 3. Maastrichtian The chalky and marly sediments (Abu Zenima Member) of the Maastrichtian deposits in the area of El Qusaima section yield rich and diverse foraminiferal assemblages. Planktonic foraminifera indicating open marine conditions and good connection to the Tethys Ocean dominate this member. The highly diverse Maastrichtian assemblage and high P/B ratio (>95% P) of El Qusaima section, seems to be similar to Wadi Nukhl section and indicative upper bathyal (300–500 m) setting (Keller 1988, 1992). The highly double-keeled planktonic foraminiferal assemblages of the Abu Zenima Member of the area under consideration might indicate deep-water deposition of the sediments containing them (Douglas and Savin, 1978; Hart, 1980 and Caron, 1983). 8. Conclusions (1) The lower part of the Matulla Formation (Coniacian) is characterized by low abundance of planktonic foraminifera, where the high latitude Marginotruncana, exceed the low latitude Hedbergella. However, these faunal distributions suggest a cooling period. The foraminifera turnover in the Coniacian takes place according to Walliser (1996) during flood interval and the termination of the second regional oxygen-depletion event, which is recognized in many places by organic-rich dark shales (see BouDagher-Fadel, 2013). The same conclusion is observed at the study area of the present work. (2) There is gradual cooling started at the base of the Globotruncana elevata Zone (Early-Middle Campanian) of the lower part of the Markha Member and continued till the Globotruncana aegyptiaca Zone (Late Campanian) of the upper part of the Markha Member. This trend corresponds to the onset of a global cooling that began at about 73 Ma (late Campanian) and ended the Cretaceous greenhouse climate mode. The onset of cooling in the late Campanian and its progression into the early Maastrichtian is recorded at various deep sea localities (Barrera and Savin, 1999). (3) The Campanian saw a rapid turnover of new species, many of which colonized deeper waters than their ancestors, these new appearances, belonged to the heterohelicids. The new heterohelicids exhibited multiserial growth, which resulted in their tests sinking into deeper waters than the simple biserial forms. In the tropical waters some globotruncaniids (e.g., Marginotruncana) had died out in the Middle Cretaceous. Globular hedbergellids lived in the near-surface waters, while mixed assemblages of globular hedbergellids and rugoglobigerinids and keeled globotruncanids are indicative of near surface or inner neritic environments (BouDagher-Fadel, 2013). However, assemblages dominated by keeled foraminifera are suggestive of deeper outer neritic environments. (4) Toward the end of the Campanian of the El Qusaima section, some planktonic foraminifera became extinct. This might have been related by two volcanic events in the Atlantic Ocean, the Sierra Leone Rise, and the Maud Rise (Eldholm and Coffin, 2000). These were again accompanied by a regional oxygen-reduction event (Walliser, 1996) occurring during the Campanian, and the beginning of global sea level falls (see BouDagher-Fadel, 2013). (5) The beginning of the Maastrichtian was a period of high turnover. The planktonic foraminifera in the Maastrichtian were highly developed with morphological features such

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as double peripheral keels that allowed them to sink into deeper waters than earlier forms and so exploit different niches. Diversity and size of the foraminifera increased during the Maastrichtian pointing to warm temperatures and stable environments. At El Qusaima section, a gradual warming started at the base of the Pseudogumbelina palpebra Zone and continued till the Plummerita hantkeninoides Zone due to the high abundance of Plummerita hantkeninoides and P. reicheli, which have been flourishing in warm waters. So this warming near the end of the Maastrichtian is a global event as shown by many authors. (6) The Maastrichtian chalks of El Qusaima section are homogeneous, indicating good ventilation of the sea floor, and the same applies to the early Paleocene marls in the studied area. Above K/P boundary around 1.0 m the Paleocene show preservation of sedimentary lamination, free from burrowing organisms pointing to oxygen deficiency. Thus the major disappearance in benthic occurred after the Plummerita hantkeninoides Zone, while the planktonic were still in abundance. This may be considered to be due to the expansion of oxygen minimum zone in the water column, affecting the benthics first and planktonics later.

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