- Email: [email protected]
Parasites, Plants, and People
What can institutions do to support women in science?
If you were not a scientist, what would your alternative career be?
Talk openly about the problems women face at the work place and, most importantly, discuss the way society sees women and how that can or should change, not only to allow women to do whatever they want, but also mainly to allow society to use everyone's maximum capacities. In my view, our goal should be to change the world's view on the role of women in society.
farms [2]. Anthelminthic resistance in cattle nematodes in New Zealand was first reported in 1987 [3]; further reports of resistance of various species of nematodes to different classes of drug have followed, including cases of dual and triple resistance in sheep[4]. It has been estimated that the costs of parasitism in lambs is 14% of the value of the carcass [5] and that dosing with ineffective anthelminthics led to reduced fleece weights and live weight gain in lambs [2].
I feel hugely privileged to be able to spend my days trying to meet one of the most basic human needs: curiosity. I should say that sometimes I feel addicted to the pleasure of discovery. And so, it is not easy to think what else would be as rewarding as this. Paradoxically, at the same time, I feel that I could be so many other things. I enjoy teaching very much and I really think that transmitting the pleasure of knowing more is certainly On the short term, we should obviously one of the most fundamental roles in Clearly there is a problem. Much research provide all possible conditions that will our society. has focused on the mechanisms of resishelp women to move on in their careers, tance, drugs, genetics, and limited explo*Correspondence: [email protected] for example by improving child care, and (M.M. Mota). ration of the anthelminthic properties of so on. Nevertheless, in my view, this http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2016.01.003 plants. Parasites are part of a greater ecolshould not be the core of the question, ogy incorporating people, livestock, and given that even women who do not have land in all its diversity and, therefore, all of babies still face many of the same probthese approaches for combatting anthellems as those who do. mintic resistance have their place but need Science & Society to be integrated in a holistic manner. Sometime ago, Dee Dee Myers (a former White House press secretary) wrote a Alternative Management very interesting assay ‘What if women Strategies and Anthelmintic ruled the world?’ (http://www.bbc.co. Plants 1, uk/news/world-21661744). One of the Marion Johnson * and An integrated approach to reducing para2 last sentences of this essay reads: Tony Moore site burdens utilises anthelminthics when ‘Empowering women isn’t just the right necessary but seeks to reduce worm burthing, it's the necessary thing.’ This Anthelminthic resistance is acknow- dens through management [6]. For examessay has nothing to do with science ledged worldwide and is a major ple, having swards at a greater height to but, in my opinion, it addresses a global problem in Aotearoa New Zealand, reduce larval ingestion, and rotating differproblem that should be at the basis of thus alternative parasite manage- ent livestock species so that parasites our thoughts. ment strategies are imperative. infecting one species are removed by One Health is an initiative linking another species in which they do not Of course, then the question is how to get establish infection helps reduce the numanimal, human, and environmental society to believe that it needs women and bers of larvae. Bioactive forages with an health. Parasites, plants, and peomen in every ladder/corner/sphere of socianthelminthic action will also reduce infecety? I believe we should do this by dis- ple illustrate the possibilities of tion levels as will the provision of browse. cussing the ‘deep and rooted’ issues in providing diverse diets for stock the entire society (of which 50% are thereby lowering parasite bur- If designed within an agroecological women by the way) that create the so- dens, improving the cultural well- framework [7] such parasite management being of a local community, and strategies provide multiple benefits, for called ‘glass-ceiling’! example, longer pasture residuals reduce protecting the environment. The best way to do that is to bring people erosion, bioactive plants and browse spetogether who think about these issues Anthelminthic Resistance in cies benefit animal health but also provide from different perspectives (I believe het- Aotearoa New Zealand diverse habitats and the opportunity for erogeneity will be key for the success) and Globally, anthelminthic resistance is now cultural harvest. As the numbers of bioaclisten to their points of view, followed by ‘an inconvenient truth’ [1]. In Aotearoa tive plants recognised by research grows, open discussions. Any institution should New Zealand, parasitism is the most sig- an increasing role for biodiversity on farmdo that. nificant animal health issue on sheep land is vindicated.
Parasites, Plants, and People
430
Trends in Parasitology, June 2016, Vol. 32, No. 6
Traditional fodder species and herbal remedies drawn from ethnoveterinary practice or folklore exploit the actions of plant allelochemicals, biologically active compounds produced for defence or communication. Their chemistries are indicative of their action, phenolics, alkaloids, and terpenes have immune-associated functions [8] and an effect on pathogens [9]. Villalba and Landau [10] present data from several animal self-medication experiments and discuss the suggestion that animals can sense that they are infected with parasites and seek out the appropriate plant to alleviate their symptoms. Learning plays a role in an animal's decisions as to the inclusion of bioactives in the diet both within the natal group [11] and through life experience [12]. If given the opportunity stock will ingest antiparasitic plants in dosages that address their needs. However, it cannot be expected that infected livestock released into unfamiliar plant species will immediately be cured, as plants with anthelminthic activity frequently affect only a particular species of parasite [13], which further justifies the need for mixed forages and the implementation of integrated management strategies to limit the exposure of livestock to infective larvae.
relationships people have to placei. This is equally applicable to stock; they will have a physical and biochemical relationship to the land upon which they are kept. Drawing on the literature and the community's renewed interest in traditional medicine, rongoa species that could grow in the farm microclimates, species that the Wairewa people would like to use to revive cultural practices and species of cultural significance such as kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) that they wished to attract back to the farm, were identified. Plants that might usefully contribute to aspects of animal health and welfare were also noted. New Zealand native plants with an antiparasitic reputation and with several cultural uses include Runa (Plagianthus divaricatus), Raukawa (Pseudopanax edgerleyi), Matipou (Myrsine australis), Harakeke (Phormium tenax), and Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium).
to how to distribute them in tune with agroecological principles, removing damaged areas from production, protecting watercourses, and providing shade and shelter [14]. As the farm is owned by a community, the options were digitised and mapped within the context of acquired and intensively surveyed spatial data using a Geographical Information System (GIS) [15], so that the group could visualise how the farm might look (Figure 1) and discuss how to incorporate anthelminthic and culturally valuable plants into planting schemes while developing a parasite management plan.
The red areas are eroding or slipping and in need of urgent action, these areas will be fenced off and planted with restorative species such as Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), incidentally an excellent food source for Kereru, the Tagasaste can be accessed by stock through or over the fence. Area 2 is sheltered and Having selected the species of plants to fertile, ideal for intensive mixed pastures grow in the farm, the question remains as and will be managed to benefit young
N
Parasites, Plants, and People: One Health in Action Te Kaio, a 449 ha sheep and beef farm held in trust by the people of Wairewa on Horomaka, Banks Peninsula in the South Island of Aotearoa New Zealand, has provided an opportunity to link solutions for parasitism, plants, and people. Parasitic infections are the major animal health problem on the farm.
Magnet Bay
Key: Planng descripon 1. Intensive horcultural 2. Intensive pasture / lucerne 3. Open grazing 4. Agroforestry
5. Riparian In Aotearoa New Zealand there is no 6. Urgent restoraon strong tradition of ethnoveterinary prac7. Naturally regenerang bush 8. Shrub and tussock planngs tice, livestock being only recently introTe Oka Bay 8. Tradional plant use (weaving) duced, but there is an increasing 8. Farm garden Suggested planng opons for Te Kaio Farm Streams interest in once again harvesting wild Coastline 1 Kilometers 0.25 0.5 0 foods (Mahinga kai) and practicing tradiRoads tional medicine (Rongoa). It is a basic tenet of rongoa that plants and their landscapes are intertwined and their healing proper- Figure 1. The Division of Te Kaio Farm into Management Units Reflecting the Current Capability of ties will depend upon place and the the Land to Support Different Plants and Livestock.
Trends in Parasitology, June 2016, Vol. 32, No. 6
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stock, allowing first access, or utilising benefitting animal, human, and environaftermaths. Areas 3 are the flats on the mental wellbeing. top of the ridges and would suit mixed pastures and forages but lower stocking rates. Areas designated agroforestry are Resources i on the slopes of the hills that are prone www.maramatanga.ac.nz/sites/default/files/10% 20RF%2032%20Final%20Contract%20report% to erosion, these areas would contain 20for%20web.pdf plantings of trees and shrubs with rongoa and cultural values, many of which will 1 decrease worm burdens either through 2BHU Future Farming Centre, Lincoln, New Zealand School of Surveying, University of Otago, Dunedin, New direct action (anthelminthic) or acting as Zealand tonics improving overall health. The spacing of the plantings will allow for pastures *Correspondence: [email protected] (M. Johnson). and bioactive forages to be grown among http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2016.03.006 the trees and shrubs. All fence lines will be planted to create browse bars, a mixture of forbs and shrubs that can be accessed References 1. Kaplan, R.M. and Vidyashankar, A.N. (2012) An inconveby stock as required. nient truth: global worming and anthelmintic resistance. Vet. Parasitol. 186, 70–78
Riparian margins along the waterways (Area 5) will be planted with rongoa species, including those with antiparasitic properties. All stock can access those near the fences and sheep can be turned into the riparian areas to help control growth and access medicinal plants at the same time. The naturally regenerating bush contains many rongoa and wild food species that will be harvested by Wairewa. Stock will be excluded from the areas designated 1 and 8, these are ideal sites for culturally important plants such as harakeke (P. tenax), loved by stock but once browsed not useful for weaving, or Maori vegetables that can be grown as an intensive horticultural enterprise (Area 1) or in the farm garden. By implementing a plant-based integrated parasite plan livestock are healthier, biodiversity has increased, and the community once again has access to many culturally important plants. This access is vital as without the plant base it is difficult to reinvigorate traditional skills and knowledge, and is harder to teach the next generation. Healthy, biodiverse farms support healthy stock and can produce an income as well as food and medicines for the community. This is an example of One Health in action,
432
Trends in Parasitology, June 2016, Vol. 32, No. 6
2. Miller, C.M. et al. (2012) The production cost of anthelmintic resistance in lambs. Vet. Parasitol. 186, 376–381 3. Jackson, R.A. et al. (1987) Isolation of oxfendazole resistant Cooperia oncophora in cattle. N. Z. Vet. J. 35, 187–189 4. McKenna, P. (2010) Update on the prevalence of anthelminthic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep in New Zealand. N. Z. Vet. J. 58, 172–173 5. Sutherland, I.A. et al. (2010) The production costs of anthelminthic resistance in sheep managed within a monthly preventative drench program. Vet. Parasitol. 171, 300–304 6. Waller, P.J. (1999) International approaches to the concept of integrated control of nematode parasites of livestock. Int. J. Parasitol. 29, 155–164 7. Johnson, M. (2015) Te Kaio, agroecology, agroforestry and tourism. In Indigenous Agroecology Te Ahuwhenua Taketake (Johnson, M. and Perley, C., eds), pp. 302–332, Nga Pae o te Maramatanga 8. Provenza, F.D. and Villalba, J.J. (2010) The role of natural plant products in modulating the immune system: an adaptable approach for combating disease in grazing animals. Small Rumin. Res. 89, 131–139
Science & Society
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: The Truth about the ‘Flesh-Eating Disease’ in Syria Karina Mondragon-Shem1,* and Alvaro Acosta-Serrano1,2,* Recent news headlines claimed that corpses thrown into Syrian streets are causing cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) outbreaks. However, leishmaniasis is only transmitted by blood-feeding sandflies, not through human remains. High CL prevalence in Syria may instead be attributed to the absence of disease control programs due to the disruption of health services. Leishmaniasis is caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, and not by bacteria or viruses. Infection and consequent disease can only be acquired through the bite of female sandflies infected with this parasite (Figure 1). Sandflies are small insects half the size of a mosquito but with a more painful bite; females require the blood of living animals to develop their eggs. They do not feed on human remains.
9. Hart, B.L. (2005) The evolution of herbal medicine: behavioural perspectives. Anim. Behav. 70, 975–989 10. Villalba, J.J. and Landau, S.Y. (2012) Host behaviour, environment and ability to self medicate. Small Rumin. Res. 103, 50–59 11. Provenza, F.D. et al. (2003) Linking herbivore experience, varied diets, and plant biochemical diversity. Small Rumin. Res. 49, 257–274 12. Villalba, J.J. et al. (2010) Selection of tannins by sheep in response to gastrointestinal nematode infection. J. Anim. Sci. 88, 2189–2198 13. Rahmann, G. and Seip, H. (2007) Bioactive forage and phytotherapy to cure and control endo-parasite diseases in sheep and goat farming systems – a review of current scientific knowledge. Landbauforsch. Volken. 57, 285– 295 14. Johnson, M. (2015) Agroecology. In Indigenous Agroecology Te Ahuwhenua Taketake (Johnson, M. and Perley, C., eds), pp. 16–34, Nga Pae o te Maramatanga 15. Moore, A. (2015) Farm mapping and Geographical Information Systems. In Indigenous Agroecology Te Ahuwhenua Taketake (Johnson, M. and Perley, C., eds), pp. 107– 124, Nga Pae o te Maramatanga
During the biting process, parasites from infected female sandflies are injected into the skin, where, depending on the species of Leishmania, either a lesion starts to develop (CL), or the parasites invade organs such as the liver and spleen (visceral leishmaniasis). Since these obligate intracellular parasites require living hosts to multiply, the disease cannot be spread through corpses; as with many other pathogens, Leishmania would not survive long in the human body after death [1]. The cutaneous form of the disease (CL) causes over 1.5 million new cases every
If you were not a scientist, what would your alternative career be?
Talk openly about the problems women face at the work place and, most importantly, discuss the way society sees women and how that can or should change, not only to allow women to do whatever they want, but also mainly to allow society to use everyone's maximum capacities. In my view, our goal should be to change the world's view on the role of women in society.
farms [2]. Anthelminthic resistance in cattle nematodes in New Zealand was first reported in 1987 [3]; further reports of resistance of various species of nematodes to different classes of drug have followed, including cases of dual and triple resistance in sheep[4]. It has been estimated that the costs of parasitism in lambs is 14% of the value of the carcass [5] and that dosing with ineffective anthelminthics led to reduced fleece weights and live weight gain in lambs [2].
I feel hugely privileged to be able to spend my days trying to meet one of the most basic human needs: curiosity. I should say that sometimes I feel addicted to the pleasure of discovery. And so, it is not easy to think what else would be as rewarding as this. Paradoxically, at the same time, I feel that I could be so many other things. I enjoy teaching very much and I really think that transmitting the pleasure of knowing more is certainly On the short term, we should obviously one of the most fundamental roles in Clearly there is a problem. Much research provide all possible conditions that will our society. has focused on the mechanisms of resishelp women to move on in their careers, tance, drugs, genetics, and limited explo*Correspondence: [email protected] for example by improving child care, and (M.M. Mota). ration of the anthelminthic properties of so on. Nevertheless, in my view, this http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2016.01.003 plants. Parasites are part of a greater ecolshould not be the core of the question, ogy incorporating people, livestock, and given that even women who do not have land in all its diversity and, therefore, all of babies still face many of the same probthese approaches for combatting anthellems as those who do. mintic resistance have their place but need Science & Society to be integrated in a holistic manner. Sometime ago, Dee Dee Myers (a former White House press secretary) wrote a Alternative Management very interesting assay ‘What if women Strategies and Anthelmintic ruled the world?’ (http://www.bbc.co. Plants 1, uk/news/world-21661744). One of the Marion Johnson * and An integrated approach to reducing para2 last sentences of this essay reads: Tony Moore site burdens utilises anthelminthics when ‘Empowering women isn’t just the right necessary but seeks to reduce worm burthing, it's the necessary thing.’ This Anthelminthic resistance is acknow- dens through management [6]. For examessay has nothing to do with science ledged worldwide and is a major ple, having swards at a greater height to but, in my opinion, it addresses a global problem in Aotearoa New Zealand, reduce larval ingestion, and rotating differproblem that should be at the basis of thus alternative parasite manage- ent livestock species so that parasites our thoughts. ment strategies are imperative. infecting one species are removed by One Health is an initiative linking another species in which they do not Of course, then the question is how to get establish infection helps reduce the numanimal, human, and environmental society to believe that it needs women and bers of larvae. Bioactive forages with an health. Parasites, plants, and peomen in every ladder/corner/sphere of socianthelminthic action will also reduce infecety? I believe we should do this by dis- ple illustrate the possibilities of tion levels as will the provision of browse. cussing the ‘deep and rooted’ issues in providing diverse diets for stock the entire society (of which 50% are thereby lowering parasite bur- If designed within an agroecological women by the way) that create the so- dens, improving the cultural well- framework [7] such parasite management being of a local community, and strategies provide multiple benefits, for called ‘glass-ceiling’! example, longer pasture residuals reduce protecting the environment. The best way to do that is to bring people erosion, bioactive plants and browse spetogether who think about these issues Anthelminthic Resistance in cies benefit animal health but also provide from different perspectives (I believe het- Aotearoa New Zealand diverse habitats and the opportunity for erogeneity will be key for the success) and Globally, anthelminthic resistance is now cultural harvest. As the numbers of bioaclisten to their points of view, followed by ‘an inconvenient truth’ [1]. In Aotearoa tive plants recognised by research grows, open discussions. Any institution should New Zealand, parasitism is the most sig- an increasing role for biodiversity on farmdo that. nificant animal health issue on sheep land is vindicated.
Parasites, Plants, and People
430
Trends in Parasitology, June 2016, Vol. 32, No. 6
Traditional fodder species and herbal remedies drawn from ethnoveterinary practice or folklore exploit the actions of plant allelochemicals, biologically active compounds produced for defence or communication. Their chemistries are indicative of their action, phenolics, alkaloids, and terpenes have immune-associated functions [8] and an effect on pathogens [9]. Villalba and Landau [10] present data from several animal self-medication experiments and discuss the suggestion that animals can sense that they are infected with parasites and seek out the appropriate plant to alleviate their symptoms. Learning plays a role in an animal's decisions as to the inclusion of bioactives in the diet both within the natal group [11] and through life experience [12]. If given the opportunity stock will ingest antiparasitic plants in dosages that address their needs. However, it cannot be expected that infected livestock released into unfamiliar plant species will immediately be cured, as plants with anthelminthic activity frequently affect only a particular species of parasite [13], which further justifies the need for mixed forages and the implementation of integrated management strategies to limit the exposure of livestock to infective larvae.
relationships people have to placei. This is equally applicable to stock; they will have a physical and biochemical relationship to the land upon which they are kept. Drawing on the literature and the community's renewed interest in traditional medicine, rongoa species that could grow in the farm microclimates, species that the Wairewa people would like to use to revive cultural practices and species of cultural significance such as kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) that they wished to attract back to the farm, were identified. Plants that might usefully contribute to aspects of animal health and welfare were also noted. New Zealand native plants with an antiparasitic reputation and with several cultural uses include Runa (Plagianthus divaricatus), Raukawa (Pseudopanax edgerleyi), Matipou (Myrsine australis), Harakeke (Phormium tenax), and Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium).
to how to distribute them in tune with agroecological principles, removing damaged areas from production, protecting watercourses, and providing shade and shelter [14]. As the farm is owned by a community, the options were digitised and mapped within the context of acquired and intensively surveyed spatial data using a Geographical Information System (GIS) [15], so that the group could visualise how the farm might look (Figure 1) and discuss how to incorporate anthelminthic and culturally valuable plants into planting schemes while developing a parasite management plan.
The red areas are eroding or slipping and in need of urgent action, these areas will be fenced off and planted with restorative species such as Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), incidentally an excellent food source for Kereru, the Tagasaste can be accessed by stock through or over the fence. Area 2 is sheltered and Having selected the species of plants to fertile, ideal for intensive mixed pastures grow in the farm, the question remains as and will be managed to benefit young
N
Parasites, Plants, and People: One Health in Action Te Kaio, a 449 ha sheep and beef farm held in trust by the people of Wairewa on Horomaka, Banks Peninsula in the South Island of Aotearoa New Zealand, has provided an opportunity to link solutions for parasitism, plants, and people. Parasitic infections are the major animal health problem on the farm.
Magnet Bay
Key: Planng descripon 1. Intensive horcultural 2. Intensive pasture / lucerne 3. Open grazing 4. Agroforestry
5. Riparian In Aotearoa New Zealand there is no 6. Urgent restoraon strong tradition of ethnoveterinary prac7. Naturally regenerang bush 8. Shrub and tussock planngs tice, livestock being only recently introTe Oka Bay 8. Tradional plant use (weaving) duced, but there is an increasing 8. Farm garden Suggested planng opons for Te Kaio Farm Streams interest in once again harvesting wild Coastline 1 Kilometers 0.25 0.5 0 foods (Mahinga kai) and practicing tradiRoads tional medicine (Rongoa). It is a basic tenet of rongoa that plants and their landscapes are intertwined and their healing proper- Figure 1. The Division of Te Kaio Farm into Management Units Reflecting the Current Capability of ties will depend upon place and the the Land to Support Different Plants and Livestock.
Trends in Parasitology, June 2016, Vol. 32, No. 6
431
stock, allowing first access, or utilising benefitting animal, human, and environaftermaths. Areas 3 are the flats on the mental wellbeing. top of the ridges and would suit mixed pastures and forages but lower stocking rates. Areas designated agroforestry are Resources i on the slopes of the hills that are prone www.maramatanga.ac.nz/sites/default/files/10% 20RF%2032%20Final%20Contract%20report% to erosion, these areas would contain 20for%20web.pdf plantings of trees and shrubs with rongoa and cultural values, many of which will 1 decrease worm burdens either through 2BHU Future Farming Centre, Lincoln, New Zealand School of Surveying, University of Otago, Dunedin, New direct action (anthelminthic) or acting as Zealand tonics improving overall health. The spacing of the plantings will allow for pastures *Correspondence: [email protected] (M. Johnson). and bioactive forages to be grown among http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2016.03.006 the trees and shrubs. All fence lines will be planted to create browse bars, a mixture of forbs and shrubs that can be accessed References 1. Kaplan, R.M. and Vidyashankar, A.N. (2012) An inconveby stock as required. nient truth: global worming and anthelmintic resistance. Vet. Parasitol. 186, 70–78
Riparian margins along the waterways (Area 5) will be planted with rongoa species, including those with antiparasitic properties. All stock can access those near the fences and sheep can be turned into the riparian areas to help control growth and access medicinal plants at the same time. The naturally regenerating bush contains many rongoa and wild food species that will be harvested by Wairewa. Stock will be excluded from the areas designated 1 and 8, these are ideal sites for culturally important plants such as harakeke (P. tenax), loved by stock but once browsed not useful for weaving, or Maori vegetables that can be grown as an intensive horticultural enterprise (Area 1) or in the farm garden. By implementing a plant-based integrated parasite plan livestock are healthier, biodiversity has increased, and the community once again has access to many culturally important plants. This access is vital as without the plant base it is difficult to reinvigorate traditional skills and knowledge, and is harder to teach the next generation. Healthy, biodiverse farms support healthy stock and can produce an income as well as food and medicines for the community. This is an example of One Health in action,
432
Trends in Parasitology, June 2016, Vol. 32, No. 6
2. Miller, C.M. et al. (2012) The production cost of anthelmintic resistance in lambs. Vet. Parasitol. 186, 376–381 3. Jackson, R.A. et al. (1987) Isolation of oxfendazole resistant Cooperia oncophora in cattle. N. Z. Vet. J. 35, 187–189 4. McKenna, P. (2010) Update on the prevalence of anthelminthic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep in New Zealand. N. Z. Vet. J. 58, 172–173 5. Sutherland, I.A. et al. (2010) The production costs of anthelminthic resistance in sheep managed within a monthly preventative drench program. Vet. Parasitol. 171, 300–304 6. Waller, P.J. (1999) International approaches to the concept of integrated control of nematode parasites of livestock. Int. J. Parasitol. 29, 155–164 7. Johnson, M. (2015) Te Kaio, agroecology, agroforestry and tourism. In Indigenous Agroecology Te Ahuwhenua Taketake (Johnson, M. and Perley, C., eds), pp. 302–332, Nga Pae o te Maramatanga 8. Provenza, F.D. and Villalba, J.J. (2010) The role of natural plant products in modulating the immune system: an adaptable approach for combating disease in grazing animals. Small Rumin. Res. 89, 131–139
Science & Society
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: The Truth about the ‘Flesh-Eating Disease’ in Syria Karina Mondragon-Shem1,* and Alvaro Acosta-Serrano1,2,* Recent news headlines claimed that corpses thrown into Syrian streets are causing cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) outbreaks. However, leishmaniasis is only transmitted by blood-feeding sandflies, not through human remains. High CL prevalence in Syria may instead be attributed to the absence of disease control programs due to the disruption of health services. Leishmaniasis is caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, and not by bacteria or viruses. Infection and consequent disease can only be acquired through the bite of female sandflies infected with this parasite (Figure 1). Sandflies are small insects half the size of a mosquito but with a more painful bite; females require the blood of living animals to develop their eggs. They do not feed on human remains.
9. Hart, B.L. (2005) The evolution of herbal medicine: behavioural perspectives. Anim. Behav. 70, 975–989 10. Villalba, J.J. and Landau, S.Y. (2012) Host behaviour, environment and ability to self medicate. Small Rumin. Res. 103, 50–59 11. Provenza, F.D. et al. (2003) Linking herbivore experience, varied diets, and plant biochemical diversity. Small Rumin. Res. 49, 257–274 12. Villalba, J.J. et al. (2010) Selection of tannins by sheep in response to gastrointestinal nematode infection. J. Anim. Sci. 88, 2189–2198 13. Rahmann, G. and Seip, H. (2007) Bioactive forage and phytotherapy to cure and control endo-parasite diseases in sheep and goat farming systems – a review of current scientific knowledge. Landbauforsch. Volken. 57, 285– 295 14. Johnson, M. (2015) Agroecology. In Indigenous Agroecology Te Ahuwhenua Taketake (Johnson, M. and Perley, C., eds), pp. 16–34, Nga Pae o te Maramatanga 15. Moore, A. (2015) Farm mapping and Geographical Information Systems. In Indigenous Agroecology Te Ahuwhenua Taketake (Johnson, M. and Perley, C., eds), pp. 107– 124, Nga Pae o te Maramatanga
During the biting process, parasites from infected female sandflies are injected into the skin, where, depending on the species of Leishmania, either a lesion starts to develop (CL), or the parasites invade organs such as the liver and spleen (visceral leishmaniasis). Since these obligate intracellular parasites require living hosts to multiply, the disease cannot be spread through corpses; as with many other pathogens, Leishmania would not survive long in the human body after death [1]. The cutaneous form of the disease (CL) causes over 1.5 million new cases every