- Email: [email protected]
Parasitology yesterday – following the trends
Editorial
TRENDS in Parasitology
and multinational involvement and that new tools – although welcome – will only be relevant if they do not interrupt the momentum of the control interventions. Parasitic disease control should not be suspended while awaiting technical development, and such developments, ideally, should respond to control service requirements rather than seek uses for new techniques. There is an ethical imperative for this, astringently summarized by the words of Joa˜o Carlos Pinto Dias, driving force behind the initiatives for Chagas disease control in Latin America (Figure 1). References 1 Liese, B.H. et al. (1991) Organizing and Managing Tropical Disease Control Programmes: Lessons of Success, World Bank, Washington DC 2 Schofield, C.J. (1985) Appropriate disease control. Parasitol. Today 1, 181–182 3 Jordan, A.M. (1985) Tsetse eradication plans for southern Africa. Parasitol. Today 1, 121–123 4 Hargrove, J.W. (2003) Tsetse Eradication: Sufficiency, Necessity and Desirability, DFID Animal Health Programme, Edinburgh
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5 Allsopp, R. (2001) Options for vector control against trypanosomiasis in Africa. Trends Parasitol. 17, 15–19 6 Molyneux, D.H. (1995) Onchocerciasis control in West Africa: current status and future of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. Parasitol. Today 11, 399–402 7 Dias, J.C.P. (1987) Control of Chagas disease in Brasil. Parasitol. Today 3, 336–341 8 Schofield, C.J. and Dias, J.C.P. (1999) The Southern Cone Initiative against Chagas disease. Adv. Parasitol. 42, 1–27 9 Yamagata, Y. and Nakagawa, J. Control of Chagas disease. Adv. Parasitol. (in press) 10 Kabayo, J.P. (2002) Aiming to eliminate tsetse from Africa. Trends Parasitol. 18, 473–475 11 Hotez, P.J. et al. (2004) Combating tropical infectious diseases: report of the Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries Project. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 871–878 12 Tan, K-H., ed. (2000) Area-Wide Control of Fruit Flies and Other Insect Pests, Universiti Sains Malaysia 1471-4922/$ - see front matter Q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.023
Parasitology yesterday – following the trends Frank E.G. Cox Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK, WC1E 7HT
The 1980s were a period of great activity in the field of parasitology that generated a vast amount of research published in w20 specialist and several other learned journals. There was, however, no vehicle for disseminating the exciting discoveries that were being made in an immediate, easily readable and accessible form suitable for teachers, students and others interested in aspects of the subject that were broader than their own particular specialty. To fill this perceived gap, Elsevier decided in 1985 that it would be worthwhile publishing Parasitology Today to complement its other successful Trends journals. In this article, I review the breadth of coverage of topics published during the first year of Parasitology Today, most of which continue to be of interest today.
In the beginning Like most great enterprises, Trends in Parasitology had modest beginnings. The first seeds were sown when the then Editor of Immunology Today, John Inglis, asked several parasitologists, including Len Goodwin and myself, if there was a place in the literature for a parasitological equivalent of Immunology Today or Trends in Biochemical Sciences (TIBS). The early 1980s were a period of great activity in parasitology, and in 1980 at a meeting about The Current Status and Future of Parasitology [1] the role of parasitological literature had been critically discussed. At that time, there were w20 Corresponding author: Cox, F.E.G. ([email protected]). Available online 2 September 2005 www.sciencedirect.com
mainstream parasitological journals, ranging from generalist ones such as Parasitology and the Journal of Parasitology to more specialized ones such as Parasite Immunology and Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology. All were aimed at research workers, with regular or occasional reviews that might be of use to students. In addition, the well-established Advances in Parasitology published long and authoritative reviews about a diverse range of parasitological topics. In short, there was plenty of material for professional parasitologists but very little for students and their teachers, and there was a gap waiting to be filled by a new journal such as Immunology Today or TIBS. Elsevier was initially cautious about publishing a journal with a potential circulation much lower than that of its other similar publications but, mainly because of Len Goodwin’s enthusiasm, was persuaded and, in July 1985, the first issue of Parasitology Today appeared. The rest, as they say, is history, and Trends in Parasitology now outranks all the other parasitological journals in the annual Science Citation Indexw (http://www.isinet.com/products/citation/sci/). Malaria and Chagas disease Inevitably, there is a certain amount of nostalgia when looking back at the articles published during the first year but there is also a feeling that nothing has really changed. It is not that the subject has stood still for two decades but that many of the problems still remain and that some of the predictions made have turned out to be very optimistic. Malaria dominates the first 12 issues from the first page of issue one, in which Ian McGregor reviewed clinical trials of
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TRENDS in Parasitology
new malaria vaccines [2] – a topic discussed in detail by Ruth and Victor Nussenzweig [3], Robin Anders [4], Geoff Targett and Bob Sinden [5], and Walther Wernsdorfer [6] in a debate series and, in the context of antigenic variation and diversity, by David Walliker [7]. Chemotherapy of malaria also featured in these early issues, and Pierre Ambroise-Thomas and Jean-Franc¸ois Rossignol alerted the readers to the emerging danger of antimalarial drug resistance [8]. David FitzSimons drew attention to the potential of new drugs such as the hydroxynaphthoquinones [9], and Bob Howells introduced readers to the potential of the artemisinins [10]. In the first issue, Chris Curtis and J. Minjas suggested a low-tech approach to malaria control by advocating the use of expanded polystyrene beads instead of oil for mosquito control [11] and, later, Chris Curtis and Joe Lines modestly suggested that bednets impregnated with insecticides might be useful in the control of malaria [12]. C.P. MacCormack and Bob Snow even ventured into the sociological aspects of malaria control and asked people what they thought of bednets [13]. Chagas disease also received a lot of attention. In the first issue, Felipe Kierszenbaum [14] and Les Hudson [15] debated whether the autoimmunity characteristic of this disease was the cause or a symptom.
on ivermectin, mainly in a veterinary context, and its possible use in the control of onchocerciasis [16], and Colin Ginger suggested that ivermectin might be the most important new drug for use against filarial worms for 40 years [17] and discussed other possible leads. Simon Croft drew attention to the paucity of drugs for use against trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis [18], and the possibility of using liposomes as drug carriers to enhance the activities of the available antileishmanial drugs was reviewed by C.R. Alving [19]. Molecular approaches Molecular approaches to parasitological problems also featured in the first year of Parasitology Today. Wendy Gibson described the use of pulsed field gradient gel electrophoresis (PFGE) in the molecular karyotyping of trypanosomes [20] and predicted that such a technique might be applicable to the mapping of genes to particular chromosomes. The selective expression of trypanosome surface antigen genes was considered by Maurice Steinart and Etienne Pays, together with a primer about trypanosome genetics [21]. The surface molecules of Leishmania and their role in attachment to host cells was reviewed by Jenefer Blackwell, Diane McMahon-Pratt and Jeffrey Shaw, who also discussed drug resistance and immunoregulation in leishmaniasis [22]. The interface between molecular biology and immunology in the recognition of Leishmania glycoconjugates was discussed by Graham
[3 9]
Chemotherapy The chemotherapy of other parasitic diseases also featured heavily. William Campbell provided an update
Vol.21 No.11 November 2005
i uz cr
ic at io Re n of co PF gn itio G U E n se to of of th pa e D ra i N Ap m si A po to pl pr lo r ic t ob an gi at ca c i e o R e s n lp N of in of A ro z t h D y ed bl m e N em i o f t A i Po in de el -a s g d m ss m [3 in [4 e p 8] ib s 0] pa lif le fo i c r C rt ro as at ro he le io ite ss n of id s te -r en [4 tra ch 2 Po egu tifi n ] n s ca la i te q g tio ue tio en nt n ia n s ic lo of of in Av m f st T p o er un a h s ra ra 1 qu m in d an si ec er s ito to of st tin d H e lo an s Th IV s gy i –A di n an 2 n [ c su 41 d ID g on m bs ge ] S Tr tro an et an ia no l a ls s m d m g i of e n em le es as pa is t C en of ur ra om he S hm es to pa s a iti Pf bi n f r [4 c ia as na ar 66 3] in si t i G tio h t f s es m e r lo o n [ c al 4 p ba t a th i 8 ar od on nd ] lm er ia s s ap ve C of va [4 lim app ct y 4] c m or fo ci in at e ne rm s g di e [ c of 4 c in al al 5– R ha fil ar hu ol an 46 ar ng ia lB m d ia ] e [ a ac v s 5 a n e i 0 s n s k te ] d [5 [4 M rin v 1 9] al ec ] ar ar to y ia im r-b Ap in po or iti in op n rta a f e tiv ila to nc di si e ria se G e s [ 5 l en [4 of as 3] w 7] or et in es m ic tra [ s 5 a c Tr 2 a na e ] s llu an ly a la si sg ta rp s en rg o r DN et fa ot ic oz fo rth m A rc o os m r a op icr qu he [ 5 o oa ito m 5] d rra ot bl es he oo y an an ra d m d py al ea m ys [5 a l is s l 4] a [5 of ria 6 pr ] co ot nt oz ro oa l[ n 57 ge ] ne ex pr es sio n [5 8]
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1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Application of DNA fingerprinting to forensic science
Beginning of the Human Genome Project
Dolly the sheep cloned
Plasmodium falciparum genome completed
Human genome completed
TRENDS in Parasitology
Figure 1. Timeline outlining some of the important developments in parasitology as recorded in the 20 volumes of Parasitology Today and Trends in Parasitology. Note that the year listed does not necessarily correspond with that of the actual discovery. This selection focuses on developments that have had a major influence on the field of parasitology across a broad range of topics and, inevitably, is somewhat arbitrary. It does, however, give an indication of some of the key points in the development of parasitology over 20 years, and many of the topics listed are still of interest in 2005 and are likely to continue to be so [38–58]. www.sciencedirect.com
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TRENDS in Parasitology
Mitchell and Emanuela Handman [23]. Molecular and biochemical studies were not confined to protozoa, and cestode neurotransmitters were the subject of an article by Margaretha Gustafsson [24]. J.G. Mercer reviewed the role of developmental hormones in parasitic helminths and reflected on the possibility of using these hormones as targets for chemotherapy [25], and J.C.W. Comley and A.W.H. Mendis reviewed what was known about the biochemistry of filarial worms [26]. Schistosomiasis Schistosomes were the helminth parasites discussed most frequently in the first year of the journal, particularly with respect to immunity. Central to research in this area was the need to understand laboratory models of schistosomiasis: a topic comprehensively discussed by Monique and Andre´ Capron [27]. The possibility of a vaccine against schistosomiasis was discussed by Martin Taylor and Quentin Bickle, who favoured the use of irradiated cercariae [28], and Stephanie James and Alan Sher, whose choice was a nonliving vaccine [29]. The potential use of molecular techniques to localize, and difficulties in identifying, schistosome vaccine target molecules was recognized by Clint Carter and Dan Colley, who also outlined the directions in which this subject was heading [30]. Eradication of parasitic diseases In the 1980s, there was an air of confidence about the possibility of eradicating some parasitic diseases and their vectors. Ralph Muller was bold enough to state that ‘eradication of dracunculiasis by the end of the decade appears a perfectly feasible objective’ [31], Tony Jordan outlined a 15-year scheme to eradicate tsetse flies from southern Africa, mainly with the use of insecticides [32], and G.A. Vale, E. Bursell and J.W. Hargrove advocated the use of tsetse traps [33]. The onchocerciasis-control programmes using insecticides also received attention, and Colin Fairhurst stressed the importance of environmental monitoring of rivers [34], whereas Dan Kurtak drew attention to the problems that insecticide resistance might bring [35]. Mathematical modelling also featured during the first year; G. Smith and Bryan Grenfell described the population biology of Ostertagia ostertagi [36], and N.T.J. Bailey argued the case for modelling schistosomiasis mathematically [37]. Of necessity, this is a brief but selective overview of parasitology as reflected in the pages of Parasitology Today, as it was then, in its first year. The breadth of coverage is noteworthy, as is the selection of topics, many of which are still relevant today. In this special issue of Trends in Parasitology to mark 21 years since its launch, some of the themes that ran through the first issues will be revisited, some by the original authors and some by other parasitologists competent to overview a particular subject. Back to the future The changing nature of parasitology as reflected in the contents of Parasitology Today and Trends in Parasitology during the past two decades is illustrated in Figure 1, which represents a timeline recording some of the importwww.sciencedirect.com
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ant events that have occurred in this period. Whereas many of the threats to human and animal health caused by parasites stubbornly persist, the methodologies for tackling these problems have advanced markedly. In 1985, who would have predicted that, by 2005, the genome of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum would be available and that the genomes of other major parasites and their vectors would be completed or nearing completion? The possibilities of using such information for the development of vaccines, drugs and vector control would have been unthinkable in 1985. When Trends in Parasitology celebrates its 42nd volume in 2027, will the reviewers look back and say ‘we haven’t done much during the past 21 years’ or will they observe a world free from parasitic diseases and ask whether medical and veterinary parasitology have a future and whether the subject should simply revert to being an interesting branch of zoology, as it was two centuries earlier? References 1 Warren, K.S. and Purcell, E.P., eds (1981) The Current Status and Future of Parasitology, Josiah Macey Jr Foundation 2 McGregor, I. (1985) Clinical trials of new malaria vaccines. Parasitol. Today 1, 32–33 3 Nussenszweig, R.S. and Nussenszweig, V. (1985) Development of a sporozoite vaccine. Parasitol. Today 1, 150–152 4 Anders, R.F. (1985) Candidate antigens for an asexual blood-stage vaccine. Parasitol. Today 1, 152–155 5 Targett, G.A.T. and Sinden, R.E. (1985) Transmission blocking vaccines. Parasitol. Today 1, 155–158 6 Wernsdorfer, W. (1985) Towards a malaria vaccine – discussion. Parasitol. Today 1, 158–159 7 Walliker, D. (1986) Genes, vaccines and variation in malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 43–44 8 Ambroise-Thomas, P. and Rossignol, J.F. (1986) Chemotherapy of resistant falciparum malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 79–80 9 FitzSimons, D.W. (1985) Novel antimalarial drugs with potent broad spectrum anti-protozoal activity. Parasitol. Today 1, 71 10 Howells, R.E. (1986) Chemotherapy of malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 41–43 11 Curtis, C.F. and Minjas, J. (1985) Expanded polystyrene for mosquito control. Parasitol. Today 1, 36 12 Curtis, C.F. and Lines, J.D. (1985) Impregnated fabrics against malaria mosquitoes. Parasitol. Today 1, 147 13 MacCormack, C.P. and Snow, R.W. (1985) What do people think of bednets? Parasitol. Today 1, 147–148 14 Kierszenbaum, F. (1985) Is there autoimmunity in Chagas disease? Parasitol. Today 1, 4–6 15 Hudson, L. (1985) Autoimmune phenomena in chronic chagasic cardiopathy. Parasitol. Today 1, 6–9 16 Campbell, W.C. (1985) Ivermectin: an update. Parasitol. Today 1, 10–16 17 Ginger, C.D. (1986) Advances in filarial chemotherapy and screening. Parasitol. Today 2, 38–40 18 Croft, S. (1986) In vitro screens in the experimental chemotherapy of leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 64–69 19 Alving, C.R. (1986) Liposomes as drug carriers in leishmaniasis and malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 101–107 20 Gibson, W.C. (1985) Molecular karyotyping. Parasitol. Today 1, 64–65 21 Steinert, M. and Pays, E. (1986) Selective expression of surface antigen genes in African trypanosomes. Parasitol. Today 2, 15–19 22 Blackwell, J.M. et al. (1986) Molecular biology of Leishmania. Parasitol. Today 2, 45–53 23 Mitchell, G.F. and Handman, E. (1985) T-lymphocytes recognise Leishmania glycoconjugates. Parasitol. Today 1, 61–63 24 Gustafsson, M. (1985) Cestode neurotransmitters. Parasitol. Today 1, 72–75 25 Mercer, J.G. (1985) Developmental hormones in parasitic helminths. Parasitol. Today 1, 96–100
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26 Comley, J.C.W. and Mendis, A.W.H. (1986) Advances in the biochemistry of filariae. Parasitol. Today 2, 34–37 27 Capron, M. and Capron, A. (1986) Rats, mice and men – models for immune effector mechanisms against schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 69–75 28 Taylor, M.G. and Bickle, Q. (1986) Irradiated schistosome vaccines. Parasitol. Today 2, 132–134 29 James, S.L. and Sher, A. (1986) Prospects for a nonliving vaccine against schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 134–137 30 Carter, C.E. and Colley, D.G. (1986) The molecular biology of schistosomes. Parasitol. Today 2, 84 31 Muller, R. (1985) Guineaworm eradication – the end of another old disease? Parasitol. Today 1, 39–58 32 Jordan, A.M. (1985) Tsetse eradication plans for southern Africa. Parasitol. Today 1, 121–122 33 Vale, G.A. et al. (1985) Catching-out the tsetse fly. Parasitol. Today 1, 106–110 34 Fairhurst, C. (1986) Environmental monitoring of rivers in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. Parasitol. Today 2, 21 35 Kurtak, D.C. (1986) Insecticide resistance in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. Parasitol. Today 2, 20–21 36 Smith, G. and Grenfell, B.T. (1985) The population biology of Ostertagia ostertagi. Parasitol. Today 1, 76–81 37 Bailey, N.T.J. (1986) The case for mathematical modelling of schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 158–163 38 Gibson, W.C. (1985) Molecular karyotyping. Parasitol. Today 1, 64–65 39 Morel, C.M. et al. (1986) The complexity of Trypanosoma cruzi populations revealed by schizodeme analysis. Parasitol. Today 2, 97–101 40 Post, R.J. and Crampton, J.M. (1987) Probing the unknown. Parasitol. Today 3, 380–383 41 de Bruijn, M.H. (1988) Diagnostic DNA amplification. No respite for the elusive parasite. Parasitol. Today 4, 293–295 42 Stuart, K. (1989) RNA editing: new insights into the storage and expression of genetic information. Parasitol. Today 5, 5–8 43 Crampton, J. et al. (1990) Transgenic mosquitoes: a future vector control strategy? Parasitol. Today 6, 31–36
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44 Mosmann, T. and Moore, K.W. (1991) The role of IL-10 in crossregulation of TH1 and TH2 responses. Parasitol. Today 12, A49–A53 45 Besansky, N.J. and Collins, F.H. (1992) The mosquito genome: organization, evolution and manipulation. Parasitol. Today 8, 186–192 46 Hammond, M.P. and Bianco, A.E. (1992) Genes and genomes of parasitic nematodes. Parasitol. Today 8, 299–305 47 Wilson, M.L. (1993) Avermectins in arthropod vector management – prospects and pitfalls. Parasitol. Today 9, 83–87 48 Alvar, J. (1994) Leishmaniasis and AIDS co-infection: the Spanish example. Parasitol. Today 10, 160–163 49 Tanner, M. et al. (1995) SPf66 – the first malaria vaccine. Parasitol. Today 11, 10–13 50 White, N.J. and Olliaro, P.L. (1996) Strategies for the prevention of antimalarial drug resistance: rationale for combination therapy for malaria. Parasitol. Today 12, 399–401 51 Michael, E. and Bundy, D.A.P. (1997) Global mapping of lymphatic filariasis. Parasitol. Today 13, 472–476 52 Sutherst, J.S.I. et al. (1998) Global change and vector-borne diseases. Parasitol. Today 14, 297–299 53 Alonso, P.L. and Dgedge, M. (1999) A new impetus for malaria research and control. Parasitol. Today 15, 48–49 54 Taylor, M.J. et al. (2000) Wolbachia bacteria of filarial nematodes: a target for control. Parasitol. Today 16, 179–180 55 Lu¨der, C.G.K. et al. (2001) Intracellular protozoan parasites and apoptosis: diverse strategies to modulate parasite–host interactions. Trends Parasitol. 17, 480–486 56 Mukabana, W.R. et al. (2002) Analysis of arthropod bloodmeals using molecular genetic markers. Trends Parasitol. 18, 505–509 57 Boe¨te, C. and Koella, J.C. (2003) Evolutionary ideas about genetically manipulated mosquitoes and malaria control. Trends Parasitol. 19, 32–38 58 Duncan, R. (2004) DNA microarray analysis of protozoan parasite gene expression: outcomes correlate with mechanisms of regulation. Trends Parasitol. 20, 211–215 1471-4922/$ - see front matter Q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.022
Free journals for developing countries The WHO and six medical journal publishers have launched the Access to Research Initiative, which enables nearly 70 of the world’s poorest countries to gain free access to biomedical literature through the Internet. The science publishers, Blackwell, Elsevier, the Harcourt Worldwide STM group, Wolters Kluwer International Health and Science, Springer-Verlag and John Wiley, were approached by the WHO and the British Medical Journal in 2001. Initially, more than 1000 journals will be available for free or at significantly reduced prices to universities, medical schools, research and public institutions in developing countries. The second stage involves extending this initiative to institutions in other countries. Gro Harlem Brundtland, director-general for the WHO, said that this initiative was ’perhaps the biggest step ever taken towards reducing the health information gap between rich and poor countries’. See http://www.healthinternetwork.net for more information. www.sciencedirect.com
TRENDS in Parasitology
and multinational involvement and that new tools – although welcome – will only be relevant if they do not interrupt the momentum of the control interventions. Parasitic disease control should not be suspended while awaiting technical development, and such developments, ideally, should respond to control service requirements rather than seek uses for new techniques. There is an ethical imperative for this, astringently summarized by the words of Joa˜o Carlos Pinto Dias, driving force behind the initiatives for Chagas disease control in Latin America (Figure 1). References 1 Liese, B.H. et al. (1991) Organizing and Managing Tropical Disease Control Programmes: Lessons of Success, World Bank, Washington DC 2 Schofield, C.J. (1985) Appropriate disease control. Parasitol. Today 1, 181–182 3 Jordan, A.M. (1985) Tsetse eradication plans for southern Africa. Parasitol. Today 1, 121–123 4 Hargrove, J.W. (2003) Tsetse Eradication: Sufficiency, Necessity and Desirability, DFID Animal Health Programme, Edinburgh
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5 Allsopp, R. (2001) Options for vector control against trypanosomiasis in Africa. Trends Parasitol. 17, 15–19 6 Molyneux, D.H. (1995) Onchocerciasis control in West Africa: current status and future of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. Parasitol. Today 11, 399–402 7 Dias, J.C.P. (1987) Control of Chagas disease in Brasil. Parasitol. Today 3, 336–341 8 Schofield, C.J. and Dias, J.C.P. (1999) The Southern Cone Initiative against Chagas disease. Adv. Parasitol. 42, 1–27 9 Yamagata, Y. and Nakagawa, J. Control of Chagas disease. Adv. Parasitol. (in press) 10 Kabayo, J.P. (2002) Aiming to eliminate tsetse from Africa. Trends Parasitol. 18, 473–475 11 Hotez, P.J. et al. (2004) Combating tropical infectious diseases: report of the Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries Project. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 871–878 12 Tan, K-H., ed. (2000) Area-Wide Control of Fruit Flies and Other Insect Pests, Universiti Sains Malaysia 1471-4922/$ - see front matter Q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.023
Parasitology yesterday – following the trends Frank E.G. Cox Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK, WC1E 7HT
The 1980s were a period of great activity in the field of parasitology that generated a vast amount of research published in w20 specialist and several other learned journals. There was, however, no vehicle for disseminating the exciting discoveries that were being made in an immediate, easily readable and accessible form suitable for teachers, students and others interested in aspects of the subject that were broader than their own particular specialty. To fill this perceived gap, Elsevier decided in 1985 that it would be worthwhile publishing Parasitology Today to complement its other successful Trends journals. In this article, I review the breadth of coverage of topics published during the first year of Parasitology Today, most of which continue to be of interest today.
In the beginning Like most great enterprises, Trends in Parasitology had modest beginnings. The first seeds were sown when the then Editor of Immunology Today, John Inglis, asked several parasitologists, including Len Goodwin and myself, if there was a place in the literature for a parasitological equivalent of Immunology Today or Trends in Biochemical Sciences (TIBS). The early 1980s were a period of great activity in parasitology, and in 1980 at a meeting about The Current Status and Future of Parasitology [1] the role of parasitological literature had been critically discussed. At that time, there were w20 Corresponding author: Cox, F.E.G. ([email protected]). Available online 2 September 2005 www.sciencedirect.com
mainstream parasitological journals, ranging from generalist ones such as Parasitology and the Journal of Parasitology to more specialized ones such as Parasite Immunology and Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology. All were aimed at research workers, with regular or occasional reviews that might be of use to students. In addition, the well-established Advances in Parasitology published long and authoritative reviews about a diverse range of parasitological topics. In short, there was plenty of material for professional parasitologists but very little for students and their teachers, and there was a gap waiting to be filled by a new journal such as Immunology Today or TIBS. Elsevier was initially cautious about publishing a journal with a potential circulation much lower than that of its other similar publications but, mainly because of Len Goodwin’s enthusiasm, was persuaded and, in July 1985, the first issue of Parasitology Today appeared. The rest, as they say, is history, and Trends in Parasitology now outranks all the other parasitological journals in the annual Science Citation Indexw (http://www.isinet.com/products/citation/sci/). Malaria and Chagas disease Inevitably, there is a certain amount of nostalgia when looking back at the articles published during the first year but there is also a feeling that nothing has really changed. It is not that the subject has stood still for two decades but that many of the problems still remain and that some of the predictions made have turned out to be very optimistic. Malaria dominates the first 12 issues from the first page of issue one, in which Ian McGregor reviewed clinical trials of
Editorial
486
TRENDS in Parasitology
new malaria vaccines [2] – a topic discussed in detail by Ruth and Victor Nussenzweig [3], Robin Anders [4], Geoff Targett and Bob Sinden [5], and Walther Wernsdorfer [6] in a debate series and, in the context of antigenic variation and diversity, by David Walliker [7]. Chemotherapy of malaria also featured in these early issues, and Pierre Ambroise-Thomas and Jean-Franc¸ois Rossignol alerted the readers to the emerging danger of antimalarial drug resistance [8]. David FitzSimons drew attention to the potential of new drugs such as the hydroxynaphthoquinones [9], and Bob Howells introduced readers to the potential of the artemisinins [10]. In the first issue, Chris Curtis and J. Minjas suggested a low-tech approach to malaria control by advocating the use of expanded polystyrene beads instead of oil for mosquito control [11] and, later, Chris Curtis and Joe Lines modestly suggested that bednets impregnated with insecticides might be useful in the control of malaria [12]. C.P. MacCormack and Bob Snow even ventured into the sociological aspects of malaria control and asked people what they thought of bednets [13]. Chagas disease also received a lot of attention. In the first issue, Felipe Kierszenbaum [14] and Les Hudson [15] debated whether the autoimmunity characteristic of this disease was the cause or a symptom.
on ivermectin, mainly in a veterinary context, and its possible use in the control of onchocerciasis [16], and Colin Ginger suggested that ivermectin might be the most important new drug for use against filarial worms for 40 years [17] and discussed other possible leads. Simon Croft drew attention to the paucity of drugs for use against trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis [18], and the possibility of using liposomes as drug carriers to enhance the activities of the available antileishmanial drugs was reviewed by C.R. Alving [19]. Molecular approaches Molecular approaches to parasitological problems also featured in the first year of Parasitology Today. Wendy Gibson described the use of pulsed field gradient gel electrophoresis (PFGE) in the molecular karyotyping of trypanosomes [20] and predicted that such a technique might be applicable to the mapping of genes to particular chromosomes. The selective expression of trypanosome surface antigen genes was considered by Maurice Steinart and Etienne Pays, together with a primer about trypanosome genetics [21]. The surface molecules of Leishmania and their role in attachment to host cells was reviewed by Jenefer Blackwell, Diane McMahon-Pratt and Jeffrey Shaw, who also discussed drug resistance and immunoregulation in leishmaniasis [22]. The interface between molecular biology and immunology in the recognition of Leishmania glycoconjugates was discussed by Graham
[3 9]
Chemotherapy The chemotherapy of other parasitic diseases also featured heavily. William Campbell provided an update
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1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Application of DNA fingerprinting to forensic science
Beginning of the Human Genome Project
Dolly the sheep cloned
Plasmodium falciparum genome completed
Human genome completed
TRENDS in Parasitology
Figure 1. Timeline outlining some of the important developments in parasitology as recorded in the 20 volumes of Parasitology Today and Trends in Parasitology. Note that the year listed does not necessarily correspond with that of the actual discovery. This selection focuses on developments that have had a major influence on the field of parasitology across a broad range of topics and, inevitably, is somewhat arbitrary. It does, however, give an indication of some of the key points in the development of parasitology over 20 years, and many of the topics listed are still of interest in 2005 and are likely to continue to be so [38–58]. www.sciencedirect.com
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Mitchell and Emanuela Handman [23]. Molecular and biochemical studies were not confined to protozoa, and cestode neurotransmitters were the subject of an article by Margaretha Gustafsson [24]. J.G. Mercer reviewed the role of developmental hormones in parasitic helminths and reflected on the possibility of using these hormones as targets for chemotherapy [25], and J.C.W. Comley and A.W.H. Mendis reviewed what was known about the biochemistry of filarial worms [26]. Schistosomiasis Schistosomes were the helminth parasites discussed most frequently in the first year of the journal, particularly with respect to immunity. Central to research in this area was the need to understand laboratory models of schistosomiasis: a topic comprehensively discussed by Monique and Andre´ Capron [27]. The possibility of a vaccine against schistosomiasis was discussed by Martin Taylor and Quentin Bickle, who favoured the use of irradiated cercariae [28], and Stephanie James and Alan Sher, whose choice was a nonliving vaccine [29]. The potential use of molecular techniques to localize, and difficulties in identifying, schistosome vaccine target molecules was recognized by Clint Carter and Dan Colley, who also outlined the directions in which this subject was heading [30]. Eradication of parasitic diseases In the 1980s, there was an air of confidence about the possibility of eradicating some parasitic diseases and their vectors. Ralph Muller was bold enough to state that ‘eradication of dracunculiasis by the end of the decade appears a perfectly feasible objective’ [31], Tony Jordan outlined a 15-year scheme to eradicate tsetse flies from southern Africa, mainly with the use of insecticides [32], and G.A. Vale, E. Bursell and J.W. Hargrove advocated the use of tsetse traps [33]. The onchocerciasis-control programmes using insecticides also received attention, and Colin Fairhurst stressed the importance of environmental monitoring of rivers [34], whereas Dan Kurtak drew attention to the problems that insecticide resistance might bring [35]. Mathematical modelling also featured during the first year; G. Smith and Bryan Grenfell described the population biology of Ostertagia ostertagi [36], and N.T.J. Bailey argued the case for modelling schistosomiasis mathematically [37]. Of necessity, this is a brief but selective overview of parasitology as reflected in the pages of Parasitology Today, as it was then, in its first year. The breadth of coverage is noteworthy, as is the selection of topics, many of which are still relevant today. In this special issue of Trends in Parasitology to mark 21 years since its launch, some of the themes that ran through the first issues will be revisited, some by the original authors and some by other parasitologists competent to overview a particular subject. Back to the future The changing nature of parasitology as reflected in the contents of Parasitology Today and Trends in Parasitology during the past two decades is illustrated in Figure 1, which represents a timeline recording some of the importwww.sciencedirect.com
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ant events that have occurred in this period. Whereas many of the threats to human and animal health caused by parasites stubbornly persist, the methodologies for tackling these problems have advanced markedly. In 1985, who would have predicted that, by 2005, the genome of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum would be available and that the genomes of other major parasites and their vectors would be completed or nearing completion? The possibilities of using such information for the development of vaccines, drugs and vector control would have been unthinkable in 1985. When Trends in Parasitology celebrates its 42nd volume in 2027, will the reviewers look back and say ‘we haven’t done much during the past 21 years’ or will they observe a world free from parasitic diseases and ask whether medical and veterinary parasitology have a future and whether the subject should simply revert to being an interesting branch of zoology, as it was two centuries earlier? References 1 Warren, K.S. and Purcell, E.P., eds (1981) The Current Status and Future of Parasitology, Josiah Macey Jr Foundation 2 McGregor, I. (1985) Clinical trials of new malaria vaccines. Parasitol. Today 1, 32–33 3 Nussenszweig, R.S. and Nussenszweig, V. (1985) Development of a sporozoite vaccine. Parasitol. Today 1, 150–152 4 Anders, R.F. (1985) Candidate antigens for an asexual blood-stage vaccine. Parasitol. Today 1, 152–155 5 Targett, G.A.T. and Sinden, R.E. (1985) Transmission blocking vaccines. Parasitol. Today 1, 155–158 6 Wernsdorfer, W. (1985) Towards a malaria vaccine – discussion. Parasitol. Today 1, 158–159 7 Walliker, D. (1986) Genes, vaccines and variation in malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 43–44 8 Ambroise-Thomas, P. and Rossignol, J.F. (1986) Chemotherapy of resistant falciparum malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 79–80 9 FitzSimons, D.W. (1985) Novel antimalarial drugs with potent broad spectrum anti-protozoal activity. Parasitol. Today 1, 71 10 Howells, R.E. (1986) Chemotherapy of malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 41–43 11 Curtis, C.F. and Minjas, J. (1985) Expanded polystyrene for mosquito control. Parasitol. Today 1, 36 12 Curtis, C.F. and Lines, J.D. (1985) Impregnated fabrics against malaria mosquitoes. Parasitol. Today 1, 147 13 MacCormack, C.P. and Snow, R.W. (1985) What do people think of bednets? Parasitol. Today 1, 147–148 14 Kierszenbaum, F. (1985) Is there autoimmunity in Chagas disease? Parasitol. Today 1, 4–6 15 Hudson, L. (1985) Autoimmune phenomena in chronic chagasic cardiopathy. Parasitol. Today 1, 6–9 16 Campbell, W.C. (1985) Ivermectin: an update. Parasitol. Today 1, 10–16 17 Ginger, C.D. (1986) Advances in filarial chemotherapy and screening. Parasitol. Today 2, 38–40 18 Croft, S. (1986) In vitro screens in the experimental chemotherapy of leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 64–69 19 Alving, C.R. (1986) Liposomes as drug carriers in leishmaniasis and malaria. Parasitol. Today 2, 101–107 20 Gibson, W.C. (1985) Molecular karyotyping. Parasitol. Today 1, 64–65 21 Steinert, M. and Pays, E. (1986) Selective expression of surface antigen genes in African trypanosomes. Parasitol. Today 2, 15–19 22 Blackwell, J.M. et al. (1986) Molecular biology of Leishmania. Parasitol. Today 2, 45–53 23 Mitchell, G.F. and Handman, E. (1985) T-lymphocytes recognise Leishmania glycoconjugates. Parasitol. Today 1, 61–63 24 Gustafsson, M. (1985) Cestode neurotransmitters. Parasitol. Today 1, 72–75 25 Mercer, J.G. (1985) Developmental hormones in parasitic helminths. Parasitol. Today 1, 96–100
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26 Comley, J.C.W. and Mendis, A.W.H. (1986) Advances in the biochemistry of filariae. Parasitol. Today 2, 34–37 27 Capron, M. and Capron, A. (1986) Rats, mice and men – models for immune effector mechanisms against schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 69–75 28 Taylor, M.G. and Bickle, Q. (1986) Irradiated schistosome vaccines. Parasitol. Today 2, 132–134 29 James, S.L. and Sher, A. (1986) Prospects for a nonliving vaccine against schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 134–137 30 Carter, C.E. and Colley, D.G. (1986) The molecular biology of schistosomes. Parasitol. Today 2, 84 31 Muller, R. (1985) Guineaworm eradication – the end of another old disease? Parasitol. Today 1, 39–58 32 Jordan, A.M. (1985) Tsetse eradication plans for southern Africa. Parasitol. Today 1, 121–122 33 Vale, G.A. et al. (1985) Catching-out the tsetse fly. Parasitol. Today 1, 106–110 34 Fairhurst, C. (1986) Environmental monitoring of rivers in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. Parasitol. Today 2, 21 35 Kurtak, D.C. (1986) Insecticide resistance in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. Parasitol. Today 2, 20–21 36 Smith, G. and Grenfell, B.T. (1985) The population biology of Ostertagia ostertagi. Parasitol. Today 1, 76–81 37 Bailey, N.T.J. (1986) The case for mathematical modelling of schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today 2, 158–163 38 Gibson, W.C. (1985) Molecular karyotyping. Parasitol. Today 1, 64–65 39 Morel, C.M. et al. (1986) The complexity of Trypanosoma cruzi populations revealed by schizodeme analysis. Parasitol. Today 2, 97–101 40 Post, R.J. and Crampton, J.M. (1987) Probing the unknown. Parasitol. Today 3, 380–383 41 de Bruijn, M.H. (1988) Diagnostic DNA amplification. No respite for the elusive parasite. Parasitol. Today 4, 293–295 42 Stuart, K. (1989) RNA editing: new insights into the storage and expression of genetic information. Parasitol. Today 5, 5–8 43 Crampton, J. et al. (1990) Transgenic mosquitoes: a future vector control strategy? Parasitol. Today 6, 31–36
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44 Mosmann, T. and Moore, K.W. (1991) The role of IL-10 in crossregulation of TH1 and TH2 responses. Parasitol. Today 12, A49–A53 45 Besansky, N.J. and Collins, F.H. (1992) The mosquito genome: organization, evolution and manipulation. Parasitol. Today 8, 186–192 46 Hammond, M.P. and Bianco, A.E. (1992) Genes and genomes of parasitic nematodes. Parasitol. Today 8, 299–305 47 Wilson, M.L. (1993) Avermectins in arthropod vector management – prospects and pitfalls. Parasitol. Today 9, 83–87 48 Alvar, J. (1994) Leishmaniasis and AIDS co-infection: the Spanish example. Parasitol. Today 10, 160–163 49 Tanner, M. et al. (1995) SPf66 – the first malaria vaccine. Parasitol. Today 11, 10–13 50 White, N.J. and Olliaro, P.L. (1996) Strategies for the prevention of antimalarial drug resistance: rationale for combination therapy for malaria. Parasitol. Today 12, 399–401 51 Michael, E. and Bundy, D.A.P. (1997) Global mapping of lymphatic filariasis. Parasitol. Today 13, 472–476 52 Sutherst, J.S.I. et al. (1998) Global change and vector-borne diseases. Parasitol. Today 14, 297–299 53 Alonso, P.L. and Dgedge, M. (1999) A new impetus for malaria research and control. Parasitol. Today 15, 48–49 54 Taylor, M.J. et al. (2000) Wolbachia bacteria of filarial nematodes: a target for control. Parasitol. Today 16, 179–180 55 Lu¨der, C.G.K. et al. (2001) Intracellular protozoan parasites and apoptosis: diverse strategies to modulate parasite–host interactions. Trends Parasitol. 17, 480–486 56 Mukabana, W.R. et al. (2002) Analysis of arthropod bloodmeals using molecular genetic markers. Trends Parasitol. 18, 505–509 57 Boe¨te, C. and Koella, J.C. (2003) Evolutionary ideas about genetically manipulated mosquitoes and malaria control. Trends Parasitol. 19, 32–38 58 Duncan, R. (2004) DNA microarray analysis of protozoan parasite gene expression: outcomes correlate with mechanisms of regulation. Trends Parasitol. 20, 211–215 1471-4922/$ - see front matter Q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.022
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