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Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe
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Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe P. Chatikobo a,∗ , T. Choga b , C. Ncube c , J. Mutambara d a b c d
Chinhoyi University of Technology, P. Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe University of Leeds, Leeds, Kent, England, UK Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, AIDS and TB Programme, Box CY 1122 Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe University of Zimbabwe, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, P.O. Box MP 167, Harare, Zimbabwe
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Article history: Received 3 March 2012 Received in revised form 9 October 2012 Accepted 21 October 2012 Keywords: Participatory diagnosis Livestock diseases Bovine dermatophilosis Bovine besnoitiosis Smallholder
a b s t r a c t A participatory epidemiological study was conducted to identify and prioritize constraints to livestock health and production on smallholder farms in Sanyati and Gokwe districts of Zimbabwe. Questionnaires were administered to 294 randomly selected livestock owners across the two districts. Livestock diseases (29% of the respondents), high cost of drugs (18.21%), weak veterinary extension (15.18%), inadequate grazing (13.60%), inadequate water (13.54%), and livestock thefts (10.44%) were the major livestock health and production constraints identified. The number of diseases reported varied (P < 0.05) with livestock species and nature of causative agent. Out of the 36 diseases mentioned by farmers, 50%, 22.2%, 19.4%, 5.5% and 2.8% were diseases of cattle, sheep and goats, domestic chicken, donkeys, and guinea fowls, respectively. Seven (19.4%) of the 36 diseases including rabies and foot and mouth disease were those listed by the OIE. Thirty-four percent of the respondents rated bovine dermatophilosis as the most important livestock disease. Respondents rated, in descending order, other diseases including tick borne diseases (21%); a previously unreported disease, “Magwiriri” or “Ganda renzou” in vernacular (14%); mastitis (11%); parafilariosis (11%); and blackleg (9%). Cattle skin samples from “Magwiriri” cases had Besnoitia besnoiti parasites. Overall, this study revealed factors and diseases that limit livestock production in Zimbabwe and are of global concern; in addition, the study showed that the skin diseases, bovine dermatophilosis and besnoitiosis, have recently emerged and appear to be spreading, likely a consequence of ectoparasite control demise in smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe over the last 15 years. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction In Zimbabwe, 80–90% of the livestock population is in the smallholder farming areas (Njagu, 2011). Smallholder livestock production is a major food security contributor at the household level to more than 75% of the population of
∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Chatikobo), [email protected] (T. Choga), [email protected] (C. Ncube), [email protected] (J. Mutambara).
Zimbabwe (Agrisystems, 2000). Livestock contribute products for home consumption and use such as milk, meat, hides, skins and manure. In addition, surplus livestock products are sold to generate income that enhances household food security (Perry et al., 2003). Despite the large livestock population in the smallholder farming areas, livestock productivity is low (Ngongoni et al., 2006; Ndebele et al., 2007). The most frequently reported constraints include shortage of feed and water, high incidence of diseases and mortality rates, and weak veterinary extension (Masama et al., 2003; Masikati, 2010; Mutibvu et al., 2012). Over the last 15 years, there
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Please cite this article in press as: Chatikobo, P., et al., Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. PREVET (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.10.013
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has been anecdotal evidence that livestock production in smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe has further been adversely affected by agrarian and land reforms, and economic calamities characterized by hyperinflation and consequent high prices and interest rates. This has led to emergence of new challenges and constraints to animal health and production; for example, farming systems, ownership and use changed while livestock productivity and disease control in smallholder farming areas deteriorated (DVS, 2001; Njagu, 2011). Although there is anecdotal evidence of worsening constraints to livestock production and inadequate disease control in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe, few studies have been conducted to establish these claims, particularly the demise of disease control in predominantly livestock production areas such as Sanyati and Gokwe districts. Consistent with this need, and to assist disease control and surveillance programs, the objective of this study was to broadly determine the constraints facing smallholder livestock producers, and, in particular, establish prevalent diseases in Sanyati and Gokwe districts of Zimbabwe.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study site Details of the study site, cattle breeds, and animal health management are described in Pedersen (1997), Chatikobo et al. (2004), and Chatikobo et al. (2009), respectively.
2.2. Composition of the appraisal team The appraisal team consisted of a veterinarian, an economist, a biostatistician/epidemiologist, and a geographical information systems (GIS) specialist. Most of the team members had training in participatory rural appraisals. To allow for effective triangulation and benefits from multi-disciplinarity, the four experts were considered to have adequate technical rigor for the study (Catley, 1999).
2.3. Sample size determination From a small pilot study, it was estimated that approximately 90% of households encountered constraints to livestock production. Based on a sample estimate within 5% of the true population proportion, sample size was determined using the formula: S=
Npq (CI2 /4)
+ pq
where S is the desired sample size; N is the number of registered stock owners (households); p is the proportion affected (90%); q = 1 − p (10%); and CI is the confidence interval (5%).
2.4. Sampling procedure A multistage sampling procedure was used to select participants for the survey. One out of six ectoparasite control dip tanks (16.67%) in each farming system listed by the District Veterinary Officer was randomly selected for the study. At each dip tank, respondent livestock owners were randomly selected from the livestock-card register supplied by the Veterinary Extension Assistant. The selected participants were interviewed as a single group at individual dip tanks. 2.5. Data collection Data collection took place between1999 and 2003. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was carried out as described by Catley (1999). Briefly, secondary information was collected, focus-group discussions convened, and proportional piling and belt transects were used. Key informants were interviewed to obtain an overview of the community under study, and to identify decision making structures, and appropriate interview strategies. They were interviewed 2–3 times during the early stages of the study, and later on, the information provided by the key informants was verified in livestock owner interviews. The key informants interviewed included District Veterinary Officers, Local Veterinary Extension Assistants, Traditional Chiefs, Councilors, District Administrators, Village Heads, and experienced farmers. All interviews were semi-structured. 2.5.1. Informal interviewing a. Checklist. During the semi-structured interviews, a checklist of important points and exercises to be covered was used. The checklist serves to provide overall direction and assure that no major points will be missed in an interview. It also allows respondents to digress into areas of special interest to them and for the interviewer to followup specific issues raised by respondents. These digressions often reveal useful information that could be missed in a fully structured interview. b. Brainstorming. One brainstorming/group interview session was held with participants at each selected dip tank. After the formalities of greetings and introductions, brainstorming sessions were started by asking a general question about current livestock problems encountered by the farmers in their herds. Respondents were asked to list, describe, and rank the constraints. They were further requested to temporally rank the constraints, particularly disease prevalence, if diseases were a constraint. c. Triangulation. Reports or data provided by various key informants and results of brainstorming were compared and, if inconsistent, were further debated until a consensus view or agreement. d. Proportional piling. A slight variant of the proportional piling method described by Jost et al. (2007) was used to determine farmers’ prioritization of livestock production constraints. Once the respondents and the appraisal team had compiled a list of animal health problems for a particular species, circles were drawn on the ground
Please cite this article in press as: Chatikobo, P., et al., Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. PREVET (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.10.013
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Fig. 1. Constraints to livestock production in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder areas.
to represent a problem. Each respondent was given 1 pebble or bean and asked to place it in the circle representing the most important disease. The instruction was, “Please indicate the relative importance of the diseases you have mentioned in terms of the overall well-being of your family (overall well-being includes food, cash, traction, manure, social value, among other values)”. The appraisal team then counted the number of beans placed on each circle to determine the disease importance rank. After, the highest ranked disease was removed (circle deleted), the exercise was repeated until the fifth most important disease was recorded. e. Transect walk. A transect walk through randomly selected villages was done during which diseased animals were observed. The appraisal team noted respondents’ descriptions of disease characteristics such as duration, case fatality, and response to treatment. They identified different disease syndromes, local and introduced curative technologies, and other possible solutions. During the belt transacts, clinical examinations were conducted using routine procedures; for example, visual appraisal, taking temperature, respiration and rumination rates. For disease cases the appraisal team could not make a diagnosis, samples were taken to the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Harare for laboratory diagnosis.
2.6. Clinical examinations Clinical examinations were performed on samples from cases of unidentified diseases. Biopsies were taken for further laboratory diagnosis at the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Harare.
2.7. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were computed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 16. Chi-square tests were used to check for significance of observations. 3. Results 3.1. Animal health constraints The major constraints to livestock production were diseases, high cost of drugs, weak extension service, and shortage of grazing pastures and water. Livestock diseases were the most important constraint to livestock production reported by the respondent farmers (29.03% of the respondents). Other constraints included high cost of drugs (18.21%), weak veterinary extension (15.18%), inadequate grazing (13.6%), and inadequate water (13.54%), and livestock thefts (10.44%) (Fig. 1). 3.2. Animal disease prioritization The number of diseases reported varied (P < 0.05) with livestock or poultry species. Fifty percent of the diseases reported were cattle diseases, followed by diseases of sheep and goats (22.2%), domestic chicken (19.4%), donkeys (5.5%), and guinea fowls (2.8%) (Table 1). Seven (19.4%) of the diseases including rabies and foot and mouth disease are on the OIE list. Bovine dermatophilosis was rated the most important cattle disease (33.6% of the respondents), followed by tick borne diseases (21.2%), a previously unreported skin disease (“Magwiriri” or “Ganda renzou” in vernacular) (13.6%), mastitis (11.4%), parafilariosis (10.7%), and blackleg (9.4%) (Fig. 2).
Please cite this article in press as: Chatikobo, P., et al., Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. PREVET (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.10.013
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Table 1 Livestock and poultry diseases reported by farmers in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe (1999–2003). Cattle
Sheep and goats
Donkeys
Village chicken
G/Fowls
Blackleg Anthraxb Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Heartwater Mastitis “Magwiriri”a Dermatophilosisb Lameness Parafilariosis Corneal opacities “Elephant skin”a Foot and mouthb Diarrhea Wasting Internal parasites wounds Rabiesb
Orfb Dermatophilosis Heartwater Internal parasites Pneumonia Mange Rabiesb Weight loss
Wounds Parasites
NCDb Coccidiosis Mites Lice Fowl choryza Fowl cholerab Internal parasites
Internal parasites
NCD, Newcastle disease. a New disease syndromes. b Office International des Epizooties (OIE) listed disease.
Fig. 2. The prevalence of cattle diseases across farming systems.
3.3. Investigation of elephant skin disease Farmers reported that the “new” disease “changes the skin of an affected animal to resemble that of an elephant”; hence, they named it “Cheganda renzou” (vernacular for elephant skin). The disease was characterized by dyspnea “magwiriri” (vernacular for snoring or labored breathing), followed by appearance of skin nodules. With time, the skin of the affected part develops extensive thickening, puckering, and wrinkling, giving an “elephant skin” appearance. A clinical examination was performed on five suspected cases of the disease presented during belt transects revealed cyst-like structures in the sclera, and palpebral
conjunctiva of 2 of the 5 cases (40%), and 3 (60%) also had lesions in the vulva. Skin biopsy histopathology results showed scleroderma, hyperkeratosis, loss of necrotic epidermis, and presence of besnoitia cysts. Based on these results, it was concluded that the “elephant skin disease” was highly likely to be besnoitiosis infection. 4. Discussion 4.1. Constraints to livestock production The participatory survey results confirm the existence of several constraints to livestock production and, in
Please cite this article in press as: Chatikobo, P., et al., Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. PREVET (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.10.013
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particular, emerging diseases in the study area. The prioritization of constraints was similar across farming systems that are in the smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe, implying that while the land tenure systems among the communal area, resettlement area, and small scale commercial farming area sub-sectors are different, constraints to livestock production are largely similar. These constraints are a consequence of the location of smallholder farming areas in marginal agro-ecological regions with poor and erratic rainfall and distant from urban areas where inputs and agricultural services are sourced.
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for large-scale commercial farming systems (Francis and Sibanda, 2001). 4.5. Shortage of grazing The problem of shortage of grazing could be attributed to the dependence on natural pastures as the major source of feed for livestock (Mutibvu et al., 2012). Natural pastures rely directly on rainfall resulting in seasonal variation in both the quality and quantity of herbage available to support livestock production (Ndlovu and Sibanda, 1991; Masikati, 2010; Ndebele et al., 2007; Svotwa et al., 2007).
4.2. Livestock disease challenges This study shows that farmers are concerned about diseases in their livestock. As observed by Mwacharo and Drucker (2005) and Masikati (2010), this could be attributed to the increase in livestock morbidity and mortality. In addition, it could also be related to the vandalization of ectoparasite control dip tanks and boundary fences during farm invasions in 2000. This made livestock movement control difficult to enforce and increased contagious diseases spreading. Consistent with results from this study, other reports (Masimba et al., 2011; Mutibvu et al., 2012) identified livestock diseases as a major constraint to smallholder livestock production. The hot, dry climate that prevails in the smallholder farming areas is ideal for survival and multiplication of disease transmitting vectors such as ticks and flies. The demise of ectoparasite control in the smallholder farming areas has led to high incidences of diseases transmitted by these vectors such as dermatophilosis, tick borne diseases, and parafilariosis. 4.3. High cost of drugs This study was conducted between 1999 and 2003. During this period, the rate of monetary inflation at one time exceeded 100% per year (Perry et al., 2003); as a consequence, the perennially cash-deficient smallholder farmers were least able to pay for animal health drugs and services. This was exacerbated by removal or cuts in subsidies on state animal health services including dipping and provision of vaccines and some drugs (DVS, 2001; Perry et al., 2003). After the reduction of state subsidies on acaricides for dipping, acaricide supply dwindled; as a result, the prices of acaricides increased (Masikati, 2010). 4.4. Weak extension It was not surprising that diseases were ranked highest among livestock production constraints faced by smallholder farmers. It is apparent that extension services deterioration contributed to disease control challenges. In this regard, limited extension services led to, among others, inadequate enforcement of livestock movement control to curtail disease spread. The unfavorable macro-economic situation led to shortage of drugs, and fuel for vehicles that further compromised extension services delivery. It has been argued that the extension system applied is inappropriate for smallholder livestock farmers because it was designed for crop production (Mutibvu et al., 2012) and
4.6. Shortage of water Farmers in smallholder farming areas also rely on various water sources including rivers, dams, boreholes, wells, and springs for their animals. Because of the low, erratic rainfall received in these areas, the sources of water are largely seasonal, and hence unreliable. As reported by Ndebele et al. (2007), water from dams and rivers is muddy in the rain season while rivers, wells and some springs dryup in the dry season. In related studies, Masikati (2010) and Mutibvu et al. (2012) observed that during the dry season, distance to water sources can be up to 14 km. This is a major challenge to the non-motorized farmers and limits access to water. 4.7. Effects of climate change on grazing and water The challenges of livestock grazing and water in smallholder farming areas could be partly attributed to the effects of global warming. One study revealed decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures as a result of global warming and climate change in Gokwe district (Gwimbi, 2009). Shortages of pasture grazing and water were also prevalent in an agro-ecologically similar smallholder farming area, Tanda Ward in Manicaland (Svotwa et al., 2007). This suggests that these could be common challenges to smallholder livestock farmers throughout the country. 4.8. Animal disease diagnoses and prioritization Contrary to observations by Mutibvu et al. (2012), farmers in this study were able to identify common disease problems affecting their livestock herds. Our results agree with those of Mlambo et al. (2011), who reported that in Zhombe communal area farmers comprehended poultry health issues and positively identified poultry diseases. This validates participatory disease investigations that involve livestock farmers; in addition, such farmers can be a fulcrum for disease surveillance in their areas. 4.9. Concern over vector borne diseases The range of livestock diseases identified can be classified as vector borne or vector associated diseases (tick borne diseases, dermatophilosis, parafilariosis), parasitic (helminthiasis), viral diseases (rabies, Newcastle disease, foot and mouth disease, lumpy skin disease), or bacterial
Please cite this article in press as: Chatikobo, P., et al., Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. PREVET (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.10.013
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(anthrax, blackleg, fowl cholera). Based on this classification, vector borne or vector associated diseases emerged as the major diseases of concern in Gokwe and Sanyati smallholder farming areas. This observation could be attributed to weakening quality of veterinary service support systems. The occurrence of these vector borne diseases is greatly influenced by environmental and climatic conditions (Chatikobo et al., 2004, 2009), and they present a particular challenge for farmers during the rainy season. Rain promotes ectoparasite activity, and subsequently, high prevalence of vector borne diseases at a time when the majority of the farmers cannot afford acaricides to dip their cattle or antibiotics to treat clinical disease cases as most of their resources are directed toward securing inputs for crop farming. The farmers concern is a reflection of the impacts of livestock morbidity or mortality on their livelihoods through reduced draught animal power availability for cropping. 4.10. Farmers livestock disease control priorities The farmers’ disease priorities (dermatophilosis, tick borne diseases, parafilariosis), differed with those of the government veterinary authorities who prioritized the control of notifiable diseases such as foot and mouth disease, rabies, and anthrax. Farmers observed that foot and mouth disease does not kill, but dermatophilosis had killed many cows on farms. This shows that farmers take a more holistic animal health view and they consider mortality, economic impact, risks and coping mechanisms when prioritizing diseases. This is an important observation because when disease priorities differ between veterinary authorities and farmers, disease control strategies implemented by the veterinary authorities are less likely to be adopted by farmers. 4.11. Investigation of elephant skin disease Based on the clinical signs/history given by the respondents, combined with the experience and diagnostic skills of the appraisal team and results of laboratory analysis, a diagnosis of besnoitiosis was confirmed in “elephant skin” cases. This was the first time that the disease was reported to the Department of Veterinary Services in Zimbabwe. As observed elsewhere (Mariner, 2000; Mariner and Catley, 2001), this study demonstrates the value of participatory disease investigations that involve livestock farmers. 4.12. Usefulness of the approaches and methodology used The observation that about 19% of the diseases reported were diseases listed by the OIE, demonstrates that smallholder livestock farmers in the study area have the ability to recognize and describe diseases of concern in international trade. As reported elsewhere (Reitbergen–McCracken and Narayan, 1998), this suggests that livestock farmers should be trained in disease identification and should be included disease surveillance systems and structures. With reference to besnoitiosis, local livestock farmers were able to describe clinical presentations, epidemiological
patterns and principal pathological lesions in local language that match the Western clinical definition of bovine besnoitiosis. This observation further demonstrates that “existing veterinary knowledge” can contribute to disease diagnoses. 5. Conclusion Livestock diseases, particularly vector associated dermatophilosis, tick borne diseases, and parafilariosis were the major animal health constraints in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder farming areas. Involving farmers in diagnosing diseases problems affecting their cattle can unearth emerging, unreported disease such as besnoitiosis. Recommendations Further studies are needed to investigate the epidemiology of dermatophilosis and besnoitiosis in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder farming areas. There is need to examine the use of community animal health workers to improve on veterinary extension in remote smallholder farming areas. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Department of Veterinary Services, Research and Diagnostic Branch, Government of Zimbabwe. We also acknowledge the valuable contributions from the Veterinary Services Field Branch, and the people of Sanyati and Gokwe districts. References Agrisystems Limited, 2000. National Livestock Development Study: Zimbabwe. Phase One Main Report. Prepared for the Government of Zimbabwe, Harare. Catley, A., 1999. Methods on the Move: A Review of Veterinary Uses of Participatory Approaches and Methods Focusing on Experiences in Dry Land Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Chatikobo, P., Choga, T., Ncube, C., Muzenda-Mutambara, J., 2009. Bovine dermatophilosis. A re-emerging pandemic disease in Zimbabwe. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 41, 1289–1297, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11250-009-9314-Y. Chatikobo, P., Kusina, N.T., Hamudikuwannda, H.H., Nyoni, O., 2004. A monitoring study on the prevalence of dermatophilosis and parafilariosis in cattle in a smallholder-semi-arid farming area in Zimbabwe. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 36, 207–215. Department of Veterinary Services (DVS), 2001. Annual Report. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Resettlement, Harare, Zimbabwe. Francis, J., Sibanda, S., 2001. Participatory action research experiences in smallholder dairy farming in Zimbabwe. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 13, Article #3. Retrieved September 2012, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd13/3/fran133.htm Gwimbi, P., 2009. Cotton farmers’ vulnerability to climate change in Gokwe District Zimbabwe: impact and influencing factors. J. Disaster Risk Stud. 2 (November (2)), 81–92. Jost, C.C., Mariner, J.C., Roeder, P.L., Sawitri, E., Macgregor-Skinner, G.J., 2007. Participatory epidemiology in disease surveillance and research. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 26 (3), 537–547. Mariner, J., Catley, A. (Eds.). 2001. Participatory epidemiology: lessons learned and future directions. Proceedings of an international workshop held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 15th to 17th November, 2001. Community-based Animal Health and Participatory Epidemiology Unit, Organization of African Unity/Interafrican Bureau or Animal Resources, Nairobi, 44 pages. Mariner, J.C., 2000. Manual on Participatory Epidemiology. FAO Animal Health Manual No. 10. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
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Zimbabwe. Int. Livest. Res. Inst. http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ ILRI/x5536E/x5536e1e.htm (retrieved 12.02.2012). Ngongoni, N.T., Mapiye, C., Mwale, M., Mupeta, B., 2006. Factors affecting milk production in the smallholder dairy sector in Zimbabwe. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 18 (5). Njagu, C., 2011. Overview of Small Holder Livestock Sector – Division of Veterinary Field Services. The Department of Agriculture Coordination Working Group Journal. The Emergency Rehaibilitation and Coordination Unit of the FAO in Zimbabwe, July 2011, No. 62. Office International des Epizooties (World Organization for Animal Health), 2002. International Animal Health Code, Office International des Epizooties, Paris. http://www.oie.int/ Pedersen, C.V., 1997. Constraints and opportunities for improved milk production and calf rearing in Sanyati farming area of Zimbabwe. M.Sc. Thesis. The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark. Perry, B.D., Randolph, T.F., Ashley, S., Chimedza, R., Forman, T., Morrisson, J., Poulton, C., Sibanda, L., Stevens, C., Tebele, N., Yngström, I., 2003. The impact and poverty reduction implications of foot and mouth disease control in southern Africa, with special reference to Zimbabwe. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya, 152 pp. and CD-ROM. Reitbergen–McCracken, J., Narayan, D., 1998. Participation and social assessment: tools and techniques. Accessed at http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/resources/toolkit.pdf Svotwa, E., Hamudikuwanda, H., Makarau, A., 2007. Influence of climate and weather on cattle production semi arid communal areas of Zimbabwe. Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem. 6, 1838–1850 (Article # 2).
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Preventive Veterinary Medicine journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prevetmed
Participatory diagnosis and prioritization of constraints to cattle production in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe P. Chatikobo a,∗ , T. Choga b , C. Ncube c , J. Mutambara d a b c d
Chinhoyi University of Technology, P. Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe University of Leeds, Leeds, Kent, England, UK Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, AIDS and TB Programme, Box CY 1122 Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe University of Zimbabwe, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, P.O. Box MP 167, Harare, Zimbabwe
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 3 March 2012 Received in revised form 9 October 2012 Accepted 21 October 2012 Keywords: Participatory diagnosis Livestock diseases Bovine dermatophilosis Bovine besnoitiosis Smallholder
a b s t r a c t A participatory epidemiological study was conducted to identify and prioritize constraints to livestock health and production on smallholder farms in Sanyati and Gokwe districts of Zimbabwe. Questionnaires were administered to 294 randomly selected livestock owners across the two districts. Livestock diseases (29% of the respondents), high cost of drugs (18.21%), weak veterinary extension (15.18%), inadequate grazing (13.60%), inadequate water (13.54%), and livestock thefts (10.44%) were the major livestock health and production constraints identified. The number of diseases reported varied (P < 0.05) with livestock species and nature of causative agent. Out of the 36 diseases mentioned by farmers, 50%, 22.2%, 19.4%, 5.5% and 2.8% were diseases of cattle, sheep and goats, domestic chicken, donkeys, and guinea fowls, respectively. Seven (19.4%) of the 36 diseases including rabies and foot and mouth disease were those listed by the OIE. Thirty-four percent of the respondents rated bovine dermatophilosis as the most important livestock disease. Respondents rated, in descending order, other diseases including tick borne diseases (21%); a previously unreported disease, “Magwiriri” or “Ganda renzou” in vernacular (14%); mastitis (11%); parafilariosis (11%); and blackleg (9%). Cattle skin samples from “Magwiriri” cases had Besnoitia besnoiti parasites. Overall, this study revealed factors and diseases that limit livestock production in Zimbabwe and are of global concern; in addition, the study showed that the skin diseases, bovine dermatophilosis and besnoitiosis, have recently emerged and appear to be spreading, likely a consequence of ectoparasite control demise in smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe over the last 15 years. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction In Zimbabwe, 80–90% of the livestock population is in the smallholder farming areas (Njagu, 2011). Smallholder livestock production is a major food security contributor at the household level to more than 75% of the population of
∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Chatikobo), [email protected] (T. Choga), [email protected] (C. Ncube), [email protected] (J. Mutambara).
Zimbabwe (Agrisystems, 2000). Livestock contribute products for home consumption and use such as milk, meat, hides, skins and manure. In addition, surplus livestock products are sold to generate income that enhances household food security (Perry et al., 2003). Despite the large livestock population in the smallholder farming areas, livestock productivity is low (Ngongoni et al., 2006; Ndebele et al., 2007). The most frequently reported constraints include shortage of feed and water, high incidence of diseases and mortality rates, and weak veterinary extension (Masama et al., 2003; Masikati, 2010; Mutibvu et al., 2012). Over the last 15 years, there
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has been anecdotal evidence that livestock production in smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe has further been adversely affected by agrarian and land reforms, and economic calamities characterized by hyperinflation and consequent high prices and interest rates. This has led to emergence of new challenges and constraints to animal health and production; for example, farming systems, ownership and use changed while livestock productivity and disease control in smallholder farming areas deteriorated (DVS, 2001; Njagu, 2011). Although there is anecdotal evidence of worsening constraints to livestock production and inadequate disease control in some smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe, few studies have been conducted to establish these claims, particularly the demise of disease control in predominantly livestock production areas such as Sanyati and Gokwe districts. Consistent with this need, and to assist disease control and surveillance programs, the objective of this study was to broadly determine the constraints facing smallholder livestock producers, and, in particular, establish prevalent diseases in Sanyati and Gokwe districts of Zimbabwe.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study site Details of the study site, cattle breeds, and animal health management are described in Pedersen (1997), Chatikobo et al. (2004), and Chatikobo et al. (2009), respectively.
2.2. Composition of the appraisal team The appraisal team consisted of a veterinarian, an economist, a biostatistician/epidemiologist, and a geographical information systems (GIS) specialist. Most of the team members had training in participatory rural appraisals. To allow for effective triangulation and benefits from multi-disciplinarity, the four experts were considered to have adequate technical rigor for the study (Catley, 1999).
2.3. Sample size determination From a small pilot study, it was estimated that approximately 90% of households encountered constraints to livestock production. Based on a sample estimate within 5% of the true population proportion, sample size was determined using the formula: S=
Npq (CI2 /4)
+ pq
where S is the desired sample size; N is the number of registered stock owners (households); p is the proportion affected (90%); q = 1 − p (10%); and CI is the confidence interval (5%).
2.4. Sampling procedure A multistage sampling procedure was used to select participants for the survey. One out of six ectoparasite control dip tanks (16.67%) in each farming system listed by the District Veterinary Officer was randomly selected for the study. At each dip tank, respondent livestock owners were randomly selected from the livestock-card register supplied by the Veterinary Extension Assistant. The selected participants were interviewed as a single group at individual dip tanks. 2.5. Data collection Data collection took place between1999 and 2003. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was carried out as described by Catley (1999). Briefly, secondary information was collected, focus-group discussions convened, and proportional piling and belt transects were used. Key informants were interviewed to obtain an overview of the community under study, and to identify decision making structures, and appropriate interview strategies. They were interviewed 2–3 times during the early stages of the study, and later on, the information provided by the key informants was verified in livestock owner interviews. The key informants interviewed included District Veterinary Officers, Local Veterinary Extension Assistants, Traditional Chiefs, Councilors, District Administrators, Village Heads, and experienced farmers. All interviews were semi-structured. 2.5.1. Informal interviewing a. Checklist. During the semi-structured interviews, a checklist of important points and exercises to be covered was used. The checklist serves to provide overall direction and assure that no major points will be missed in an interview. It also allows respondents to digress into areas of special interest to them and for the interviewer to followup specific issues raised by respondents. These digressions often reveal useful information that could be missed in a fully structured interview. b. Brainstorming. One brainstorming/group interview session was held with participants at each selected dip tank. After the formalities of greetings and introductions, brainstorming sessions were started by asking a general question about current livestock problems encountered by the farmers in their herds. Respondents were asked to list, describe, and rank the constraints. They were further requested to temporally rank the constraints, particularly disease prevalence, if diseases were a constraint. c. Triangulation. Reports or data provided by various key informants and results of brainstorming were compared and, if inconsistent, were further debated until a consensus view or agreement. d. Proportional piling. A slight variant of the proportional piling method described by Jost et al. (2007) was used to determine farmers’ prioritization of livestock production constraints. Once the respondents and the appraisal team had compiled a list of animal health problems for a particular species, circles were drawn on the ground
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Fig. 1. Constraints to livestock production in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder areas.
to represent a problem. Each respondent was given 1 pebble or bean and asked to place it in the circle representing the most important disease. The instruction was, “Please indicate the relative importance of the diseases you have mentioned in terms of the overall well-being of your family (overall well-being includes food, cash, traction, manure, social value, among other values)”. The appraisal team then counted the number of beans placed on each circle to determine the disease importance rank. After, the highest ranked disease was removed (circle deleted), the exercise was repeated until the fifth most important disease was recorded. e. Transect walk. A transect walk through randomly selected villages was done during which diseased animals were observed. The appraisal team noted respondents’ descriptions of disease characteristics such as duration, case fatality, and response to treatment. They identified different disease syndromes, local and introduced curative technologies, and other possible solutions. During the belt transacts, clinical examinations were conducted using routine procedures; for example, visual appraisal, taking temperature, respiration and rumination rates. For disease cases the appraisal team could not make a diagnosis, samples were taken to the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Harare for laboratory diagnosis.
2.6. Clinical examinations Clinical examinations were performed on samples from cases of unidentified diseases. Biopsies were taken for further laboratory diagnosis at the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Harare.
2.7. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were computed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 16. Chi-square tests were used to check for significance of observations. 3. Results 3.1. Animal health constraints The major constraints to livestock production were diseases, high cost of drugs, weak extension service, and shortage of grazing pastures and water. Livestock diseases were the most important constraint to livestock production reported by the respondent farmers (29.03% of the respondents). Other constraints included high cost of drugs (18.21%), weak veterinary extension (15.18%), inadequate grazing (13.6%), and inadequate water (13.54%), and livestock thefts (10.44%) (Fig. 1). 3.2. Animal disease prioritization The number of diseases reported varied (P < 0.05) with livestock or poultry species. Fifty percent of the diseases reported were cattle diseases, followed by diseases of sheep and goats (22.2%), domestic chicken (19.4%), donkeys (5.5%), and guinea fowls (2.8%) (Table 1). Seven (19.4%) of the diseases including rabies and foot and mouth disease are on the OIE list. Bovine dermatophilosis was rated the most important cattle disease (33.6% of the respondents), followed by tick borne diseases (21.2%), a previously unreported skin disease (“Magwiriri” or “Ganda renzou” in vernacular) (13.6%), mastitis (11.4%), parafilariosis (10.7%), and blackleg (9.4%) (Fig. 2).
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Table 1 Livestock and poultry diseases reported by farmers in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe (1999–2003). Cattle
Sheep and goats
Donkeys
Village chicken
G/Fowls
Blackleg Anthraxb Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Heartwater Mastitis “Magwiriri”a Dermatophilosisb Lameness Parafilariosis Corneal opacities “Elephant skin”a Foot and mouthb Diarrhea Wasting Internal parasites wounds Rabiesb
Orfb Dermatophilosis Heartwater Internal parasites Pneumonia Mange Rabiesb Weight loss
Wounds Parasites
NCDb Coccidiosis Mites Lice Fowl choryza Fowl cholerab Internal parasites
Internal parasites
NCD, Newcastle disease. a New disease syndromes. b Office International des Epizooties (OIE) listed disease.
Fig. 2. The prevalence of cattle diseases across farming systems.
3.3. Investigation of elephant skin disease Farmers reported that the “new” disease “changes the skin of an affected animal to resemble that of an elephant”; hence, they named it “Cheganda renzou” (vernacular for elephant skin). The disease was characterized by dyspnea “magwiriri” (vernacular for snoring or labored breathing), followed by appearance of skin nodules. With time, the skin of the affected part develops extensive thickening, puckering, and wrinkling, giving an “elephant skin” appearance. A clinical examination was performed on five suspected cases of the disease presented during belt transects revealed cyst-like structures in the sclera, and palpebral
conjunctiva of 2 of the 5 cases (40%), and 3 (60%) also had lesions in the vulva. Skin biopsy histopathology results showed scleroderma, hyperkeratosis, loss of necrotic epidermis, and presence of besnoitia cysts. Based on these results, it was concluded that the “elephant skin disease” was highly likely to be besnoitiosis infection. 4. Discussion 4.1. Constraints to livestock production The participatory survey results confirm the existence of several constraints to livestock production and, in
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particular, emerging diseases in the study area. The prioritization of constraints was similar across farming systems that are in the smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe, implying that while the land tenure systems among the communal area, resettlement area, and small scale commercial farming area sub-sectors are different, constraints to livestock production are largely similar. These constraints are a consequence of the location of smallholder farming areas in marginal agro-ecological regions with poor and erratic rainfall and distant from urban areas where inputs and agricultural services are sourced.
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for large-scale commercial farming systems (Francis and Sibanda, 2001). 4.5. Shortage of grazing The problem of shortage of grazing could be attributed to the dependence on natural pastures as the major source of feed for livestock (Mutibvu et al., 2012). Natural pastures rely directly on rainfall resulting in seasonal variation in both the quality and quantity of herbage available to support livestock production (Ndlovu and Sibanda, 1991; Masikati, 2010; Ndebele et al., 2007; Svotwa et al., 2007).
4.2. Livestock disease challenges This study shows that farmers are concerned about diseases in their livestock. As observed by Mwacharo and Drucker (2005) and Masikati (2010), this could be attributed to the increase in livestock morbidity and mortality. In addition, it could also be related to the vandalization of ectoparasite control dip tanks and boundary fences during farm invasions in 2000. This made livestock movement control difficult to enforce and increased contagious diseases spreading. Consistent with results from this study, other reports (Masimba et al., 2011; Mutibvu et al., 2012) identified livestock diseases as a major constraint to smallholder livestock production. The hot, dry climate that prevails in the smallholder farming areas is ideal for survival and multiplication of disease transmitting vectors such as ticks and flies. The demise of ectoparasite control in the smallholder farming areas has led to high incidences of diseases transmitted by these vectors such as dermatophilosis, tick borne diseases, and parafilariosis. 4.3. High cost of drugs This study was conducted between 1999 and 2003. During this period, the rate of monetary inflation at one time exceeded 100% per year (Perry et al., 2003); as a consequence, the perennially cash-deficient smallholder farmers were least able to pay for animal health drugs and services. This was exacerbated by removal or cuts in subsidies on state animal health services including dipping and provision of vaccines and some drugs (DVS, 2001; Perry et al., 2003). After the reduction of state subsidies on acaricides for dipping, acaricide supply dwindled; as a result, the prices of acaricides increased (Masikati, 2010). 4.4. Weak extension It was not surprising that diseases were ranked highest among livestock production constraints faced by smallholder farmers. It is apparent that extension services deterioration contributed to disease control challenges. In this regard, limited extension services led to, among others, inadequate enforcement of livestock movement control to curtail disease spread. The unfavorable macro-economic situation led to shortage of drugs, and fuel for vehicles that further compromised extension services delivery. It has been argued that the extension system applied is inappropriate for smallholder livestock farmers because it was designed for crop production (Mutibvu et al., 2012) and
4.6. Shortage of water Farmers in smallholder farming areas also rely on various water sources including rivers, dams, boreholes, wells, and springs for their animals. Because of the low, erratic rainfall received in these areas, the sources of water are largely seasonal, and hence unreliable. As reported by Ndebele et al. (2007), water from dams and rivers is muddy in the rain season while rivers, wells and some springs dryup in the dry season. In related studies, Masikati (2010) and Mutibvu et al. (2012) observed that during the dry season, distance to water sources can be up to 14 km. This is a major challenge to the non-motorized farmers and limits access to water. 4.7. Effects of climate change on grazing and water The challenges of livestock grazing and water in smallholder farming areas could be partly attributed to the effects of global warming. One study revealed decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures as a result of global warming and climate change in Gokwe district (Gwimbi, 2009). Shortages of pasture grazing and water were also prevalent in an agro-ecologically similar smallholder farming area, Tanda Ward in Manicaland (Svotwa et al., 2007). This suggests that these could be common challenges to smallholder livestock farmers throughout the country. 4.8. Animal disease diagnoses and prioritization Contrary to observations by Mutibvu et al. (2012), farmers in this study were able to identify common disease problems affecting their livestock herds. Our results agree with those of Mlambo et al. (2011), who reported that in Zhombe communal area farmers comprehended poultry health issues and positively identified poultry diseases. This validates participatory disease investigations that involve livestock farmers; in addition, such farmers can be a fulcrum for disease surveillance in their areas. 4.9. Concern over vector borne diseases The range of livestock diseases identified can be classified as vector borne or vector associated diseases (tick borne diseases, dermatophilosis, parafilariosis), parasitic (helminthiasis), viral diseases (rabies, Newcastle disease, foot and mouth disease, lumpy skin disease), or bacterial
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(anthrax, blackleg, fowl cholera). Based on this classification, vector borne or vector associated diseases emerged as the major diseases of concern in Gokwe and Sanyati smallholder farming areas. This observation could be attributed to weakening quality of veterinary service support systems. The occurrence of these vector borne diseases is greatly influenced by environmental and climatic conditions (Chatikobo et al., 2004, 2009), and they present a particular challenge for farmers during the rainy season. Rain promotes ectoparasite activity, and subsequently, high prevalence of vector borne diseases at a time when the majority of the farmers cannot afford acaricides to dip their cattle or antibiotics to treat clinical disease cases as most of their resources are directed toward securing inputs for crop farming. The farmers concern is a reflection of the impacts of livestock morbidity or mortality on their livelihoods through reduced draught animal power availability for cropping. 4.10. Farmers livestock disease control priorities The farmers’ disease priorities (dermatophilosis, tick borne diseases, parafilariosis), differed with those of the government veterinary authorities who prioritized the control of notifiable diseases such as foot and mouth disease, rabies, and anthrax. Farmers observed that foot and mouth disease does not kill, but dermatophilosis had killed many cows on farms. This shows that farmers take a more holistic animal health view and they consider mortality, economic impact, risks and coping mechanisms when prioritizing diseases. This is an important observation because when disease priorities differ between veterinary authorities and farmers, disease control strategies implemented by the veterinary authorities are less likely to be adopted by farmers. 4.11. Investigation of elephant skin disease Based on the clinical signs/history given by the respondents, combined with the experience and diagnostic skills of the appraisal team and results of laboratory analysis, a diagnosis of besnoitiosis was confirmed in “elephant skin” cases. This was the first time that the disease was reported to the Department of Veterinary Services in Zimbabwe. As observed elsewhere (Mariner, 2000; Mariner and Catley, 2001), this study demonstrates the value of participatory disease investigations that involve livestock farmers. 4.12. Usefulness of the approaches and methodology used The observation that about 19% of the diseases reported were diseases listed by the OIE, demonstrates that smallholder livestock farmers in the study area have the ability to recognize and describe diseases of concern in international trade. As reported elsewhere (Reitbergen–McCracken and Narayan, 1998), this suggests that livestock farmers should be trained in disease identification and should be included disease surveillance systems and structures. With reference to besnoitiosis, local livestock farmers were able to describe clinical presentations, epidemiological
patterns and principal pathological lesions in local language that match the Western clinical definition of bovine besnoitiosis. This observation further demonstrates that “existing veterinary knowledge” can contribute to disease diagnoses. 5. Conclusion Livestock diseases, particularly vector associated dermatophilosis, tick borne diseases, and parafilariosis were the major animal health constraints in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder farming areas. Involving farmers in diagnosing diseases problems affecting their cattle can unearth emerging, unreported disease such as besnoitiosis. Recommendations Further studies are needed to investigate the epidemiology of dermatophilosis and besnoitiosis in Sanyati and Gokwe smallholder farming areas. There is need to examine the use of community animal health workers to improve on veterinary extension in remote smallholder farming areas. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Department of Veterinary Services, Research and Diagnostic Branch, Government of Zimbabwe. We also acknowledge the valuable contributions from the Veterinary Services Field Branch, and the people of Sanyati and Gokwe districts. References Agrisystems Limited, 2000. National Livestock Development Study: Zimbabwe. Phase One Main Report. Prepared for the Government of Zimbabwe, Harare. Catley, A., 1999. Methods on the Move: A Review of Veterinary Uses of Participatory Approaches and Methods Focusing on Experiences in Dry Land Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Chatikobo, P., Choga, T., Ncube, C., Muzenda-Mutambara, J., 2009. Bovine dermatophilosis. A re-emerging pandemic disease in Zimbabwe. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 41, 1289–1297, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11250-009-9314-Y. Chatikobo, P., Kusina, N.T., Hamudikuwannda, H.H., Nyoni, O., 2004. A monitoring study on the prevalence of dermatophilosis and parafilariosis in cattle in a smallholder-semi-arid farming area in Zimbabwe. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 36, 207–215. Department of Veterinary Services (DVS), 2001. Annual Report. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Resettlement, Harare, Zimbabwe. Francis, J., Sibanda, S., 2001. Participatory action research experiences in smallholder dairy farming in Zimbabwe. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 13, Article #3. Retrieved September 2012, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd13/3/fran133.htm Gwimbi, P., 2009. Cotton farmers’ vulnerability to climate change in Gokwe District Zimbabwe: impact and influencing factors. J. Disaster Risk Stud. 2 (November (2)), 81–92. Jost, C.C., Mariner, J.C., Roeder, P.L., Sawitri, E., Macgregor-Skinner, G.J., 2007. Participatory epidemiology in disease surveillance and research. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 26 (3), 537–547. Mariner, J., Catley, A. (Eds.). 2001. Participatory epidemiology: lessons learned and future directions. Proceedings of an international workshop held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 15th to 17th November, 2001. Community-based Animal Health and Participatory Epidemiology Unit, Organization of African Unity/Interafrican Bureau or Animal Resources, Nairobi, 44 pages. Mariner, J.C., 2000. Manual on Participatory Epidemiology. FAO Animal Health Manual No. 10. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
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