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Particle accelerators. Applications in technology and research
Bovk Reviews
209
aberrations can be a problem, both for the case of post-lens scanning and pm-lens scaoning. It is true that such aberrations may occur for submicrometre beams, but nearly all elemental maps currently produced are made using beam-scanning devices with beam sizes in the km range. However, when protons of higher energy are used, which is the case at the authors’ laboratory, scam&g of the target may be the only realistic choice. The third section (99 pages), written by J. Reisner, tells the history of the early development stages of the electron microscope in the USA, given by someone who knew the people in question. As I am working in the field of proton microprobe development myself, I found this section fascinating to read, especially the descriptions from the very early stages. I could see a lot of parallels in the wnditions for those pioneers building their instruments with great enthusiasm, often with a very limited economic framework, and our own situation, constructing a microprobe. The history also covers the development of the wmmercial EM, sometimes fruitful and sometimes ending in complete failure. The final section (85 pages) introduces the reader to a most modern electron microscope application, uamely the testing of small electronic devices using electron beams. It is written by K. Ura and H. Fujioka, and gives the reader a good insight into the subject. I consider this section of the book to be the most interesting one. Basic to electron beam testing is the use of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Among the many kinds of interaction between the primary beam and matter, three types are of interest in this case: secondary emission, current absorption and electron beam induced conduction. Electron beams can be used either as high resolution probes, and/or as contactless current feeders.
The semiconductor industry has found the electron beam testing technique very useful for function testing and failure analysis, especially for the VLSIs. The authors demonstrate their knowledge on the subject by carefully discussing various methods of electron beam testing; using stroboscopic image mode, logic state mapping and frequency mapping, all yielding different types of information about a device. The text is well illustrated, both with figures and electron microscope photo~aphs of the analysed devices. By using a second electron beam for current feeding to the device, a fully contactless testing is realized. Again the authors show their knowledge of the field by a detailed discussion of the testing problems. The fundamentals of voltage wntrast are briefly discussed, and the underlying mechanisms are explained for different cases. The technique can also be used to test the parts of a device which are not in electrical contact with the surface. A nondestructive technique of capacitive coupling voltage contrast is thus described. Related to electron beam irradiation is the charging of a floating electrode. This can be both positive and negative and requires different approaches. An electron beam tester works with lower accelerating voltage than a wnventional SEM. This results in special requirements for the ion source, lens system, etc., which are discussed together with the techniques used to deflect the beam, obtaining pulses down to a picosecond. This chapter is written in a form that can be understood both by a beginner and a more experienced reader. The physical processes taking place during irradiation are discussed both qualitatively and in greater detail using suitable formulae. Around 200 references are quoted, the most recent from 1987, thus giving a sufficient list for the interested reader.
PARTICLE ACC~E~TGRS. APPLICATIONS IN TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH by W. Scharf (John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chichester, 1989) pp. xvi + 663, Hard Cover, E79.50, ISBN 0 471 92206 4
Particle Accelerators and Their Uses, parts I and II, published by Harwood Academic Publishers, New York, 1986, which cover the more fundamental aspects of accelerator technology. (Reviews by R. Steensgaard, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B26 (1987) 620; H.H. Andersen, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B34 (1988) 139.) The present volume consists of 11 chapters. Two chapters describe the basic construction and operation of the electron and ion accelerators and accelerator facilities. The rest of the book is dedicated to radiation effects iu various materials and the use of accelerators in modern technology. Emphasis is given partly to large scale use of electron or X-ray beams for irradiation treatment of organic materials, partly to the use of particle and X-ray beams in analytical instrumentation, and partly to the use of microbeams in the production and analysis of microstructures. The scope of the book is very broad. Consequently, some chapters are very
&ruet: Graduate Reuiewer: Erik Johnson, Copenhagen
In the preface to this volume, the author mentions that since the early 1960s the industrial use of accelerators has been steadily increasing. At present, accelerators are commonly used in processing or quality control for such a variety of products as solid-state components, cables and wires, packaging foils, medical equipment, aimraft and spaceships, and even car tyres. This seems to be the motivation for the present volume, which is a follow-up of the author’s earlier books on
210
Book Reviews
superficial and many larger sections of the book are reduced to mere listings of instrumentation or techniques without any particular attempts to perform an assessment. The three chapters on radiation effects in organic materials, on the use of ionizing radiation for the processing of polymers, and on medical and food sterilization are among the most interesting and coherent parts of the book. Together with the chapter on future applications of radiation, in particular in connection with disinfection of drinking water and waste water, this subject forms an entity in itself. A higher priority given to this part, at the expense of some of the more encyclopedic material would have improved the book. Technically, the volume is printed in typewritten form directly from the manuscript and the printing quality is not especially good. This is not only obvious in the printing of half-tone photographs where repro-
duction is often poor, but also in the printing of many drawings. Direct manuscript printing is certainly justified when rapid publication is required. However, in this case references later than 1984 are very scarce indeed, and in the chapter on future applications the latest reference is from 1981! The use of SI units, particularly in connection with radiation physics subjects is, however, an asset. All in all, it seems difficult to pinpoint an obvious reader and user group for the book. For students it is too encyclopedic and for scientists it is too superficial. It may have some relevance for management and industrial laboratories, but unfortunately it is not fully up to date. Perhaps the main interest for such broad technical surveys is for science councillors and science advisory boards, but in that case it is not only partly out of date, it is also too voluminous.
209
aberrations can be a problem, both for the case of post-lens scanning and pm-lens scaoning. It is true that such aberrations may occur for submicrometre beams, but nearly all elemental maps currently produced are made using beam-scanning devices with beam sizes in the km range. However, when protons of higher energy are used, which is the case at the authors’ laboratory, scam&g of the target may be the only realistic choice. The third section (99 pages), written by J. Reisner, tells the history of the early development stages of the electron microscope in the USA, given by someone who knew the people in question. As I am working in the field of proton microprobe development myself, I found this section fascinating to read, especially the descriptions from the very early stages. I could see a lot of parallels in the wnditions for those pioneers building their instruments with great enthusiasm, often with a very limited economic framework, and our own situation, constructing a microprobe. The history also covers the development of the wmmercial EM, sometimes fruitful and sometimes ending in complete failure. The final section (85 pages) introduces the reader to a most modern electron microscope application, uamely the testing of small electronic devices using electron beams. It is written by K. Ura and H. Fujioka, and gives the reader a good insight into the subject. I consider this section of the book to be the most interesting one. Basic to electron beam testing is the use of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Among the many kinds of interaction between the primary beam and matter, three types are of interest in this case: secondary emission, current absorption and electron beam induced conduction. Electron beams can be used either as high resolution probes, and/or as contactless current feeders.
The semiconductor industry has found the electron beam testing technique very useful for function testing and failure analysis, especially for the VLSIs. The authors demonstrate their knowledge on the subject by carefully discussing various methods of electron beam testing; using stroboscopic image mode, logic state mapping and frequency mapping, all yielding different types of information about a device. The text is well illustrated, both with figures and electron microscope photo~aphs of the analysed devices. By using a second electron beam for current feeding to the device, a fully contactless testing is realized. Again the authors show their knowledge of the field by a detailed discussion of the testing problems. The fundamentals of voltage wntrast are briefly discussed, and the underlying mechanisms are explained for different cases. The technique can also be used to test the parts of a device which are not in electrical contact with the surface. A nondestructive technique of capacitive coupling voltage contrast is thus described. Related to electron beam irradiation is the charging of a floating electrode. This can be both positive and negative and requires different approaches. An electron beam tester works with lower accelerating voltage than a wnventional SEM. This results in special requirements for the ion source, lens system, etc., which are discussed together with the techniques used to deflect the beam, obtaining pulses down to a picosecond. This chapter is written in a form that can be understood both by a beginner and a more experienced reader. The physical processes taking place during irradiation are discussed both qualitatively and in greater detail using suitable formulae. Around 200 references are quoted, the most recent from 1987, thus giving a sufficient list for the interested reader.
PARTICLE ACC~E~TGRS. APPLICATIONS IN TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH by W. Scharf (John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chichester, 1989) pp. xvi + 663, Hard Cover, E79.50, ISBN 0 471 92206 4
Particle Accelerators and Their Uses, parts I and II, published by Harwood Academic Publishers, New York, 1986, which cover the more fundamental aspects of accelerator technology. (Reviews by R. Steensgaard, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B26 (1987) 620; H.H. Andersen, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B34 (1988) 139.) The present volume consists of 11 chapters. Two chapters describe the basic construction and operation of the electron and ion accelerators and accelerator facilities. The rest of the book is dedicated to radiation effects iu various materials and the use of accelerators in modern technology. Emphasis is given partly to large scale use of electron or X-ray beams for irradiation treatment of organic materials, partly to the use of particle and X-ray beams in analytical instrumentation, and partly to the use of microbeams in the production and analysis of microstructures. The scope of the book is very broad. Consequently, some chapters are very
&ruet: Graduate Reuiewer: Erik Johnson, Copenhagen
In the preface to this volume, the author mentions that since the early 1960s the industrial use of accelerators has been steadily increasing. At present, accelerators are commonly used in processing or quality control for such a variety of products as solid-state components, cables and wires, packaging foils, medical equipment, aimraft and spaceships, and even car tyres. This seems to be the motivation for the present volume, which is a follow-up of the author’s earlier books on
210
Book Reviews
superficial and many larger sections of the book are reduced to mere listings of instrumentation or techniques without any particular attempts to perform an assessment. The three chapters on radiation effects in organic materials, on the use of ionizing radiation for the processing of polymers, and on medical and food sterilization are among the most interesting and coherent parts of the book. Together with the chapter on future applications of radiation, in particular in connection with disinfection of drinking water and waste water, this subject forms an entity in itself. A higher priority given to this part, at the expense of some of the more encyclopedic material would have improved the book. Technically, the volume is printed in typewritten form directly from the manuscript and the printing quality is not especially good. This is not only obvious in the printing of half-tone photographs where repro-
duction is often poor, but also in the printing of many drawings. Direct manuscript printing is certainly justified when rapid publication is required. However, in this case references later than 1984 are very scarce indeed, and in the chapter on future applications the latest reference is from 1981! The use of SI units, particularly in connection with radiation physics subjects is, however, an asset. All in all, it seems difficult to pinpoint an obvious reader and user group for the book. For students it is too encyclopedic and for scientists it is too superficial. It may have some relevance for management and industrial laboratories, but unfortunately it is not fully up to date. Perhaps the main interest for such broad technical surveys is for science councillors and science advisory boards, but in that case it is not only partly out of date, it is also too voluminous.