Passive cooling techniques for building and their applicability in different climatic zones—The state of art

Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy & Buildings journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Passive cooling techniques for building and their applicability in different climatic zones—The state of art Dnyandip K. Bhamare, Manish K. Rathod∗, Jyotirmay Banerjee Mechanical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 2 January 2019 Revised 5 June 2019 Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 11 June 2019 Keywords: Building energy consumption Solar and heat protection Heat modulation Heat dissipation

a b s t r a c t Building energy consumption is a vital component of the global energy mandate. A major part of the building energy is consumed in providing thermal comfort to occupants. Passive cooling techniques can be a promising alternative to satisfy the cooling requirements of the building as well as to reduce the building energy consumption. Selection of suitable passive cooling technique is dependent on many factors, including climatic conditions, building space constraints and performance of the passive technique. Thus, in order to adopt a suitable passive cooling technique for a given building, a thorough knowledge of different passive cooling techniques along with their applications and performance parameters is necessary. The objective of this article is to provide a comprehensive review on passive cooling techniques along with its classification, working, applications, recent developments and to analyze the influence of significant parameters such as building cooling load and indoor temperature on the performance of passive cooling techniques. The review establishes that passive cooling techniques have the potential to maintain the indoor temperature within comfort range while reducing the building cooling load. © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1. Passive cooling techniques and their classification 1.2. Scope of the review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Solar and heat protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Microclimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1. Landscaping and vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2. Water surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Solar control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1. Aperture control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2. Glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3. Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Heat modulation technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Thermal mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1. PCM integration in wallboard . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2. PCM integration in ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3. PCM integration in roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4. PCM integration in window . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Free cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Heat dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

∗

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.K. Rathod).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.06.023 0378-7788/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

468 468 468 469 469 469 470 470 470 471 472 474 474 474 474 476 477 477 478 479 480

468

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

4.1.

Convective cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1. Wind driven ventilation . . . . . . . . 4.1.2. Buoyancy driven ventilation . . . . . 4.1.3. Trombe wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4. Solar chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Evaporative cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1. Direct evaporative cooling (DEC) . 4.2.2. Indirect evaporative cooling (IEC) 4.3. Radiative cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1. Nocturnal radiative cooling . . . . . 4.3.2. Radiant cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Conclusion and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction World population has reached to 7.442 billion in 2016 [1]. This is associated with overall growth in industrial, agriculture, transport and infrastructure sectors. Among all, industrial and residential building sectors are contributing significantly to the rise in electric energy demands [2]. Even if the figures vary from country to country, building sector, which includes residential, commercial, public service, agriculture, forestry, fishing, etc. is responsible for approximately 30–40% of total energy demand [3]. Major components of energy consumption in the building sector are in heating, cooling, air conditioning, ventilation, etc. It is also argued that globally around 40% of total building energy is consumed for space heating or cooling applications in both residential and commercial sectors [3]. Further, demand for space cooling application is increasing due to a rise in atmospheric temperature associated with carbon emission and global warming [4]. Room air conditioners are mostly used worldwide as air cooling appliance. However, a rise in the sale of air conditioning appliances has led to serious environmental issues associated with the depletion of ozone level and global climate [5]. Hence, there is a need for the development of passive cooling techniques which reduces energy consumption, supports the environment and ecosystem and provide a satisfactory degree of comfort. However, in order to address the energy and environmental impact associated with building applications, the selection of suitable passive cooling technique plays a vital role. In this regard, present work summarizes the details of available passive cooling techniques along with their classification, working, applications and performance parameters. The article also provides guidelines to the building designer, architect, and researchers for the selection of suitable passive cooling technique for building applications. These guidelines are based on past experiences accumulated from the applicability of passive cooling techniques for different climatic conditions. Further, at the last, the major conclusions drawn from the literature and future scope related to passive cooling techniques and their applicability are highlighted. 1.1. Passive cooling techniques and their classification Passive cooling techniques use ambient cooling sinks like building material, air, water, night sky, etc. to mitigate the rise in temperature of the building due to heat sources such as ambient air, direct solar heat gain, building an internal heat gain. Passive cooling techniques can help in maintaining the required comfort conditions of the building with minimum energy consumption. In order to create thermal comfort conditions at the interior of a building, passive cooling techniques need to be designed at three levels i.e. protection of heat gain, modulation of heat gain and rejection or

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

480 480 480 481 481 482 482 482 483 483 483 485 485 485 485

dissipation of heat gain [6]. Thus, passive cooling techniques can be broadly classified into heat protection, heat modulation and heat dissipation technique [6,7]. •

•

•

Heat Protection: In this technique, the building is protected from direct solar heat gains. The protection from solar heat gain may involve landscaping, water surface, active vegetation, shading of the building surfaces, etc. Heat protection technique is also further classified into microclimate and solar control based methods. Heat Modulation: In this technique, the heat gain of a building is modulated with the help of the thermal storage capacity of the building structure. It protects the building by discharging the stored heat at a later time. The thermal storage capacity of a building largely depends on the type of the thermal mass of the building structure. Also of importance are the methods (such as free cooling) adopted for effective discharge of stored heat. Geetha and Velraj [7], Santamouris and Kolokotsa [6] and Prieto et al. [8] had given importance to thermal mass in their classification of heat modulation technique, while Panchbikesan et al. [9] classified heat modulation techniques based on both thermal mass and free cooling. Heat Dissipation: Heat dissipation technique finds usefulness in climatic conditions where heat protection or heat modulation is unable to provide the required comfort conditions. In this technique, excess heat of a building is disposed to the suitable environmental heat sink at a lower temperature. Disposal of excess heat depends on two main factors i.e. availability of environmental heat sink and thermal coupling between building and heat sink. Available environmental heat sinks are ambient air, water, and sky. The heat dissipation technique may provide instantaneous cooling effect or it may extract coolness during night time and release it during the daytime. Such a behavior depends on the mode the of heat transfer from source to sink and the type of fluid flow. Geetha and Velraj [7] classified this technique on the basis of thermal energy storage, whereas Panchbikesan et al. [9] had given the classification on the basis of air movement and humidity content.

A comprehensive classification of passive cooling techniques is developed based on the literature review and is shown in Fig. 1. 1.2. Scope of the review Selection of suitable passive cooling technique is an important task as it depends on climatic conditions, building space constraints and performance of the passive technique. Thus, in order to adopt a suitable passive cooling technique for a given building, exhaustive information of different passive cooling techniques along with an understanding of their applicability is necessary.

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

469

Fig. 1. Classification of passive cooling techniques.

Further, a combination of two or more techniques may reduce a considerable amount of energy consumption along with satisfying the cooling requirements of the building. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of each technique is required for establishing the applicability of the passive cooling technique in building applications. Previous review articles [9–21] on passive cooling techniques have largely focused on only one of the techniques individually or separately. For example, review articles [10–12] focused on PCM based passive cooling techniques only. Articles reported in [9,13– 15] showed important findings related to evaporative cooling and radiative cooling. Importance of ventilation cooling, night cooling, shading techniques were reviewed in [16–20]. To the knowledge of authors, there is no study which presents a comprehensive stateof-the-art overview of all the passive cooling techniques. Thus, the present paper is aimed at a critical review of passive cooling techniques used for building application. In this review, the working of these techniques, applications and discussion on the key parameters to establish its performance are presented in details. This review will be a helpful tool for the building designer, architect and researchers working on energy efficient green buildings. 2. Solar and heat protection The protection of heat gain is the first step towards achieving comfort conditions in the interior of a building. Heat gains can be divided as external heat gains and internal heat gains. External heat gain arises from direct solar radiation and ambient temperature, whereas internal heat gain has sources like human activities, appliances, lightening, cooking, etc. Protection from external heat gains can be achieved through improving microclimatic conditions of a building or direct solar control. 2.1. Microclimate The microclimate is the variation in the atmospheric conditions around the building over a period of time. Energy performance of the building majorly depends on the microclimate of a building. The building microclimate is significantly affected by spatial ar-

rangements like landscaping and vegetation or water surfaces near the building. 2.1.1. Landscaping and vegetation Using trees and green vegetation near or around the building is a very old, convenient and cheap solution for protecting the building from solar heat gains. Trees and green vegetation are helpful in achieving the cooling effect with the process of evapotranspiration in which it absorbs heat from the microclimate. Effective vegetation can be accommodated in two ways, in-house vegetation or outside vegetation. In-house vegetation includes vegetation inside the most common places of the building like roof greening, terrace greening, indoor plants in atria, etc. Greening the heat prone surface of the building can significantly impact the energy performance of the building. The energy impact of in-house greening is reported in detail by Raji et al. [22]. They considered five in-house greening systems, namely green roof, green wall, green balcony, a sky garden and indoor sky garden considering important parameters like seasonal energy savings, climatic factors and building insulation properties. However, the article has not elaborated the energy impact of in-house greening based on energy saving for different climatic conditions. Effective vegetation around the building not only reduces the building’s temperature but also acts as an obstacle to heat flow. A variety of obstacles are suggested by Gandemer and Guyot [23] which include alternatives of surface texture, height, width, length, shape, profile, orientation, the density of vegetation, etc. Strategically planted vegetation around the building has been considered as an effective way to limit the solar heat gain of the buildings. In this regard, Meier [24] presented a review on strategic landscaping, vegetation and its impact on air conditioning savings. It was concluded that different landscaping, vegetation techniques are helpful in reducing the air conditioning load for dry as well as humid climatic conditions. Achieving energy savings and reduction in the indoor temperature of the building with the use of landscaping and vegetation is not a new concept, but the effectiveness of these techniques in achieving energy saving and indoor temperature reduction is not reported in detail in the literature. Table 1 shows a summary of the literature

470

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Table 1 Summary of study based on effect of active vegetation on passive cooling of building. Author

Location

Climate

Research type

Research outline

[25]

Nanjing, (China)

Hot, humid.

Numerical

[26]

Japan

Hot, humid.

Experimental

[27]

Melbourne, (Australia)

Hot, dry.

Experimental

[28]

Putrajaya, (Malaysia)

Hot, humid.

Experimental

[29]

Auburn, (USA)

Hot, humid.

Field study and numerical

[30]

Sacramento, (California)

Hot, humid.

Field study and numerical

[31]

Los Angeles, (USA)

Hot, dry.

Numerical

[32]

Pretoria, (South Africa)

Mediterranean

Field study and numerical

Study the effect of tree shading on building cooling load. Analyze the microclimate of residential building using active vegetation planted near window. Study the impact of tree shading on building thermal performance. Evaluate building cooling achieved through the modification of tree canopy density and quantity, albedo values of ground materials. Estimates energy savings by shade producing trees in a suburban environment. Presents the models to study shading effect of trees on residential energy use for 178 residences. Evaluate the performance of cool surface and tree shades to reduce the energy use. Simulate the effect of deciduous and evergreen vegetation cover on building walls in order to improve thermal performance.

demonstrating the effect of landscaping and vegetation on energy saving and reduction in the indoor temperature of the building. 2.1.2. Water surface The roof receives the strongest solar radiation from the sun for the longest time as compared to other elements of the building. Nahar et al. [33] argued that about 40% of heat gain comes through the metallic roof; particularly in arid climatic conditions. Water surface which includes ponds, sprays, pools or water fountain can provide passive cooling to the building. The roof pond technique is a cheap, nontoxic and popular passive cooling technique as water is an ideal thermal mass having high volumetric heat capacity. The vapor pressure difference between the water surface and the surrounding air is the driving force for a roof pond cooling action. The evaporation rate calculated based on mean summer climatological conditions can define the cooling potential of the roof pond technique [34]. The reduction of heat flux using roof pond (water surface) was probably first observed at the University of Texas in 1920 but due to some structural difficulties of the building, its use was restricted [35]. To date many theoretical and experimental studies on roof pond with a number of variants like open roof pond without sprays, with sprays, with movable insulation, night time water sprays, roof pond with gunny bags, a shaded roof pond without sprays, shaded roof pond with sprays, ventilated roof pond, evaporeflective roof pond, cool pool etc. have been reported. Some variants of roof pond are shown in Fig. 2. A systematic review on passive cooling of the buildings using roof ponds was presented by Shariffi and Yamagata [36]. A detailed review of 19 different types of roof cooling and 4 roof heating techniques were presented along with an evaluation of performance, the effect of climatic conditions and design configurations. It was concluded that the roof pond technique is efficient in achieving the thermal comfort conditions for building and reduces the energy demand for cooling and heating. Spanaki et al. [37] also reviewed 12 different roof pond variants focusing on the comparative characteristics. Details of the selection of roof pond variant for passive cooling focusing on parameters affecting different constructional demand as well as in varying climatic conditions were discussed in details. However, comparative evaluation of roof pond variants was not discussed in

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (%) 10.3% 7 ̊C

9 ̊C 29%

14.4%

6.1%

20%

5 °C during summer and 3 °C during winter season

details by the authors. It was concluded that the roof pond technique has potential towards gaining the highest cooling efficiency with the lowest maintenance. Limitations of stable water in a roof pond limits this technique to be more favorable passive cooling technique. Several researchers have carried out experimental as well as numerical analysis in order to achieve passive cooling using roof pond technique. However, there is a limited number of studies in which comparative evaluation of different roof pond variants is made based on either indoor temperature reduction or in terms of energy savings. Summary of literature pertaining to comparative evaluation roof pond variants is presented in Table 2. 2.2. Solar control Reduction of transmitted solar radiation through building components is referred as solar control technique. Direct penetration of solar radiation can be controlled by modifying the space available i.e. aperture control or by reducing the intensity of transmitted solar radiation through transparent elements like windows i.e. glazing or by completely diverting the incoming solar radiation using shading devices i.e. shading control. Thus, the solar control technique is further classified as aperture control, glazing and shading method. 2.2.1. Aperture control Aperture control refers to modify the space or openings through which solar radiation passes to the building interior. It is possible by either accurate sizing of opening or modifying the orientation of the openings present on building envelope [44]. Such modification is dependent on energy requirements, location and architecture of the building. In many cases, apertures are meant primarily for lighting and air circulation, also referred as fenestration e.g. doors, windows, skylights, etc. Fenestration is also important from an architecture point of view as they add aesthetics to the building design. Any modification in aperture has to deal with the penalty towards effective lightening and air circulation. Hence, there is limited use of aperture control techniques in the passive cooling of the buildings.

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

471

Fig. 2. Different variants of roof pond [36].

2.2.2. Glazing Addition of heat from the ambient to the interior of the building through a window is responsible for an increase in cooling load of a building. About 45–60% of the building cooling load generates due to windows in cases where 20–30% of the walls are covered by windows [45,46]. Performance of window is dependent on optical and thermal properties of glazing like U-value, solar heat gain co-

efficient and visible transmittance. The details of these properties are listed in Table 3. Glazing techniques can be differentiated as static glazing and dynamic glazing. In static glazing, thermal and optical properties remain fixed while in dynamic glazing, optical and thermal properties for the fixed thickness of glazing vary in a certain range. Dynamic glazing shows advantages such as flexible orientation, sizing

472

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Table 2 Summary of study based on comparative evaluation of different roof pond variants. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Research type

Roof pond variant

Best performed pond

[38]

Coquimatlan, (Mexico)

Experimental and numerical

Stellenbosch, (South Africa) Baghdad, (Iraq)

Water roof pond, water roof pond with floating fabric and wet fabric. Roof pond, roof spraying and night flushing Roof pond, roof pond with natural ventilation, roof pond with mechanical forced ventilation. Roof pond with gunny bags, roof pond with movable insulation Roof pond with towel floated on it, shaded pond with towel floated on it, pond with movable insulation, shaded open pond, open pond and covered pond. Roof pond, shaded roof pond, shaded roof. Roof pond, roof spraying.

Water roof pond with Wet fabric

[39]

Hot Sub humid, hot humid, warm sub humid Warm and temperate Hot and dry

[40]

Numerical Experimental and numerical

[33]

Seder Boqer, (Israel)

Hot and dry

Numerical

[41]

Sede-Boqer, (Israel)

Hot and dry

Experimental

[42]

Shiraz, (Iran)

Hot and dry

Numerical

[43]

New Delhi, (India)

Hot and dry

Numerical

Roof spraying

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (%) 1.61 °C for Hot Sub humid, 1.03 °C for Hot humid, 1.33 °C for Hot Sub humid 59%

roof pond with mechanical forced ventilation

6.5 °C

Roof pond with gunny bags

2.3 °C

Pond with towel floated on its surface

4 °C

Shaded roof pond

79%

Roof spraying

35%

Table 3 Optical and thermal properties of glazing [47,48]. Glazing properties

Details

U-value

• U-value of a glazing affects the heat transfer rate from externalto interior of the building. • For cold climate region lower U-value is to be adopted to reduce heating load. • For warmer region, higher U-value of the glazing is adopted. The U-value around 1.5 is recommended to reduce cooling load. • The amount of solar heat which penetrates into the building is dependent on SHGC.

Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)

• In summer, low SHGC is needed for reducing the solar heat gainin the building whereas in winter glazing with high SHGC is preferable. • For cold climate region higher SHGC is to be adopted to reduce heating load.

Visible transmittance

• For warmer region, lower SHGC of the glazing is adopted. • Visibletransmittance decides the amount of natural lighting within the building. • Increase in visibletransmittance is beneficial to daylightning but it reduces thermal energy savings. • Its value is decided based on optimum energy savings and daylightning.

of the window and available switchable options for seasonal climatic changes. Different types of glazing like dynamic and innovative glazing techniques are reported in the literature. These include multilayer [48], vacuum glazing [49,50], electrochromic, solar cell glazing [51,52], aerogel [53,54], low emissivity coatings [55,56], photovoltaic ventilated [57,58], thermotropic [59,60] etc. Impact of various types of dynamic and innovative glazing techniques on energy and daylight performance of the building is reviewed by Hee et al. [47]. Authors have focused on literature related to the selection of suitable glazing based on optimum daylight and energy savings as well as recent advances in glazing technology. It was concluded that the properties of glazing and climatic background are important factors in the selection of suitable glazing. Cuce and Riffat [61] reviewed various glazing techniques based on performance parameters such as U-value, solar heat gain coefficient, visible transmittance. Several innovative glazing techniques were also reviewed for a better future prospective. Different glazing systems, including conventional, advanced and smart has also been reviewed by Rezei et al. [62]. Details of different glass coatings available for window glazing are presented. In the above-mentioned articles, the selection, performance parameters and coating technique for window grazing were discussed. However, comparative performance evaluation of various glazing techniques has not been elaborated in the literature. A summary of the comparative performance evaluation of various glazing techniques to achieve energy efficiency of a building is shown in Table 4.

2.2.3. Shading Shading is one of the passive techniques which protects the building from solar heat gains, increases the daylight hour [72,73]. It reduces the use of artificial lightening which directly contributes towards a reduction in heat generated within the building [74]. Thus, the shading technique is considered an important aspect in designing energy efficient buildings; particularly for reducing the cooling load in hot climatic zones [75]. Shading can be provided by building elements like overhangs, horizontal louvers, light shelf, blind system or overhangs with side fins or experimental shading devices, etc. as shown in Fig. 3. Al-Masrani et al. [78] classified shading technique as passive, active and hybrid shading. Passive shading does not require any energy source and it is further categorized as fixed shading devices and adjustable shading devices. Active shading usually relies on active energy and it is represented by mechanical devices. Hybrid shading utilizes the natural biological system as well as advanced smart materials. Valladares-Rendón et al. [79] reviewed the importance of shading techniques to recommend a balanced solution for increasing energy savings and improving daylight and visibility. They concluded that strategic placement and optimum design can further improve the performance of shading techniques like facade self-shading, shading device. Krimtat et al. [75] reviewed studies related to simulation modeling for building shading devices. Performance characteristics of different types of shading devices were reviewed using previous studies. The authors noted that the performance of shading devices depends on parameters like climate,

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

473

Table 4 Summary of comparative study of various glazing techniques. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Research Type

Type of glazing

Compared with

Best Performed

[63]

Hot and humid

[64]

Kauala Lampur, (Malaysia) Malaysia

Triple glazed window Triple glazing

5.5–8.5% based on floor area ratio 6.3%

Malaysia

Hot and humid

Single clear glazing

Double low-E pane glazing

6.4%

[66]

USA

hot, humid, and cold

Triple glazed window Single clear glazing Single low-E pane glazing, double low-E pane glazing, double clear pane glazing Electrochromic glazing

Double Glazed window Triple glazing

[65]

Simulation study using BIM Simulation study using IES Simulation study using IES

Electrochromic glazing

>20%

[67]

China

Hot summers and cold winters

Thermotropic glazing

>2.4%

[68]

Hong Kong, (China)

Warm

Shanghai, (China)

Hot summers and cold winters

Semi transparent c-Si solar cells PV glazing Natural ventilated PV glazing

23–60%

[69]

[70]

Shanghai, Shenzhen, Harbin, (China)

[71]

Perugia, (Italy)

ASHRAE 2007 Compliant glazing, Single Pane glazing Double glazed window, tinted double glazed window Semi transparent c-Si solar cells PV glazing Double PV glazing system, natural ventilated PV glazing Double PV glazing, natural ventilated PV glazing, Single clear glazing, double clear glazing Monolithic aerogel glazing, granular aerogel glazing

Hot and humid

Simulation study using eQuest Simulation study using DeST

Thermotropic glazing

Simulation study using EnergyPlus Simulation study using EnergyPlus

Non transparent c-Si solar cells PV glazing Single PV glazing system

Hot summers and cold winters

Simulation study using EnergyPlus

Single PV glazing

–

Experimental

Low e-double glazed window

Energy savings (%)

6.7%

Double PV glazing for Harbin, natural ventilated PV glazing for Shanghai, Shenzhen

12.3% for Harbin, 10% for Shanghai and Shenzhen

Monolithic aerogel glazing

52%

Fig. 3. Types of shading devices [76,77].

occupancy, mechanical and electrical systems, design problems, energy efficiency issues, etc. Literature depicts that the study related to shading devices is majorly analyzed in terms of lightning [80–83] and thermallightning [84–88]. However, the shading technique can be effectively analyzed as a passive cooling technique if thermal perfor-

mance evaluation is carried out prior to lightning performance evaluation. Although the review article like [75] provides the details of the energy impact of shading devices for different climatic conditions; the information is limited to simulation-based modeling of shading devices only. An attempt is made here to summarize literature related to the thermal performance evaluation of

474

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 Table 5 Summary of studies related to shading technique. Author

Location

Building Type

Climate

Research Type

Shading technique

[89]

Rome, (Italy)

Office

Mediterranean

[90]

Singapore

Residential building

Hot and humid

Simulation study using Ener-lux, Midas Field study

[91]

Changsha, (Taiwan)

Residential building

Hot and humid

Automatic control external shading Horizontal shading device Envelope shading

[92]

Singapore

Residential building

Hot and humid

[93]

Residential building

Hot and humid

[94]

Kaohsiung, (Taiwan) Abu Dhabi

Residential

Hot and dry

Simulation study using IES software

[95]

Assiut City, (Egypt)

Residential

Hot and dry

[96]

Baltimore (USA), London, Abu-Dhabi

Residential

[97]

Belgium

Office

Hot and humid, Temperate, Hot and dry Hot and humid

Simulation study using TAS software Simulation study using BCVTB, EnergyPlus and Matlab software Simulation study using EnergyPlus

different shading techniques based on location, climate and building type as shown in Table 5. 2.3. Closure It is, thus, established from the literature that solar and heat protection techniques either in the form of microclimate or solar control method have a positive impact on achieving a reduction in building cooling load and indoor temperature. However, the performance of microclimate technique is dependent on local weather conditions. Roof pond technique finds its popularity in hot and dry climatic condition, but its performance evaluation in humid climatic conditions is not available in the literature. In the case of solar control technique, performance is dependent on the types of glazing and shading devices, whereas aperture control is limited by space constraints. Shading devices need prior consideration of both lightening and thermal comfort requirements. Hence space, lightening, innovative shading devices as well as building aesthetic requirements need more elaboration for solar control. 3. Heat modulation technique The heat modulation technique is one of the passive cooling techniques in which heat gain by the building is reduced or minimized with the help of enhancement in the properties of the building materials. This technique is dependent on thermal mass or a natural heat sink of the building structure in order to store and remove heat gains from a building. Thus, it is broadly classified as thermal mass and free cooling. 3.1. Thermal mass An effective way to reduce cooling load peaks and indoor temperature is to store excess heat in structural materials of the building which is referred as thermal mass [98]. The high thermal mass of a building stores more heat and is able to provide high thermal inertia to the building components. Thermal mass provides thermal stability and smoothens the thermal fluctuations between indoor and outdoor conditions. Effectiveness of thermal mass depends on many parameters such as climatic conditions, construction, material properties, building orientation, etc. [99–101]. Without the thermal mass of building material, heat enters into the

Simulation study using eQuest software Simulation study using LIGHTSCAPE and PHOENICS CFD software Field study

Horizontal shading devices, vertical shading device External shading

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (%) <30% 2.62–10.13% 11.3% 0.68 and 0.98

25%

Fixed horizontal and vertical shading devices Fixed vertical louvers

6%

2 °C

Movable blind system

1.6–32%

Movable roller shade

12%

building space and reradiates back quickly. This effect produces overly hot conditions during sunlight and cold condition during night time. General building materials are sensible heat storage materials having limited heat storage capacity. Latent heat storage material is an alternative by which thermal mass of building material can be increased. Latent heat storage materials which are also known as phase change materials (PCMs) stores and release heat during the phase change process at a nearly constant temperature [102,103]. Phase change materials with solid liquid phase transition, are classified as shown in Fig. 4. During the daytime, PCM absorbs the heat in the form of latent heat from the opaque as well as the glazed surface of the building and thus gets melted at a constant temperature. With this, there is stabilization and reduction in the inside temperature of the building. This absorbed latent heat of PCM is rejected during night time. In the case of passive cooling, heat rejection from PCM is incurred through natural means, whereas in the case of active cooling, it is done by air conditioning units which incur certain energy cost. Since last two decades, the importance of PCMs in building application has been noticed by various researchers. There are various techniques for incorporating PCMs into construction materials [104,105]. These techniques are direct incorporation, immersion, vacuum impregnation, encapsulation, shape stabilization, etc. Hariri and Ward [106] have presented a first review article on PCMs integrated building application discussing theoretical aspects of thermal energy storage in building cooling. A summary of the literature on the integration of PCM in building applications is reported in Table 6. Review articles [106–117] covered separately many important aspects of PCM in building application i.e. PCM integration in wallboards, ceiling, roof and PCM based free cooling. However, the details of the PCM integration in different building elements are not presented yet. Hence an attempt is made here to summarize the details of various methods of PCM integration into the building components i.e. wallboards, ceiling, roof, windows, etc. These are discussed in detail in the following subsections. 3.1.1. PCM integration in wallboard Wallboard is generally made of wood pulp, plaster or gypsum and used popularly in building applications. Relatively low cost of wallboard makes it very suitable for PCM applications. PCM is integrated with wallboard and installed in place of ordinary

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

475

Fig. 4. Classification of PCM [132]. Table 6 Reviews on integration of PCM in building applications. Authors (Year)

Review

Ref.

Saffari et al. (2017)

Application of simulation tools such as Energy plus, TRNSYS, ESP-r for passive cooling of building was reviewed. Feasibility of PCM passive cooling for different climatic conditions was also presented by the authors. Article notified the need for more sophisticated numerical methods for analyzing the cooling performance of PCM based night ventilation cooling. Article reported both experimental as well as numerical studies based on effect of PCM on building energy performance. It was found that use of PCM for building application becomes beneficial when there is need for shifting peak loads, reducing energy consumption and decreasing indoor fluctuations. However it was also concluded that certain areas for PCM in building application such as free cooling, incomplete solidification of PCM during night and low convective heat transfer coefficient etc. needs more attention in future studies. Commercial available PCM related to building applicationwas reviewed. It is reported that most of commercial PCM based products can be easily added to the building as these products require less structural modifications. It was also noted that fire safety of products, payback period of installation and disadvantages of increasing thermal conductivity by lowering latent heat storage per unit weight were the certain areas in which more studies are required. Authors reported a comprehensive review of thermal energy storage in building application covering important topics such as impregnation methods, current building application, thermal performance analysis, numerical simulation of building with PCMs. It was observed that chemical stability, fire safety, compatibility with construction materials were the important properties considered while selecting appropriate PCM for building applications. Article presents a comprehensive review on the PCMs used in energy storage in the buildings, including thermo physical properties, long term stability, encapsulated technique and fire risk. It was noted technical issues such as segregation, sub cooling, material compatibility needs more attention in future. The PCMs and their building applications such as enhanced gypsum wallboards, enhanced concrete and enhanced insulated materials were reported in detail. Manufacturing methods, design methodology and application results of building applications were discussed briefly. The thermal performance of the both active as well as passive building applications using PCM were reviewed by the authors. Special attention was given for the PCMs in free cooling and peak load shifting applications. It was concluded that thermal storage effect of PCM able to enhance indoor thermal comfort. Thermal energy storage using PCM for building application, solar water heater, solar air heating system, solar cooking, space heating, space cooling was reviewed from both theoretical and numerical aspects. A detailed review on PCM incorporation in buildings, selection of PCM and encapsulation methods for PCM were presented. Article recommended the future studies related to selection of suitable PCM for heating and cooling, active PCM based system for building. Article reviewed PCMs and their thermo physical properties, incorporation methods, thermal analysis of using PCM in wallboards, walls, ceiling and windows. Authors also noted that long term thermal behavior of PCM, durability of PCM impregnated wallboards, fire rating and heat transfer enhancement were the certain areas needs more focus for future studies. Authors gave a summary for the previous research on thermal performance of systems such as PCM trombe wall, PCM wallboards, PCM shutters, PCM building block, air-based heating systems, floor heating system, ceiling boards. It was concluded that PCM based system showed good potential for reducing building cooling and heating loads. A brief history of PCMs used in thermal energy storage with three aspects namely materials, heat transfer and applications were presented by the article. Thermal storage system used in building applications was reviewed including sensible heat storage and latent heat storage, mainly from the theoretical aspect.

[107]

Souyfane et al. (2016)

Kalnaes and Jelle (2015)

Zhou et al. (2012)

Cabeza et al. (2011)

Baetens et al. (2010) Zhu et al. (2009)

Sharma et al. (2009) Pasupathy et al. (2008) Zhang et al. (2007)

Tyagi and Budhhi (2007) Zalba et al. (2003) Hariri and Ward (1988)

wallboards during construction or refurbishment. Performance of PCM wallboards depends on many factors such as melting temperature of PCM, latent heat per unit volume, impregnation method, climatic conditions, etc. [111]. The idea of improving thermal comfort in buildings by integrating PCMs in wallboards of the building has been investigated by various researchers over a long time. Xie et al. [118] investigated the thermal performance of five different types of PCM based wallboards for an air-conditioned room in climatic conditions of the city of Beijing, China. The study was carried out numerically considering the adverse effects of seasonal

[11]

[108]

[109]

[110]

[111]

[112]

[113] [114] [115]

[116]

[117] [106]

climatic changes in the performance of wallboards. It was found that the thermal performance of PCM wallboards is dependent on seasonal climatic changes during the entire year. Singh and Bhat [119] conducted a comparative study of conventional gypsum board with gypsum board integrated with dual phase change material in order to reduce the room temperature swing of a building located in a composite climate of India. Optimization of melting temperature of PCM, thickness and relative positioning of PCM layers was also carried out by the authors. It was found that in the month of May, the optimized melting temperature of PCM was

476

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Fig. 5. PCM panels [173].

40 °C and 16 mm was the thickness of the layer of PCM inside the gypsum. They also concluded that optimized melting temperature is unable to provide the required comfort temperature, but it is able to reduce the cooling load of a conditioned building. Scalat et al. [120] carried out full scale testing of latent heat storage in wallboards. It was found that during the cooling mode, charging period for PCM wallboards was around 16 h, whereas discharging period for the same was around 7 h. Also, a comparative study between PCM wallboards and ordinary wallboards had shown that PCM wallboards can maintain room temperature within the human comfort zone for a longer period of time. Neeper [121] studied the performance of gypsum wallboard integrated with paraffin wax. Variation in room temperature was examined with PCM wallboards on the interior and external portion of the room. It was concluded that when PCM melting temperature is close to average room temperature, maximum energy storage can be achieved. Kuznik et al. [122] examined PCM enhanced wallboard in order to improve the thermal behavior of light weight building the internal wall under the simulated summer conditions. It was observed that PCM wallboard was able to reduce room temperature variation for a long time. Kuznik et al. [123] investigated PCM wallboards in order to examine the effect of external excitation temperature for heating or cooling. It was observed that PCM wallboards were able to cause time lag between external air temperature and room temperature. They concluded that the PCM was effective in building rooms where solar spots are major concerns. Kuznik et al. [124] examined new PCM wallboards which were tested by DuPont de Nemours Society and made by ENERGAIN@ . A study was carried out in a building located in Lyon, France during the period of February to December. Paraffin wax was used as PCM. Results found that if the outside air temperature is varying in melting temperature range, then PCM wallboards are very useful. Ahmad et al. [125] designed two test cells and tested them in climatic

conditions. Each cell was having one glazed face and five opaque faces insulated with VIP (Vacuum Insulation Panel). One cell was equipped with five PCM panel as shown in Fig. 5. PCM panels had shown a good thermal storage capacity for more than 480 thermal cycles. Evola et al. [126] carried out a case study on office building integrated with the PCM wall board. A study was conducted for two sunny days in a month of July. Paraffin was used as PCM with 60% encapsulation. It was found that PCM storage efficiency shows significant improvement up to 35% when accompanied with a ventilated cavity showing a reduction in room temperature of 0.4 °C. They concluded that for better evaluation of a potential of latent heat storage, night air flowing into the PCM cavity improves storage efficiency of PCM. Diaconu [127] studied the potential for thermal energy savings in case of heating. It was observed that occupancy pattern and ventilation are important factors in the selection of optimal PCM melting temperature for a given building application. Ascione et al. [128] investigated PCM plaster on the inner and outer side of the building in order to observe its influence on energy savings and indoor comfort conditions. The investigation was carried out during typical winter season for five different Mediterranean climatic zones, namely, Ankara (Turkey), Athens (Greece), Naples (Italy), Marseille (France), Seville (Spain). PCMs used had a melting range between 26 °C and 29 °C. PCM with 29 °C of melting point and 3 cm thickness showed the highest energy saving potential for all climatic zones. Shilei et al. [129] examined the effect of PCM (82% of capric acid and 18% of lauric acid) integrated gypsum boards on the thermal performance of the building. They found that during the summer, PCM wallboard maintains the indoor temperature within the comfort range by absorbing 39.126 kJ/kg of heat before the complete melting at 24.26 °C. 3.1.2. PCM integration in ceilings The ceiling is an important part of the building which exchanges heat between the roof and interior of the building. The larger surface area of the ceiling comes in contact with air movement at the interior of the building. The surface area of the ceiling can be effectively utilized in the heat exchange process if the thermal mass of ceiling is improved. But the increasing thermal mass of ceiling has certain constructional disadvantages. Thus, PCM integration in the ceiling is an effective way to improve the performance of ceiling heat exchange process and provide thermal comfort in building without increasing its thermal mass. Some researchers reported a study on the PCM integrated ceiling to maintain the thermal comfort conditions at the interior of the building. Kondo and Iwamoto [130] investigated the performance of office building having PCM ceiling boards. Ceiling board was integrated with PCM microcapsules. Schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. PCM integrated in ceiling [178].

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Fig. 7. Newly suggested system of PCM in ceiling [179].

Performance investigation was based on the peak load and off load conditions of an active cooling system fitted inside the building. During off load conditions, electricity tariffs are less and thus, in this period the air handling unit cooled the PCM. During peak load, air from room goes to the PCM ceiling chamber and then goes to the air handling unit. It was found that the PCM ceiling board reduces the cooling load up to 14.8%. Kosehenz and Lehman [131] suggested thermally activated ceiling panel with PCM for passive cooling of the building. A proposed system is shown in Fig. 7. A mixture of microencapsulated PCM along with gypsum poured into a steel tray was used as a ceiling panel. A capillary water tube was applied to control the temperature of thermal mass. It was concluded that to keep office within a comfortable range, a PCM layer of 5 cm is required. Wang and Niu [132] studied a combination of cooled ceiling and microencapsulated PCM (MPCM) slurry storage system in typical weather conditions of City Hong Kong, China. The combination of the system was utilized by an air conditioning system. It was concluded that MPCM slurry performs better compared to ice slurry. 3.1.3. PCM integration in roof The roof is subjected to complex and dynamic environmental conditions such as convective, radiative and conductive heat transfer mechanisms. While designing the roof structure, thermal considerations are based on steady-state criteria with some thermal resistance values given by building standards [133]. These criteria and dynamic exposed conditions of the roof are contradicting to each other which results in relatively low thermal performance of the roof structures reducing the energy efficiency of the building. Thermal performance of the roof can be improved effectively by improving the total thermal resistance of the roof with the addition of more insulation. However, it is not practical and econom-

477

ical to increase roof insulation beyond a certain range. An alternative practice to enhance the thermal performance of a roof is to increase its thermal storage capacity using PCMs. Roof structure integrated with PCM offers improved building heat transfer control by offering significant thermal inertia. It reduces transmission of dynamic heat loads and improves the energy efficiency of a building. Thermal performance of the PCM integrated roof was investigated by many researchers. Pasupathy and Velraj [134] studied the performance of double layer PCM incorporated into the roof. A study was carried out in the humid atmosphere of Chennai, India. Inorganic salt hydrate was used as PCM. Results depicted that indoor air temperature change becomes lesser when double layered PCM was integrated into the roof. Kosny et al. [135] developed a roof panel having a photovoltaic module with PCM. The roof was naturally ventilated. It was found that a cooling load gets reduced by 55% in summer. Also, peak daytime heat flux was reduced by 90%. Alhwadi et al. [136] investigated roof PCM system for the city of Kuwait for the month of June in which electricity consumption reaches its peak. The system was designed in such a way that concrete slab having cone frustum holes was filled with PCM material. Schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 8. It was observed that there is significant reduction up to 39% in heat flux to indoor of the building space. Roman et al. [137] carried out a simulation study for PCM based roof in order to mitigate the urban heat island problem in seven different climatic zones of the USA. It was concluded that PCM has great potential for improving the indoor conditions, especially in an urban heat island location and almost 54% of heat flux entering into the building environment can be reduced using PCM. Pisello et al. [138] investigated the influence of PCM integration in two types of roofing membranes i.e. cool membrane and bitumen roofing membrane. It was observed that there are 10.4% and 12.6% energy savings for cool and bitumen roofing membranes respectively during both seasons of summer and winter. Pisello et al. [139] observed that thermal stress of polyurethane liquid waterproof cool membrane roof under given radiation conditions can be reduced when PCM is integrated in it. Results had shown that PCM acts as a good additive to the membrane. Jayalath et al. [140] examined the thermal performance of Bio PCM integrated with the roof for the weather conditions of Melbourne and Sydney. A cooling load saving was observed up to 25% and 39% for Melbourne and Sydney respectively. 3.1.4. PCM integration in window Transparent elements of the building like windows are responsible for a significant amount of solar heat gain. Building heat gain is usually reduced using conventional methods like filling the

Fig. 8. Concrete slab, frustum hole and PCM assembly [184].

478

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

absorbing gas or using insulated glass. But these conventional methods show limited thermal performance due to low heat capacity. However, in some cases where visibility is only limited by translucidity and thermal performance is more important, in such cases, PCM becomes the best alternative for reducing window heat gains. A necessary condition for using PCM in windows is that it should be optically transparent. Certain characteristics of PCM such as transparent and non-scattering, clear behavior in the liquid phase as well as ability to absorb infrared radiation and allow visible radiation into its space makes it a popular candidate in building fenestration products [141]. Li et al. [142] examined double glazed and triple glazed window filled with PCM for summer and winter climatic conditions of Nanjing, China. It was observed that triple glazed window filled with PCM is more effective compared to a double glazed window filled with PCM for both winter and summer season. Hu and Heiselburg [143] established the performance of ventilation window equipped with PCM heat exchanger during summer months in Copenhagen. Performance of newly designed window was tested in two modes i.e. night ventilation mode and air precooling mode. It was found that when PCM plate thickness inside heat exchanger is optimized with a value of 10 mm, it provides a cooling effect up to 6.5 °C with total energy savings of 3.19 MJ/day. Ismail et al. [144] studied PCM integrated glass window in a hot climatic conditions of Brazil. Comparison between window filled with PCM and window filled with absorbing gas was reported. It was observed that PCM filled windows reduce heat penetration compared to gas filled windows. Goia et al. [145] investigated the effect of PCM integrated in glazing on thermal comfort for three seasons. Traditional double glazing was compared with PCM glazing. Results revealed that there is a significant increase in comfort conditions when PCM glazing is used instead of traditional glazing. 3.2. Free cooling Passive cooling in the building can be achieved when a daytime heat gain of the building is released at night through intake of outdoor cool air. In other words, colder nocturnal air is circulated in a building during night ventilation which cools the indoor air and building structure. This cooled structure reduces the rate of heat gain during the daytime [146,147]. Process of accumulating the cold energy of the night in specialized energy storage and utilized during the daytime when needed is referred as free cooling. In the night cooling process, buildings thermal mass is utilized for storing the coolness of night [148]. Effectiveness night cooling depends on nocturnal air temperature and thermal mass of the building [148,149]. Also, the heat capacity of the thermal mass of the building is limited by its size and material properties. Thus, there

exists a need for energy storage by which cold energy of night can be stored effectively. As latent heat storage shows superior performance over other thermal energy storage materials [150], it is effectively utilized in free cooling. Thus, in the present section, strategies related to only free cooling with PCM are focused. Raj and Velraj [151] reviewed heat transfer problems and design considerations for free cooling technique. They concluded that free cooling performance is site and climate dependent and favorably perform in desert locations. It was also noted that free cooling system performs better when air velocity is more during the charging period of PCM and reduced during later stages. It was recommended to select PCM melting temperature in the mid-range of diurnal temperature variation which depends on the application season of the free cooling system i.e. either summer or winter. Waqas and Din [152] elaborated design of PCM based free cooling system, the geometry of encapsulation and thermo-physical properties of PCM. They also reviewed the effect of climatic condition and melting temperature of the PCM on the performance of the free cooling system. It was concluded that in a free cooling application melting temperature of PCM should be close to room temperature and specifically in the range of 20–26 °C. Kamali [153] reviewed the parameters affecting the performance of a free cooling system along with its climatic applicability and economic feasibility. It was concluded that a free cooling system works efficiently in the climatic conditions where the diurnal temperature range is 12–15 °C. Thambidurai et al. [154] reviewed various selection criteria for the PCM in the free cooling system, economic analysis and promotional policies for effective commercialization of the free cooling system. It was noted that parameters like PCM, encapsulation material, air ducts, packaging, etc. are important for an economic free cooling system. It was also recommended that mass implementation and commercialization in the residential sector will definitely reduce air conditioning working hours. Alizadeh and Sadrameli [10] presented a detailed review on free cooling technique along with the application of PCMs. The performance parameters, enhancement techniques, numerical modeling, economic and geographic parameters were also well described. Application of free cooling techniques for building applications has been investigated over many years along with the development of numerous systems. But first significant work on free cooling technique incorporating PCM was carried out by Turnpenny et al. [155]. In their work, authors reported a system having heat pipes embedded in a PCM unit. A low power fan is fitted just below the PCM unit which was used to draw the heat from the room over the PCM unit. Schematic of the system used is shown in Fig. 9. Salt hydrate having a melting temperature of 21 ̊C was used as PCMIt was found that about 40 W of heat transfer rate between the PCM unit and the air was possible for 19 h of melting time of PCM.

Fig. 9. Free cooling system proposed by Turnpenny et al. [203].

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

479

Fig. 10. Mechanical ventilation with LHTES [204].

Authors have suggested an alternate design having fins attached to heat pipes inside PCM unit in order to increase heat transfer rate which can reduce the number of PCM units. Arkar et al. [156] analyzed the performance of mechanical ventilation system with two latent heat storage units. One latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) used for cooling of fresh air and another was used for recirculation of indoor air. Spherical encapsulated PCM i.e. paraffin R20 was used. Free cooling operation during the day and night is shown in Fig. 10. It was noted that with the help of LHTES, size of the mechanical ventilation system could be reduced considerably and the cooling effect gets increased. Waqas et al. [157] investigated the PCM storage unit for building ventilation system in order to study its thermal performance. The study was carried out in hot and dry climatic conditions. PCM unit stored the coolness of the night and returned this coolness during the daytime when the ambient temperature was high. It was observed that PCM in the suitable melting range can be utilized to keep coolness during daytimes. Solidification of PCM is affected by charging air inlet temperature. Darzi et al. [158] investigated the free cooling system with plate type PCM storage system. It was found that the thickness of PCM plates plays an important role in the thermal performance of the unit. It was observed that for the same mass flow rate and Stefan number, when the thickness of PCM plates was increased from 1 cm to 2 cm, the melting rate of PCM was almost double. Thus, it was concluded that the thickness of the PCM plates has a linear

relationship with the melting rate of PCM. Mosaffa et al. [159] carried out a numerical study on performance enhancement of the free cooling system using multiple PCM based LHTES unit. Performance optimization study was carried out based on energy storage effectiveness and coefficient of performance. It was revealed that performance optimization method is not suitable for a PCM based free cooling system. 3.3. Closure An attempt is made here to summarize the preferred PCM modulation technique for different climatic conditions which is listed in Table 7. From Table 7, it is observed that PCM based passive cooling technique is preferable for all climatic conditions except humid and temperate climate. In case of hot and dry climatic conditions, for single or multistorey building, PCM integration in the roof, ceiling, walls, free cooling and PCM integration in the window is preferred. For hot and humid climatic conditions, PCM integration in the roof, ceiling, walls, windows assisted with night ventilation and free cooling are suitable for single as well as multistorey building. Hence it can be concluded that the PCM modulation technique has considerable potential towards achieving passive cooling of the buildings for changing environmental conditions. However, in context to thermal mass, certain areas such as material property enhancement, PCM leakage, adaptability with changing environmental condition needs more investigation. For free cooling technique,

Table 7 Summary of suitable application of PCM based passive cooling. Building type

Working conditions

Climatic conditions

Preferred PCM modulation technique

Single storey building

Roof and walls are directly exposed to solar radiation and ambient

Hot and dry Hot and humid Humid and temperate Hot and dry Hot and humid Humid and temperate Hot and dry Hot and humid Humid and temperate Hot and dry

PCM integration in cooling with PCM PCM integration in Not preferred PCM integration in PCM integration in Not preferred PCM integration in PCM integration in Not preferred PCM integration in

Hot and humid Humid and temperate Hot and dry

PCM integration in walls with night ventilation Not preferred Free cooling with PCM

Hot and humid Humid and temperate Hot and dry Hot and humid Humid and temperate

Free cooling with PCM Not preferred PCM integration in window PCM integration in window with night ventilation Not preferred

Only side walls are exposed to ambient

Side walls with transparent elements

Multi storey building

Only side walls are exposed to direct solar radiation and ambient

Roof and walls are not directly exposed to solar radiation and ambient

Side walls with transparent elements

roof or ceiling and walls along with free roof and walls with night ventilation walls along with free cooling with PCM walls with night ventilation window window with night ventilation walls along with free cooling with PCM

480

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 Table 8 Summary of literature related to wind driven ventilation. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Wind driven ventilation type

Research Type

[168]

Ras Al Khaimah, (UAE)

Hot and dry

[169]

–

Hot and dry

[170] [171]

Hong Kong, (China) Nagapattinam, (India)

Hot and humid Hot and humid

Numerical and Field study Numerical and wind tunnel testing Numerical study Experimental study

20% 5 °C

[172]

Yazd, (Iran)

Hot and dry

Numerical study

4 °C

[173]

Beijing, (China)

Hot and humid

Wind catcher with cool sink Wind tower with heat transfer device Wing wall Single sided wind catcher Square plan wind catcher Wind catcher

Numerical study

2 °C

the influence of performance parameters including PCM thermophysical properties, innovative PCM encapsulation geometries, inlet flow rate and properties of heat transfer fluid and innovative configuration of heat transfer surface on building heat control require further investigations. 4. Heat dissipation In this passive cooling technique, excess heat of the building is rejected to the suitable environmental heat sink at a lower temperature. Available environmental heat sinks are ambient air, water, and sky. Based on the available environmental heat sink, this technique is further classified as convective cooling, evaporative cooling, and radiative cooling. 4.1. Convective cooling In convective cooling, the air is used as a heat sink. Heat dissipation is completed by rejecting the excess heat of the building to atmospheric air through various modes of natural ventilation. Natural ventilation is an effective passive cooling technique to mitigate the challenges arising from air conditioning [160]. The driving force for cooling action in natural ventilation is either in the form of natural wind speed or buoyancy effect which is due to the air temperature difference between inside and outside of the building. In some of the applications, the buoyancy effect of air is utilized for passive cooling in a specialized building structure such as a solar wall or solar chimney. Thus, based on methods of natural ventilation adopted, convective cooling can be further classified as wind driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven stack ventilation, trombe wall and a solar chimney. 4.1.1. Wind driven ventilation Wind-driven ventilation commences due to the pressure difference created around the building structure. The wind strikes building a structure and produces positive pressure on the windward side and suction pressure on the leeward side [161]. This difference in pressure drives the air flow from high-pressure openings to low pressure opening on the leeward side. Performance of wind-driven ventilation is dependent mainly on pressure parameters such as mean pressure field at ventilation openings and fluctuating, unsteady flow around the building [162]. These pressure parameters are influenced by climatic and building parameters. Climatic parameters include wind velocity and its incident angle, whereas building parameters include plan area density of the building, frontal aspect ratio, relative positions of facades [44]. In order to improve the performance of wind-driven ventilation, various devices like Wing walls [163], exhaust cowls [164,165], wind tower or wind catcher wind floor inlets [166] are used. A systematic review on wind driven ventilation devices is reported by

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (%) 12 °C 9–12 °C

Khan et al. [167]. The details of distinct types, flow rates, features of wind ventilation devices were reported. Jomehazadeh et al. [17] presented a detailed review of previous studies on natural ventilation using a wind catcher device mainly focusing on indoor air quality and thermal comfort aspects. It was concluded that satisfactory indoor air quality and thermal comfort can be achieved using a wind catcher. However, the article has not discussed the energy impact of wind-driven ventilation devices based on climatic conditions. Summary of literature showing the effect of wind-driven ventilation on energy savings and reduction in the indoor temperature of the building is shown in Table 8. 4.1.2. Buoyancy driven ventilation Buoyancy-driven ventilation is also known as stack ventilation. It commences when there is vertical movement of air through the building. It is carried out by buoyancy forces arising due to density differences between warm air and cool air. Discrepancies between indoor air and outdoor air are also responsible for the generation of buoyancy force [174]. Temperature and height difference between indoor and outdoor are the key factors which affect the performance of buoyancy driven ventilation [175]. Other factors such as building internal layout and division [176], building material [177], the shape of a building structure [178] are also important in controlling the flow of buoyancy driven ventilation. Aflaki et al. [179] reviewed the details of buoyancy-driven ventilation considering the importance of ventilation opening with size, location of apertures and components of the building facades. It was concluded that building orientation, ventilation shafts should be adopted for effective ventilation in tropical climatic conditions. Some of the researchers have also investigated the performance improvement of buoyancy-driven ventilation through the different application of architecture elements such as wooden balconies and terrace, size and location of stacks, ventilation shafts [180–183]. Literature also shows that performance evaluation of buoyancy driven ventilation is mainly carried out on the basis of indoor air quality, comfort requirements and energy savings. Prajongsan and Sharples [182] carried out numerical investigation buoyancy driven ventilation using ventilation shafts for the hot and humid climatic conditions of Bangkok. It was found that average velocities in a room without ventilation shaft were low and insufficient to produce cooling effect compared to a room with the ventilation shaft. It was observed that approximately 2700 kWh of air conditioning energy saving can be achieved with the use of a ventilation shaft. Gratia and De Herde [183] investigated numerically the effect of double skin facade designed for stack effect on a multistorey building located at Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium having hot and dry climatic conditions. It was concluded that around 40% of energy savings could be possible with the use of double skin facade.

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

481

Fig. 11. Cooling based trombe wall.

4.1.3. Trombe wall A trombe wall is an important architecture element which helps in achieving heating, ventilation, and cooling of the buildings [184]. Heating energy consumption of the building can be reduced up to 30% with the use of trombe walls [185,186]. The trombe walls are generally employed for the passive heating purpose and utilized for cold climatic conditions. However, some types of trombe walls are also useful for cooling purpose. Based on the type of application either heating or cooling, trombe walls are classified as heating based trombe wall and cooling based trombe wall [187]. Cooling based trombe wall includes a ceramic evaporative cooling wall or hybrid wall [188], classic trombe wall [14], photovoltaic trombe wall [189–191] as shown in Fig. 11. Performance of cooling based trombe wall depends on many factors such as type of glazing and its properties [192], type of shading device [193], massive wall properties [189,194], construction materials [195], radiation and orientation of trombe wall [196]. Hu et al. [187] presented a detailed review of research and development in cooling based trombe wall technology over the last 15 years. Emphasis was given on design parameters which affects the performance of trombe wall. It was concluded that a suitable indicator should be chosen in order to evaluate the performance of trombe wall. Saddatian et al. [197] reviewed concepts, significance and applications in solar wall technique for energy saving in buildings. Effect of different trombe wall accessories like a fan, insulation, size of trombe wall, wall material, glazing specification was elaborated against the efficiency of trombe wall. It was recommended to use a fan for vented type trombe wall and a suitable insulation, which improves the efficiency by 8% and 56%. Optimal size and thickness of the wall of trombe wall was found to be 37% and 30–40 cm for its optimal performance. It was noted that the

glazing specification is dependent on the longitude and latitude of the project. However, review articles [187,197] does not provide information on the energy impacts of the trombe wall in achieving the passive cooling effect for different climatic conditions. Literature on cooling based trombe walls, achieving energy efficiency in buildings are summarized in Table 9. 4.1.4. Solar chimney The solar chimney is mainly utilized for enhancing daytime ventilation as a passive cooling or passive heating in a building. It is usually installed at the rooftop or attached to walls. Air movement inside the solar chimney is generated by buoyancy forces which draw cooler air inside the building and pushes hot air towards top of the chimney cavity [200]. Solar chimney operates in three different modes, i.e. passive heating mode, natural ventilation mode and thermal insulation mode [201] as shown in Fig. 12. The passive heating mode is operative when the heating load is dominant whereas solar chimney works as a natural ventilation mode when the cooling load is dominant. If the outdoor temperature is higher than room temperature, solar chimney operates in a thermal insulation mode. Performance of solar chimney depends on various factors like chimney configuration, installation conditions, material usages, environment. These factors were reported by Shi et al. [202] in their review article and the details of the optimum design of solar chimney based on performance parameters and past experiences were highlighted. Monghasemi et al. [203] reviewed recent progress in solar chimney application in building cooling. It provides the details of potential and effectiveness of various integrated system such as earth-air heat exchanger, PCM, water consuming system, a hybrid photovoltaic thermal system based on the solar chimney.

Table 9 Summary of literature related to cooling based trombe wall. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Cooling based trombe wall

Research type

[198]

Hong Kong, Shanghai and Beijing, (China)

PV trombe wall

Numerical

30–50%

[199]

Yazd, (Iran)

Hot Hot Hot Hot

Experimental

8 °C

[189]

Hefei, (China)

Composite

Numerical

[193]

Ancona, (Italy)

Medeterian climate

2.47 °C for insulation and 2 °C for shading curtains 63–72.9%

[195]

Ancona, (Italy)

Mediterranean climate

[191]

Hong Kong, (China)

Hot and humid

Classic trombe wall with water spraying system PV trombe wall with insulation and shading curtain Trombe wall with roller shutters, overhangs PV trombe wall with roller shutters having single and double glazing PV trombe wall with multilayer facade

and and and and

humid, humid, dry dry

Experimental and Numerical Experimental

Experimental and numerical

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (% or kWh)

42% for single glazing 48% for double glazing 51%

482

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Fig. 12. Operative modes of solar chimney [253]. Table 10 Summary of literature related to cooling performance of solar chimney. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Solar chimney

Research type

[204]

Bangkok, (Thailand)

Hot and Humid

Experimental

30%

[205]

Pathumthai, (Thailand) Bangkok, (Thailand)

Hot and Humid

Experimental

2–6.2 °C

Hot and Humid

Solar chimney with modified trombe wall Solar chimney with water spraying Multi storey solar chimney

4–5 °C

Hot and humid, Cold and dry, Hot and dry Hot and dry

3.2–6.6 °C

[208]

Mexico city, Cd. Juarez, Mérida, (Mexico) Yazd, (Iran)

Experimental and numerical Numerical

Experimental

9–14 °C

[209]

Menofiya, (Egypt)

Hot and dry

Experimental

8.5 °C

[201]

Tokyo, (Japan)

Hot and humid

Numerical

12%

[206] [207]

Solar chimney with earth air heat exchanger Solar chimney with water spraying system Solar chimney with attached fins Classic Solar chimney

It was notified that there is a need for an integrating system, as the solar chimney is not suitable for climatic conditions like hot arid, humid, regions with low insolation. Summary of literature addressing the cooling performance of the solar chimney is reported in Table 10. 4.2. Evaporative cooling Evaporative cooling has gained popularity in the field of air conditioning over the past decade due to its simplicity in structure, low cost and use of natural resources [210,121]. Also, it is highly efficient and available at low cost which makes it an attractive alternative compared with conventional air conditioning systems like vapor compression, absorption or thermoelectric refrigeration systems for both hot and dry climate and temperate climates [210–212]. Evaporative cooling commences when non saturated air comes in contact with water droplets. In this technique, large enthalpy of evaporation of water is used to absorb a high amount of heat from the surrounding air, which results in a reduction of air temperature along with an increase in humidity of air [44]. Evaporation of water is carried out using two methods, either through direct contact between air and water droplets or there is indirect contact between air and water [213,214]. Based on this, the evaporative cooling technique is classified as direct and indirect evaporative cooling. 4.2.1. Direct evaporative cooling (DEC) In direct contact between air stream and water, the sensible heat of air is utilized to raise the latent heat of water which results in evaporation of water. In this process, there is a reduction in the temperature of air and increase in humidity of the air. Maximum reduction in air temperature can be possible when there is the maximum difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature of intake air [215]. If intake air is saturated, air can be cooled to wet bulb temperature and this process becomes most

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (% or kWh)

effective. Thus, the cooling efficiency of direct evaporative cooling depends on the moisture content of intake air. The moisture content of intake air is reduced by forcing it through the desiccant membrane [216,217]. Performance of direct evaporative cooling is evaluated based on outlet air temperature, humidity saturation efficiency [218–221]. Cuce et al. [213] carried out a detailed review of evaporative cooling technique along with thermal performance assessment and thermo economic evaluation. It was concluded that this technique has potential towards achieving energy savings in hot and arid climatic conditions. Chan et al. [14] presented an introduction to direct evaporative cooling along with principles of operation. However, these articles did not deliberate on the energy impact of directive evaporative cooling for different climatic conditions. The reduction in indoor temperature due to direct evaporative cooling for different climatic conditions are summarized in Table 11. 4.2.2. Indirect evaporative cooling (IEC) In this evaporative cooling method, dry air stream and water stream are separated by a heat exchanging wall. In this process, working secondary air is passed through a wet channel while product air is passed through the dry channel. Wet channel absorbs sensible heat from the dry channel, resulting in the reduced temperature of product air. Thus, there is no extra moisture addition to the product air. Thus, the humidity content of product air remains the same while that of the secondary air humidity content increases. Duan et al. [15] reviewed indirect evaporative cooling techniques, providing the details of the current state of art, advantages, disadvantages, performance parameters, barriers in technology. It was concluded that factors like cooling effectiveness, smaller temperature reduction, larger geometrical size and dependency on climatic conditions limit the performance of indirect evaporative cooling. It was recommended to use indirect evaporative cooling in combination with a cooling system such as desiccant cooling,

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

483

Table 11 Summary of literature related to direct evaporative cooling. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Direct evaporative cooling

Research type

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[218]

–

Laboratory testing

Numerical

9 °C

[219]

Taubate, (Brazil)

Humid subtropical Temperate oceanic

6–8 °C

[221]

Nottingham, (England) Urumqi, (China)

Experimental and numerical Experimental

3.5 °C

[222]

Hot and dry

Numerical

9–14 °C

[221]

Lanzhou, (China)

Semi arid

Numerical

8 °C

[223]

Bhopal, (India)

Hot and dry

Experimental

8 °C

[223]

Bhopal, (India)

Hot and dry

Cross flow direct evaporative cooler Cross flow direct evaporative cooler Porous ceramic direct evaporator Cross flow direct evaporative cooler Cross flow direct evaporative cooler Direct evaporative cooler with Honeycomb cooling pad Direct evaporative cooler with Aspen swamp cooling pad

Experimental

5 °C

Table 12 Summary of literature related to direct evaporative cooling. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Research type

[225] [226] [227]

Kuwait Khuzestan, (Iran) India

Analytical Experimental Analytical

12,418–6320 kWh 16% 55%

[228]

Iran

Experimental

>60%

[229]

Tehran, Iran

Hot and humid Hot and dry Composite, hot and dry, moderate Hot and dry, hot and semi humid, temperate and dry, humid Lab testing

Experimental

75%

chilled water system, heat pipe, etc. Performance of indirect evaporative cooling technique depends on wet bulb efficiency, dew point efficiency, cooling power, power consumption and coefficient of performance [224]. Performance assessment of indirect evaporative cooling technique is carried by various researchers for different climatic conditions, applications. An attempt is made to summaries, literature analyzing the performance of indirect evaporative cooling in terms of energy savings or indoor temperature reduction of a building in Table 12. 4.3. Radiative cooling The earth’s atmosphere is a semitransparent medium which absorbs, scatter and emit the radiation. It shows the dynamic behavior by allowing infrared radiation in a certain wavelength range passes through it without being absorbed. Thus, if appropriate thermal properties of a structure present on the earth are met under suitable ambient conditions, it is possible to dissipate the heat from the structure to the sky. Hence, passive radiative cooling is possible with the sky as a heat sink. Radiative cooling for buildings during clear sky nights has been utilized since centuries in the past [230,231]. During ancient time radiative cooling was employed for ice making and storing of ice in India and Iran [232,233]. Potential and applications of radiative cooling as passive cooling of the buildings is studied by various authors. Lu et al. [13] presented a comprehensive review on radiative cooling in buildings providing the details of system configurations, cooling potentials, material constraints, climatic restrictions and cost issues. It was concluded that performance of radiative cooling can be enhanced with emitting surface optimization, adoption of the angular surface to avoid heat gains and favorable climatic conditions such as temperate and Mediterranean climate. Vall and Castell [234] reviewed the radiative cooling from theoretical and numerical approaches present in literature and different prototypes. It was noted that

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (% or kWh)

the use of heat storage for high cooling power density, water as a heat carrier fluid beneficial for effective cooling. Zeyghami et al. [235] elaborated radiative cooling technique with details in terms of performance indicators and evaluation, empirical correlations for numerical analysis and emitter surface designs in their review. Based on the application of radiative cooling during nighttime and daytime, it is classified as nocturnal radiative cooling and radiant cooling system [9,235]. 4.3.1. Nocturnal radiative cooling In this method, indirect heat loss is created by exposing the heat surface directly to the heat sink of clear cool night sky [9]. The performance of nocturnal radiative cooling depends on the material properties of the radiative panel like heat surface emissivity, reflectivity [236,237]. It is also dependent on surface area exposure of sky and humidity levels. Solar flat plate collectors are generally used as radiative panels as shown in Fig. 13. Nwaigweet al. [238] presented a comprehensive review on performance, uses and applications of nocturnal radiative cooling. Night sky radiation measurement for different locations, field testing and problems associated with this technique were also elaborated in details. It was concluded that nocturnal radiative cooling shows potential for 14–48% reduction in energy demands of a building. Studies related to performance evaluation of nocturnal radiative cooling in terms of indoor temperature reduction or energy savings are summarized in Table 13. 4.3.2. Radiant cooling In this method, the heated surface is indirectly exposed to the heat sink of the night sky through the medium of cold water. Cold water circulates inside the pipes embedded in the walls or slab of a building and removes heat from the interior of a building. Radiant cooling shows smaller vertical temperature gradient, less air movement and less local discomfort for building occupants when compared with conventional air conditioning system [244]. The

484

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Fig. 13. Nocturnal radiative panel [9]. Table 13 Summary of literature related to radiative cooling. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Nocturnal radiative cooling

Research type

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[239] [240]

Bangkok, (Thailand) Ioannina, (Greece)

1–6 ̊C 2.5–4 ̊C

Malaysia

Numerical

11%

[242]

Oslo, (Norway)

Hot and humid

Experimental

1–4 °C

[243]

Toronto, Canada

Hot and humid

Roof radiators Roof radiators with white paint Flat plate roof radiator Polymer based radiator Unglazed perforated roof radiator

Experimental Experimental

[241]

Hot and humid Warm and temperate Hot and humid

Experimental

6–20 °C

Table 14 Summary of literature related to radiant cooling. Author

Location

Climatic conditions

Radiant cooling

Research type

[248]

New Delhi, (India)

Composite,

Conventional radiant cooling

[248]

Ahmadabad, (India)

Hot and dry,

Conventional radiant cooling

[248]

Bengarulu, (India)

Temperate

Conventional radiant cooling

[248]

Chennai, (India)

Warm and humid

Conventional radiant cooling

[249] [250]

Composite Temperate

Conventional radiant cooling Thermal activated system (TABS)

Hot and dry

Conventional radiant cooling

Numerical

<80%

[252]

Hyderabad, (India) Bodegraven, (Netherlands) Jamshoro, (Pakistan) Beijing, (China)

Experimental numerical Experimental numerical Experimental numerical Experimental numerical Numerical Experimental

Hot and humid

Beijing, (China)

Hot and humid

[253] [254]

Hong Kong, (China) Beijing, (China)

Hot and humid Hot and humid

Experimental and numerical Experimental and numerical Numerical Numerical

25%

[252]

Capillary tube embedded surface cooling system Thermal activated system (TABS)

44% 8.2%

[255]

USA

Dry, moist and humid

Numerical

30%

[251]

Chilled ceiling with desiccant cooling Chilled ceiling with displacement ventilation, desiccant dehumidification Conventional radiant cooling

Fig. 14. Radiant cooling system at Infosys, India [245].

Indoor temperature reduction (°C) or Energy savings (% or kWh) and

24–27%

and

21–27%

and

24–27%

and

11–19% 25–30% <50%

32%

recently radiant cooling system has been utilized as a commercial cooling system for Indian multinational company, Infosys [245]. Fig. 14 shows a radiant cooling system at Infosys. It was seen that installed radiant cooling system works 40% more efficiently compared to conventional buildings providing healthier indoor quality. Zhao et al. [246] reviewed recent applications and achievements in radiant cooling technique along with feasibility study considering parameters such as thermal comfort, thermal efficiency, cooling capacity. Authors also outlined the key issues associated with the performance of this technique and discussed the details of recent projects based on this cooling technique which includes Bangkok airport of Thailand, Xi’an airport of China. It was noted that radiant cooling shows excellent performance with increase in cooling capacity for large space buildings which features high internal wall temperatures and higher exposure to the solar radiation. Rhee

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

and Kim [247] presented a review on radiant cooling, providing the details of thermal analysis and thermal comfort including cooling capacity, heat transfer models, energy simulation, CFD study, control strategies, and system configurations. It was concluded that areas such as system design and control, advanced control strategies, optimization and practical approaches needed to be addressed for better applicability of the radiant cooling system. These review articles focused on evaluating the performance of radiant cooling as well as heating technique in terms of cooling capacity, system energy efficiency, thermal comfort, etc. However, in order to evaluate radiant cooling as an effective passive cooling technique, it is necessary to monitor the reduction in cooling load or indoor temperature for different climatic conditions. Summary of literature related to radiant cooling is reported in Table 14. 4.4. Closure It is seen from the literature that heat dissipation technique can be an effective passive cooling technique to achieve thermal comfort and better building energy efficiency. Convective cooling techniques like wind-driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven ventilation finds its applicability in both hot and humid as well as temperate climatic conditions, whereas other technique like the trombe wall and solar trombe wall shows the applicability in hot and dry, hot and humid climatic conditions. These techniques need more discussion on areas such as a combination of natural ventilation and advance mechanical devices, innovative ventilation for complex buildings, intelligent system and controls for effective ventilation. For heat dissipation cooling, the applicability of both evaporative and radiative cooling is limited in hot and dry climatic conditions. This cooling technique needs more research on hybrid cooling with air conditioning, innovative heat exchanging media for effective cooling. In the case of radiative cooling, more emphasis is needed in areas such as working life, economic consideration, and innovative hybrid cooling methods. 6. Conclusion and future work The present review provides a detailed description, classification and thorough literature related to passive cooling techniques for building application. Major conclusions drawn from the present review are as follows: 1. Solar and heat control technique • This technique is helpful when it is possible to avoid direct heat gain by the building. It has been favorably used in a climatic region when there are no space constraints for building and elemental changes can be accommodated into the building structure. • This technique is more dependent on aesthetics and building structural requirements. Thus, literature related to solar and heat control technique needs more attention in terms of aesthetic, structural and economical aspects. For example, in the case of vegetative roofs, the additional mass of soil and water retention causes a structural imbalance of the roof membrane. This structural imbalance leads to adverse effects such as water pounding, leaks or debris. Thus, there is a need to study the design and installation of vegetative roofs for passive cooling of the building considering structural peripherals like walls, vents, etc. for maintaining the structural integrity of roof membrane. • In terms of economics, it is necessary to study the performance of vegetative roofs against the capital investment of the irrigation system during the plant establishment period, especially for dry climatic conditions. Evaluating capital expenditure in the installation of an economical irrigation sys-

485

tem such as drip irrigation against the passive cooling benefits of vegetative roofs is a potential area of research for future studies. 2. Heat modulation technique • The findings related to heat modulation technique revealed that it is helpful if the heat gain of the building is to be neutralized by enhancing the properties of the building material. • This technique finds importance in areas where the intensity of solar heat gain is unavoidable. • The key points required to be emphasized in future research for this technique are methods of preparing a combination of PCM with building materials, the stability of PCM inside the building structure and sustainable methods to avoid the leakage of liquid PCM into the building structure. 3. Heat dissipation technique • Studies related to heat dissipation technique find its applications in areas where there is a possibility to reduce the induced heat gain with the help of suitable exchanging media. This method is preferred when it is not possible to enhance building material properties or when there is restricted space available for building the structure. • Both evaporative and radiative cooling techniques find their importance in the technical as well as commercial applications and needs to be evaluated innovatively in future studies. For example, while designing heat exchanger for the indirect evaporative cooling system, innovative shapes of heat exchanging plates can be useful in improving the effectiveness of the cooling system. • However material properties such as durability, hardness and water permeability need to be evaluated prior to innovative designs. Water permeability of material or water leakage becomes a crucial factor when integrating indirect evaporative cooling with air handling units and hence needs to be considered for future research. • Other potential areas related to this technique would be ◦ Compatibility of heat exchanging media with the building structure. ◦ Economic feasibility and working life of this technique. The present review is intended to serve as a guide for the building designer, architect and researchers working on energy efficient green buildings. Declaration of Competing Interest None. References [1] Agencia Internacional de la Energía. World Energy Outlook 2017. Int ENERGY AGENCY Together Secur Sustain 2017; Executive: 13. doi:10.1016/ 0301- 4215(73)90024- 4. [2] Energy US. 237218984-Morfologia-Vegetal-Goncalves-E-G-Lorenzi-2007-pdf .pdf 2017. www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/pdf/0484(2016).pdf. [3] IEA Online Data Services. Available at, http://data.iea.org/ieastore/statslisting. asp. [4] https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/oct/26/cold-economycop21- global- warming- carbon- emissions. [5] Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association (JRAIA), World Air Conditioner Demand by Region, 2017. [6] M. Santamouris, D. Kolokotsa, Passive cooling dissipation techniques for buildings and other structures: the state of the art, Energy Build. 57 (2013) 74–94, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.11.002. [7] N.B. Geetha, R. Velraj, Passive cooling methods for energy efficient buildings with and without thermal energy storage – a review 2012;29:913–46. [8] A. Prieto, U. Knaack, T. Klein, T. Auer, 25 Years of cooling research in office buildings: review for the integration of cooling strategies into the building façade (1990 – 2014), Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 71 (2017) 89–102, doi:10. 1016/j.rser.2017.01.012.

486

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

[9] K. Panchabikesan, K. Vellaisamy, V. Ramalingam, Passive cooling potential in buildings under various climatic conditions in India, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 78 (2017) 1236–1252, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.030. [10] M. Alizadeh, S.M. Sadrameli, Development of free cooling based ventilation technology for buildings: thermal energy storage (TES) unit, performance enhancement techniques and design considerations – a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 58 (2016) 619–645, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.168. [11] F. Souayfane, F. Fardoun, P.H. Biwole, Phase change materials (PCM) for cooling applications in buildings: a review, Energy Build. 129 (2016) 396–431, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.04.006. [12] H. Akeiber, P. Nejat, M.Z.A. Majid, M.A. Wahid, F. Jomehzadeh, I. Zeynali Famileh, et al., A review on phase change material (PCM) for sustainable passive cooling in building envelopes, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60 (2016) 1470–1497, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.03.036. [13] X. Lu, P. Xu, H. Wang, T. Yang, J. Hou, Cooling potential and applications prospects of passive radiative cooling in buildings: the current state-of-theart, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 65 (2016) 1079–1097, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016. 07.058. [14] H.Y. Chan, S.B. Riffat, J. Zhu, Review of passive solar heating and cooling technologies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (2010) 781–789, doi:10.1016/j.rser. 2009.10.030. [15] Z. Duan, C. Zhan, X. Zhang, M. Mustafa, X. Zhao, B. Alimohammadisagvand, et al., Indirect evaporative cooling: past, present and future potentials, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (2012) 6823–6850, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.07.007. [16] I. Oropeza-perez, P.A. Østergaard, Active and passive cooling methods for dwellings: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018) 531–544, doi:10. 1016/j.rser.2017.09.059. [17] F. Jomehzadeh, P. Nejat, J.K. Calautit, M.B.M. Yusof, S.A. Zaki, B.R. Hughes, et al., A review on windcatcher for passive cooling and natural ventilation in buildings, Part 1: indoor air quality and thermal comfort assessment, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 70 (2017) 736–756, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.254. [18] H. Goudarzi, A. Mostafaeipour, Energy saving evaluation of passive systems for residential buildings in hot and dry regions, Renew Sustain Energy Rev 68 (2017) 432–446, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.002. [19] B.R. Hughes, H.N. Chaudhry, S.A. Ghani, A review of sustainable cooling technologies in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 3112–3120, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.03.032. [20] M. Konstantoglou, A. Tsangrassoulis, Dynamic operation of daylighting and shading systems: a literature review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60 (2016) 268–283, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.246. [21] A. Tejero-González, M. Andrés-Chicote, P. García-Ibáñez, E. Velasco-Gómez, F.J. Rey-Martínez, Assessing the applicability of passive cooling and heating techniques through climate factors: an overview, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 65 (2016) 727–742, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.077. [22] B. Raji, M.J. Tenpierik, van den A. Dobbelsteen, The impact of greening systems on building energy performance: a literature review n.d.:1–25. [23] J. Gandemer, Integration of the wind phenomenon in the design of the built environment. Ministry of the quality of life 1976. [24] A.K. Meier, Strategic landscaping and air-conditioning savings: a literature review, Energy Build. 15 (1990) 479–486, doi:10.1016/ 0378- 7788(90)90024- D. [25] C.M. Hsieh, J.J. Li, L. Zhang, B. Schwegler, Effects of tree shading and transpiration on building cooling energy use, Energy Build. 159 (2018) 382–397, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.10.045. [26] T. Lee, T. Asawa, H. Kawai, T. Nemoto, R. Sato, Y. Hirayama, et al., Passive cooling techniques in an outdoor space and its effects on the indoor climate, in: PLEA 2014 - 30th Int PLEA Conf, 2014, pp. 1–7. [27] R. Berry, S.J. Livesley, L. Aye, Tree canopy shade impacts on solar irradiance received by building walls and their surface temperature, Build. Environ. 69 (2013) 91–100, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.07.009. [28] M. Fairuz, P.J. Jones, J. Gwilliam, E. Salleh, An evaluation of outdoor and building environment cooling achieved through combination modification of trees with ground materials 2012;58. [29] R. Pandit, D.N. Laband, Energy savings from tree shade, Ecol. Econ. 69 (2010) 1324–1329, doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.01.009. [30] J.R. Simpson, Improved estimates of tree-shade effects on residential energy use 2002;34. [31] H. Akbari, M. Pomerantz, H. Taha, Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas 2001;70:295–310. [32] D. Holm, Thermal improvement by means of leaf cover on external walls - a simulation model 1989;14:19–30. [33] N.M. Nahar, P. Sharma, M.M. Puurohit, Studies on solar passive cooling techniques for arid areas., Energy Convers. Manag. 40 (1999) 89–95, doi:10.1016/ j.renene.20 04.10.0 08. [34] G.N. Tiwari, A. Kumar, M.S. Sodha, A review-Cooling by water evaporation over roof, Energy Convers. Manag. 22 (1982) 143–153, doi:10.1016/ 0196- 8904(82)90036- X. [35] J. Cook, Passive Cooling, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 1985. [36] A. Sharifi, Y. Yamagata, Roof ponds as passive heating and cooling systems: a systematic review, Appl. Energy 160 (2015) 336–357, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy. 2015.09.061. [37] A. Spanaki, T. Tsoutsos, D. Kolokotsa, On the selection and design of the proper roof pond variant for passive cooling purposes, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 3523–3533, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.05.007. [38] L.C.J. Esparza, C. Escobar del Pozo, A.A. Gómez, A.G. Gómez, C.E. Gonzalez, Potential of a wet fabric device as a roof evaporative cooling solution:

[39] [40] [41]

[42]

[43] [44] [45]

[46]

[47]

[48] [49] [50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54] [55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59] [60] [61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

mathematical and experimental analysis, J. Build. Eng. 19 (2018) 366–375, doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.05.021. J. Vorster, R. Dobson, Sustainable cooling alternatives for buildings, J. Energy S. Afr. 22 (2011) 48–66. S.N. Kharrufa, Y. Adil, Roof pond cooling of the buildings in hot arid climates, Build. Environ. 43 (2008) 82–89, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.11.034. T. Runsheng, Y. Etzion, E. Erell, Experimental studies on a novel roof pond configuration for the cooling of the buildings, Renew. Energy 28 (2003) 1513– 1522, doi:10.1016/S0960-1481(03)0 0 0 02-8. S. Raeissi, M. Taheri, Cooling load reduction of the buildings using passive roof options, Renew. Energy 7 (1996) 301–313, doi:10.1016/0960-1481(95) 00123-9. M.S. Sodha, A. Kumar, U. Singh, G.N. Tiwari, Periodic theory of an open roof pond, Appl. Energy 7 (1980) 305–319, doi:10.1016/0306-2619(80)90 0 05-7. M. Santamouris, D. Asimakopoulos, Passive cooling of the buildings, Science (1996). J.W. Lee, H.J. Jung, J.Y. Park, J.B. Lee, Y. Yoon, Optimization of the building window system in Asian regions by analyzing solar heat gain and daylighting elements, Renew. Energy 50 (2013) 522–531, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2012.07. 029. A. Gustavsen, B.P. Jelle, D. Arasteh, C. Kohler, State-of-the-Art Highly Insulating Window Frames—Research and Market Review, 2007 ProjectReport6,SINTEFBuilding and Infrastructure. W.J. Hee, M.A. Alghoul, B. Bakhtyar, O. Elayeb, M.A. Shameri, M.S. Alrubaih, et al., The role of window glazing on daylighting and energy saving in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 42 (2015) 323–343, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014. 09.020. H. Manz, On minimizing heat transport in architectural glazing, Renew. Energy 33 (2008) 119–128, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2007.01.007. P.C. Eames, Vacuum glazing: current performance and future prospects, Vacuum 82 (2008) 717–722, doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2007.10.017. Y. Fang, P.C. Eames, B. Norton, T.J. Hyde, J. Zhao, J. Wang, et al., Low emittance coatings and the thermal performance of vacuum glazing, Sol. Energy 81 (2007) 8–12, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.06.011. M.G. Kang, N.G. Park, Y.J. Park, K.S. Ryu, S.H. Chang, Manufacturing method for transparent electric windows using dye-sensitized TiO2 solar cells, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 75 (2003) 475–479, doi:10.1016/S0927-0248(02) 00202-7. N.T.R.N. Kumara, A. Lim, C.M. Lim, M.I. Petra, P. Ekanayake, Recent progress and utilization of natural pigments in dye sensitized solar cells: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 78 (2017) 301–317, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.075. R. Baetens, B.P. Jelle, A. Gustavsen, Aerogel insulation for building applications: a state-of-the-art review, Energy Build. 43 (2011) 761–769, doi:10.1016/ j.enbuild.2010.12.012. J.M. Schultz, K.I. Jensen, Evacuated aerogel glazings, Vacuum 82 (2008) 723– 729, doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2007.10.019. K. Chiba, T. Takahashi, T. Kageyama, H. Oda, Low-emissivity coating of amorphous diamond-like carbon/Ag-alloy multilayer on glass, Appl. Surf. Sci. 246 (2005) 48–51, doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2004.10.046. M. Reidinger, M. Rydzek, C. Scherdel, M. Arduini-Schuster, J. Manara, Lowemitting transparent coatings based on tin doped indiumoxide applied via a sol-gel routine, Thin Solid Films 517 (2009) 3096–3099, doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2008. 11.078. E. Cuce, Toward multi-functional PV glazing technologies in low/zero carbon buildings: heat insulation solar glass - latest developments and future prospects, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60 (2016) 1286–1301, doi:10.1016/j. rser.2016.03.009. P.K. Ng, N. Mithraratne, Lifetime performance of semi-transparent buildingintegrated photovoltaic (BIPV) glazing systems in the tropics, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 31 (2014) 736–745, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.044. A. Weber, K. Resch, Thermotropic glazings for overheating protection, Energy Procedia 30 (2012) 471–477, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.11.056. P. Nitz, H. Hartwig, Solar control with thermotropic layers, Sol. Energy 79 (2005) 573–582, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2004.12.009. E. Cuce, S.B. Riffat, A state-of-the-art review on innovative glazing technologies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41 (2015) 695–714, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014. 08.084. S.D. Rezaei, S. Shannigrahi, S. Ramakrishna, A review of conventional, advanced, and smart glazing technologies and materials for improving indoor environment, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 159 (2017) 26–51, doi:10.1016/j. solmat.2016.08.026. M.M. Tahmasebi, S. Banihashemi, M.S. Hassanabadi, Assessment of the variation impacts of window on energy consumption and carbon footprint, Procedia Eng. 21 (2011) 820–828, doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.2083. S. Sadrzadehrafiei, K. Sopian, S. Mat, C.H. Lim, H.S. Hashim, A. Zaharim, Potential Energy and Emission Reduction through Application of Triple Glazing, 2012, pp. 138–142. S. Sadrzadehrafiei, K. Sopian, S. Mat, C. Lim, Application of advanced glazing to mid-rise office buildings in Malaysia, in: Proc 9th WSEAS Int Conf Environ Ecosyst Dev, 2011, pp. 197–201. N.L. Sbar, L. Podbelski, H.M. Yang, B. Pease, Electrochromic dynamic windows for office buildings, Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 1 (2012) 125–139, doi:10. 1016/j.ijsbe.2012.09.001. J. Yao, N. Zhu, Evaluation of indoor thermal environmental, energy and daylighting performance of thermotropic windows, Build. Environ. 49 (2012) 283–290, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.06.004.

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 [68] T.T. Chow, K.F. Fong, W. He, Z. Lin, A.L.S. Chan, Performance evaluation of a PV ventilated window applying to office building of Hong Kong, Energy Build. 39 (2007) 643–650, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.09.014. [69] W. Guo, Z. Qiu, P. Li, J. He, Y. Zhang, Q. Li, Application of PV window foroffice building in hot summer and cold winter zone of China, Adv. Mater. Res. 347 (2012) 81–88. [70] P. Li, W. Guo, Z. Qiu, Energy performance of PV windows used in differentcities of China, in: ASME 2011 power conference collocated with JSME ICOPE2011, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2011, pp. 575– 579. [71] C. Buratti, E. Moretti, Experimental performance evaluation of aerogel glazing systems, Appl. Energy 97 (2012) 430–437, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.12.055. [72] R.M. Aˇınbinder, Klinicheskoe techenie pnevmokonizoa u invalidov-shakhterov kuzbassa (po materialam BTEK), Meditsina Tr I Promyshlennaya Ekol 9 (1965) 43–47, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.07.034. [73] U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Passive Solar Home Design, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). http://energy.gov/energysaver/passive- solar- homedesign. [74] P. Littlefair, Daylight, sunlight and solar gain in the urban environment, Sol. Energy 70 (2001) 177–185, doi:10.1016/S0 038-092X(0 0)0 0 099-2. [75] A. Kirimtat, B.K. Koyunbaba, I. Chatzikonstantinou, S. Sariyildiz, Review of simulation modeling for shading devices in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 53 (2016) 23–49, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.08.020. [76] G. Kim, H.S. Lim, T.S. Lim, L. Schaefer, J.T. Kim, Comparative advantage of an exterior shading device in thermal performance for residential buildings, Energy Build. 46 (2012) 105–111, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.10.040. [77] N. Gupta, G.N. Tiwari, Review of passive heating/cooling systems of the buildings, Energy Sci. Eng. 4 (2016) 305–333, doi:10.1002/ese3.129. [78] S.M. Al-Masrani, K.M. Al-Obaidi, N.A. Zalin, M.I. Aida Isma, Design optimisation of solar shading systems for tropical office buildings: challenges and future trends, Sol. Energy 170 (2018) 849–872, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2018.04. 047. [79] L.G. Valladares-Rendón, G. Schmid, S.L. Lo, Review on energy savings by solar control techniques and optimal building orientation for the strategic placement of façade shading systems, Energy Build. 140 (2017) 458–479, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.12.073. [80] S.T. Claros, A. Soler, Indoor daylight climate-comparison between light shelves and overhang performances in Madrid for hours with unit sunshine fraction and realistic values of model reflectance, Sol. Energy 71 (2001) 233– 239, doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(01)00046-9. [81] A. Meresi, Evaluating daylight performance of light shelves combined with external blinds in south-facing classrooms in Athens, Greece, Energy Build. 116 (2016) 190–205, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.009. [82] U. Berardi, H.K. Anaraki, Analysis of the impacts of light shelves on the useful daylight illuminance in office buildings in Toronto, Energy Procedia 78 (2015) 1793–1798, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.310. [83] R.A. Mangkuto, F. Feradi, R.E. Putra, R.T. Atmodipoero, F. Favero, Optimisation of daylight admission based on modifications of light shelf design parameters, J. Build. Eng. 18 (2018) 195–209, doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.03.007. [84] M. David, M. Donn, F. Garde, A. Lenoir, Assessment of the thermal and visual efficiency of solar shades, Build. Environ. 46 (2011) 1489–1496, doi:10.1016/j. buildenv.2011.01.022. [85] F. Stazi, S. Marinelli, C. Di Perna, P. Munafò, Comparison on solar shadings: monitoring of the thermo-physical behaviour, assessment of the energy saving, thermal comfort, natural lighting and environmental impact, Sol. Energy 105 (2014) 512–528, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2014.04.005. [86] J. Xiong, A. Tzempelikos, Model-based shading and lighting controls considering visual comfort and energy use, Sol. Energy 134 (2016) 416–428, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2016.04.026. [87] G. Yun, K.C. Yoon, K.S. Kim, The influence of shading control strategies on the visual comfort and energy demand of office buildings, Energy Build. 84 (2014) 70–85, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.07.040. [88] F. Sicurella, G. Evola, E. Wurtz, A statistical approach for the evaluation of thermal and visual comfort in free-running buildings, Energy Build. 47 (2012) 402–410, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.12.013. [89] S. Cho, K.-S. Shin, M. Zaheer-Uddin, the Effect of Slat Angle of Windows With Venetian, Energy 20 (1995) 1225–1236. [90] N.H. Wong, S. Li, A study of the effectiveness of passive climate control in naturally ventilated residential buildings in Singapore, Build. Environ. 42 (2007) 1395–1405, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.11.032. [91] J. Yu, C. Yang, L. Tian, Low-energy envelope design of residential building in hot summer and cold winter zone in China, Energy Build. 40 (2008) 1536– 1546, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.02.020. [92] N.H. Wong, A.D. Istiadji, Effects of external shading devices on daylighting and natural ventilation, in: Eighth Int IBPSA Conf Eindhoven, 2003, Netherlands, 2003, pp. 475–482. August 11-14. [93] K.H. Yang, R.L. Hwang, Energy conservation of the buildings in Taiwan, Pattern Recognit. 28 (1995) 1483–1491, doi:10.1016/0 031-3203(94)0 0153-D. [94] O. Awadh, P.B. Abuhijleh, The Impact of external shading and windows’ glazing and frame on thermal performance of residential house in Abu-Dhabi 2013:3–10. [95] A.A.E.M.M. Ali Ahmed, Using simulation for studying the influence of vertical shading devices on the thermal performance of residential buildings (Case study: New Assiut City), Ain Shams Eng. J. 3 (2012) 163–174, doi:10.1016/j. asej.2012.02.001.

487

[96] E. Shen, J. Hu, M. Patel, Energy and visual comfort analysis of lighting and daylight control strategies, Build. Environ. 78 (2014) 155–170, doi:10.1016/j. buildenv.2014.04.028. [97] A. Tzempelikos, A.K. Athienitis, The impact of shading design and control on building cooling and lighting demand, Sol. Energy 81 (2007) 369–382, doi:10. 1016/j.solener.2006.06.015. [98] Yogi. Goswami, Advances in Solar Energy: Volume 16- An Annual Review of Research and Development in Renewable Energy Technologies, 1996, pp. 306–309. [99] R. Krishnan, Introduction to. Control 2014:2014. doi:10.1016/ B978- 0- 240- 81203- 8.0 0 0 02-7. [100] L. Navarro, A. de Gracia, D. Niall, A. Castell, M. Browne, S.J. McCormack, et al., Thermal energy storage in building integrated thermal systems: a review. Part 2. Integration as passive system, Renew. Energy 85 (2016) 1334–1356, doi:10. 1016/j.renene.2015.06.064. [101] J. Kosny, T. Petrie, D. Gawin, P. Childs, A. Desjarlais, J. Christian, Thermal mass - energy savings potential in residential buildings, ORNL (2001) 25. [102] S. Verbeke, A. Audenaert, Thermal inertia in buildings: a review of impacts across climate and building use, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018) 2300– 2318, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.083. [103] M.K. Rathod, J. Banerjee, Thermal stability of phase change materials used in latent heat energy storage systems: a review, Renew Sustain Energy Rev 18 (2013) 246–258, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.022. [104] D.W. Hawes, Latent heat storage in building materials, Energy Build. 20 (1993) 77–86 20 77-86, doi:10.1016/0378- 7788(93)90040- 2. [105] S.A. Memon, Phase change materials integrated in building walls: a state of the art review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 31 (2014) 870–906, doi:10.1016/j. rser.2013.12.042. [106] A.S. Hariri, I.C. Ward, A review of thermal storage systems used in building applications, Build. Environ. 23 (1988) 1–10, doi:10.1016/0360-1323(88) 90011-X. [107] M. Saffari, A. de Gracia, S. Ushak, L.F. Cabeza, Passive cooling of the buildings with phase change materials using whole-building energy simulation tools: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80 (2017) 1239–1255, doi:10.1016/j.rser. 2017.05.139. [108] S.E. Kalnæs, B.P. Jelle, Phase change materials and products for building applications: a state-of-the-art review and future research opportunities, Energy Build. 94 (2015) 150–176, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.02.023. [109] D. Zhou, C.Y. Zhao, Y. Tian, Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials (PCMs) in building applications, Appl. Energy 92 (2012) 593–605, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.08.025. [110] L.F. Cabeza, A. Castell, C. Barreneche, A. De Gracia, A.I. Fernández, Materials used as PCM in thermal energy storage in buildings: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 1675–1695, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.018. [111] R. Baetens, B.P. Jelle, A. Gustavsen, Phase change materials for building applications: a state-of-the-art review, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 1361–1368, doi:10. 1016/j.enbuild.2010.03.026. [112] N. Zhu, Z. Ma, S. Wang, Dynamic characteristics and energy performance of the buildings using phase change materials: a review, Energy Convers. Manag. 50 (2009) 3169–3181, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2009.08.019. [113] A. Sharma, V. Tyagi V, C.R. Chen, D. Buddhi, Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials and applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13 (2009) 318–345, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2007.10.005. [114] A. Pasupathy, R. Velraj, V. Seeniraj R, Phase change material-based building architecture for thermal management in residential and commercial establishments, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 12 (2008) 39–64, doi:10.1016/j.rser. 2006.05.010. [115] Y. Zhang, G. Zhou, K. Lin, Q. Zhang, H. Di, Application of latent heat thermal energy storage in buildings: State-of-the-art and outlook, II, Build. Environ. 42;6 (2007) 2197–2209. [116] V.V. Tyagi, D. Buddhi, PCM thermal storage in buildings: a state of art, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11 (2007) 1146–1166, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2005.10.002. [117] B. Zalba, J. Marın´ , L. Cabeza, H. Mehling, Review on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications, Appl. Therm. Eng. 23 (2003) 251–283. [118] J. Xie, W. Wang, J. Liu, S. Pan, Thermal performance analysis of PCM wallboards for building application based on numerical simulation, Sol. Energy 162 (2018) 533–540, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2018.01.069. [119] S.P. Singh, V. Bhat, Performance evaluation of dual phase change material gypsum board for the reduction of temperature swings in a building prototype in composite climate, Energy Build. 159 (2018) 191–200, doi:10.1016/j. enbuild.2017.10.097. [120] S. Scalat, D. Banu, D. Hawes, J. Paris, F. Haghighata, D. Feldman, Full scale thermal testing of latent heat storage in wallboard, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 44 (1996) 49–61, doi:10.1016/0927-0248(96)0 0 017-7. [121] D.A. Neeper, Thermal dynamics of wallboard with latent heat storage, Sol. Energy 68 (20 0 0) 393–403, doi:10.1016/S0 038-092X(0 0)0 0 012-8. [122] F. Kuznik, J. Virgone, J.J. Roux, Energetic efficiency of room wall containing PCM wallboard: a full-scale experimental investigation, Energy Build. 40 (2008) 148–156, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.01.022. [123] F. Kuznik, J. Virgone, Experimental investigation of wallboard containing phase change material: data for validation of numerical modeling, Energy Build. 41 (2009) 561–570, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.11.022. [124] F. Kuznik, J. Virgone, K. Johannes, In-situ study of thermal comfort enhancement in a renovated building equipped with phase change material wallboard, Renew. Energy 36 (2011) 1458–1462, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2010.11.008.

488

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

[125] M. Ahmad, A. Bontemps, H. Sallée, D. Quenard, Thermal testing and numerical simulation of a prototype cell using light wallboards coupling vacuum isolation panels and phase change material, Energy Build. 38 (2006) 673–681, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.20 05.11.0 02. [126] G. Evola, L. Marletta, F. Sicurella, Simulation of a ventilated cavity to enhance the effectiveness of PCM wallboards for summer thermal comfort in buildings, Energy Build. 70 (2014) 480–489, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.11.089. [127] B.M. Diaconu, Thermal energy savings in buildings with PCM-enhanced envelope: influence of occupancy pattern and ventilation, Energy Build. 43 (2011) 101–107, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.08.019. [128] F. Ascione, N. Bianco, R.F. De Masi, F. de’ Rossi, G.P. Vanoli, Energy refurbishment of existing buildings through the use of phase change materials: energy savings and indoor comfort in the cooling season, Appl. Energy 113 (2014) 990–1007, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.08.045. [129] L. Shilei, G. Feng, N. Zhu, L. Dongyan, Experimental study and evaluation of latent heat storagein phase change materials wallboards, Energy Build. 39 (2007) 1088–1091, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.10.006. [130] T. Kondo, T. Iwamoto, Research on Using the PCM for Ceiling Board, IEA ECESIA, Tokyo, Japan, 2002 Annex 17, 3rd workshop. [131] M. Koschenz, B. Lehmann, Development of a thermally activated ceiling panel with PCM for application in lightweight and retrofitted buildings, Energy Build. 36 (2004) 567–578, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.01.029. [132] X. Wang, J. Niu, Performance of cooled-ceiling operating with MPCM slurry, Energy Convers. Manag. 50 (2009) 583–591, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.10. 021. [133] Bureau of Energy Efficiency. Energy Conservation Building Code for residential buildings (Part I: building envelope design). Ecbc 2017:35. [134] A. Pasupathy, R. Velraj, Effect of double layer phase change material in building roof for year round thermal management 2008;40:193–203. doi:10.1016/ j.enbuild.2007.02.016. [135] J. Kosny, K. Biswas, W. Miller, S. Kriner, Field thermal performance of naturally ventilated solar roof with PCM heat sink, Sol. Energy 86 (2012) 2504–2514. [136] E.M. Alawadhi, H.J. Alqallaf, Building roof with conical holes containing PCM to reduce the cooling load: numerical study, Energy Convers. Manag. 52 (2011) 2958–2964, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2011.04.004. [137] K.K. Roman, T. O’Brien, J.B. Alvey, O.J. Woo, Simulating the effects of cool roof and PCM (phase change materials) based roof to mitigate UHI (urban heat island) in prominent US cities, Energy 96 (2016) 103–117, doi:10.1016/j.energy. 2015.11.082. [138] A. Laura, V. Lucia, F. Cotana, Dynamic thermal-energy performance analysis of a prototype building with integrated phase change materials 2015;81:82– 8. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.062. [139] A.L. Pisello, E. Fortunati, C. Fabiani, S. Mattioli, F. Dominici, L. Torre, et al., PCM for improving polyurethane-based cool roof membranes durability, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 160 (2017) 34–42, doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.09.036. [140] A. Jayalath, L. Aye, P. Mendis, T. Ngo, Effects of phase change material roof layers on thermal performance of a residential building in Melbourne and Sydney, Energy Build. 121 (2016) 152–158, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.04.007. [141] H. Weinläder, A. Beck, J. Fricke, PCM-facade-panel for daylighting and room heating, Sol. Energy 78 (2005) 177–186, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2004.04.013. [142] S. Li, K. Zou, G. Sun, X. Zhang, Simulation research on the dynamic thermal performance of a novel triple- glazed window filled with PCM, Sustain. Cities Soc. 40 (2018) 266–273, doi:10.1016/j.scs.2018.01.020. [143] Y. Hu, P.K. Heiselberg, Energy & buildings a new ventilated window with PCM heat exchanger — performance analysis and design optimization, Energy Build. 169 (2018) 185–194, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.03.060. [144] K.A.R. Ismail, C.T. Salinas, J.R. Henriquez, Comparison between PCM filled glass windows and absorbing gas filled windows, Energy Build. 40 (2008) 710–719, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.20 07.05.0 05. [145] F. Goia, M. Perino, V. Serra, Improving thermal comfort conditions by means of PCM glazing systems, Energy Build. 60 (2013) 442–452, doi:10.1016/j. enbuild.2013.01.029. [146] M. Kolokotroni, B.C. Webb, S.D. Hayes, Summer cooling with night ventilation for office buildings in moderate climates, Energy Build. 27 (1998) 231–237, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(97)0 0 048-0. [147] B. Givoni, Effectiveness of mass and night ventilation in lowering the indoor daytime temperatures. Part I: 1993 experimental periods, Energy Build. 28 (1998) 25–32. [148] R. Zeinelabdein, S. Omer, G. Gan, Critical review of latent heat storage systems for free cooling in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018) 2843–2868, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.046. [149] G. Carrilho da Graça, Q. Chen, L.R. Glicksman, L.K. Norford, Simulation of wind-driven ventilative cooling systems for an apartment building in Beijing and Shanghai, Energy Build. 34 (2002) 1–11, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(01) 0 0 083-4. [150] D. Fang, Z. Sun, Y. Li, X. Cheng, Preparation, microstructure and thermal properties of Mg-Bi alloys as phase change materials for thermal energy storage, Appl. Therm. Eng. 92 (2016) 187–193, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.09. 090. [151] V.A.A. Raj, R. Velraj, Review on free cooling of the buildings using phase change materials, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (2010) 2819–2829, doi:10. 1016/j.rser.2010.07.004. [152] A. Waqas, Z. Ud Din, Phase change material (PCM) storage for free cooling of the buildings - a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 18 (2013) 607–625, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.034.

[153] S. Kamali, Review of free cooling system using phase change material for building, Energy Build. 80 (2014) 131–136, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.05.021. [154] M. Thambidurai, K. Panchabikesan, N. Krishna Mohan, V. Ramalingam, Review on phase change material based free cooling of the buildings-the way toward sustainability, J. Energy Storage 4 (2015) 74–88, doi:10.1016/j.est.2015.09.003. [155] J.R. Turnpenny, D.W. Etheridge, D.A. Reay, Novel ventilation cooling system for reducing air conditioning in buildings.: part I: testing and theoretical modelling, Appl. Therm. Eng. 20 (20 0 0) 1019–1037, doi:10.1016/ s1359-4311(99)0 0 068-x. [156] C. Arkar, B. Vidrih, S. Medved, Efficiency of free cooling using latent heat storage integrated into the ventilation system of a low energy building, Int. J. Refrig. 30 (2007) 134–143, doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2006.03.009. [157] A. Waqas, S. Kumar, Thermal performance of latent heat storage for free cooling of the buildings in a dry and hot climate: an experimental study, Energy Build. 43 (2011) 2621–2630, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.06.015. [158] A.A.R. Darzi, S.M. Moosania, F.L. Tan, M. Farhadi, Numerical investigation of free-cooling system using plate type PCM storage, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 48 (2013) 155–163, doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.025. [159] A.H. Mosaffa, C.A. Infante Ferreira, M.A. Rosen, F. Talati, Thermal performance optimization of free cooling systems using enhanced latent heat thermal storage unit, Appl. Therm. Eng. 59 (2013) 473–479, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng. 2013.06.011. [160] R. Daghigh, Assessing the thermal comfort and ventilation in Malaysia and the surrounding regions, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 48 (2015) 682–691, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.017. [161] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, New York, USA, 2009. [162] M.P. Straw, C.J. Baker, A.P. Robertson, Experimental measurements and computations of the wind-induced ventilation of a cubic structure, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 88 (20 0 0) 213–230, doi:10.1016/S0167-6105(0 0)0 0 050-7. [163] C.M. Mak, J.L. Niu, C.T. Lee, K.F. Chan, A numerical simulation of wing walls using computational fluid dynamics, Energy Build. 39 (2007) 995–1002, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.10.012. [164] J.I. Montero, G.R. Hunt, R. Kamaruddin, A. Antón, B.J. Bailey, Effect of ventilator configuration on wind-driven ventilation in a crop protection structure for the tropics, J. Agric. Eng. Res. 80 (2001) 99–107, doi:10.10 06/jaer.20 0 0.0694. [165] A. Pfeiffer, V. Dorer, A. Weber, Modelling of cowl performance in building simulation tools using experimental data and computational fluid dynamics, Build. Environ. 43 (2008) 1361–1372, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.038. [166] Mhshermanlblgov MHS, Building Airtightness: Research and Practice, 2016. [167] N. Khan, Y. Su, S.B. Riffat, A review on wind driven ventilation techniques, Energy Build. 40 (2008) 1586–1604, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.02.015. [168] J.K. Calautit, B.R. Hughes, A passive cooling wind catcher with heat pipe technology: CFD, wind tunnel and field-test analysis, Appl. Energy 162 (2016) 460–471, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.045. [169] J.K. Calautit, B.R. Hughes, Integration and application of passive cooling within a wind tower for hot climates, HVAC R Res. 20 (2014) 722–730, doi:10.1080/10789669.2014.936795. [170] F.W.H. Yik, Y.F. Lun, Energy saving by utilizing natural ventilation in public housing in Hong Kong, Indoor Built Environ. 19 (2010) 73–87, doi:10.1177/ 1420326X09358021. [171] R. Shanthi Priya, M.C. Sundarraja, S. Radhakrishnan, Experimental study on the thermal performance of a traditional house with one-sided wind catcher during summer and winter, Energy Effic. 5 (2012) 483–496, doi:10.1007/ s12053-012-9155-9. [172] M.H. Ghadiri, N.L.N. Ibrahim, M. Dehnavi, The effect of tower height in square plan wind catcher on its thermal behavior, Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 5 (2011) 381–385. [173] Z. Ji, Y. Su, N. Khan, Performance evaluation and energy saving potential of windcatcher natural ventilation systems in China 2012;1:84–95. doi:10.7492/ IJAEC.2012.010. [174] M. Evans, Housing, Climate, and Comfort, Architectural Press, London, 1980. [175] M. Ismail, A.M. Abdul Rahman, Comparison of different hybrid turbine ventilator (HTV) application strategies to improve the indoor thermal comfort, Int. J. Environ. Res. 4 (2010) 297–308. [176] C.F. Gao, W.L. Lee, Evaluating the influence of openings configuration on natural ventilation performance of residential units in Hong Kong, Build. Environ. 46 (2011) 961–969, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.10.029. [177] H. Shetabivash, Investigation of opening position and shape on the natural cross ventilation, Energy Build. 93 (2015) 1–15, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.12. 053. [178] G. Evola, V. Popov, Computational analysis of wind driven natural ventilation in buildings, Energy Build. 38 (2006) 491–501, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.08. 008. [179] A. Aflaki, N. Mahyuddin, Z. Al-Cheikh Mahmoud, M.R. Baharum, A review on natural ventilation applications through building façade components and ventilation openings in tropical climates, Energy Build. 101 (2015) 153–162, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.04.033. [180] M.S. Hatamipour, A. Abedi, Passive cooling systems in buildings: some useful experiences from ancient architecture for natural cooling in a hot and humid region, Energy Convers. Manag. 49 (2008) 2317–2323, doi:10.1016/j. enconman.2008.01.018. [181] R. Priyadarsini, K.W. Cheong, N.H. Wong, Enhancement of natural ventilation in high-rise residential buildings using stack system, Energy Build. 36 (2004) 61–71, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(03)0 0 076-8.

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 [182] P. Prajongsan, S. Sharples, Enhancing natural ventilation, thermal comfort and energy savings in high-rise residential buildings in Bangkok through the use of ventilation shafts, Build. Environ. 50 (2012) 104–113, doi:10.1016/j. buildenv.2011.10.020. [183] E. Gratia, A. De Herde, Guidelines for improving natural daytime ventilation in an office building with a double-skin facade, Sol. Energy 81 (2007) 435– 448, doi:10.1016/j.solener.20 06.08.0 06. [184] O. Saadatian, K. Sopian, C.H. Lim, N. Asim, M.Y. Sulaiman, Trombe walls: a review of opportunities and challenges in research and development, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (2012) 6340–6351, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.06.032. [185] B. Zamora, A.S. Kaiser, Thermal and dynamic optimization of the convective flow in trombe wall shaped channels by numerical investigation, Heat Mass Transf. 45 (2009) 1393–1407 Und Stoffuebertragung, doi:10.1007/ s0 0231- 0 09-0509-6. [186] M. Hordeski, Dictionary of Energy Efficiency Technologies, Fairmont Press, West Virginia, United States, 2004. [187] Z. Hu, W. He, J. Ji, S. Zhang, A review on the application of Trombe wall system in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 70 (2017) 976–987, doi:10.1016/ j.rser.2016.12.003. [188] M. Bodart, A. Evrard, Architecture & sustainable development, 27th International Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Vol. 2, Presses Univ. de Louvain, 2011. [189] J. Ji, H. Yi, W. He, G. Pei, PV-Trombe wall design for buildings in composite climates, J. Sol. Energy Eng. 129 (2007) 431, doi:10.1115/1.2770751. [190] J. Peng, L. Lu, H. Yang, J. Han, Investigation on the annual thermal performance of a photovoltaic wall mounted on a multi-layer façade, Appl. Energy 112 (2013) 646–656, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.12.026. [191] S.G. Abasova, A.I. Leshcheva, E.A. Mushina, V.S. Fel’dblyum, B.A. Krentsel’, Oligomerization of ethylene under the influence of bis-(π -allylnickel bromide) in conjunction with lewis acids, Bull. Acad Sci. USSR Div. Chem. Sci. 21 (1972) 608–609, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.06.002. [192] K. Irshad, K. Habib, N. Thirumalaiswamy, Energy and cost analysis of photo voltaic trombe wall system in tropical climate, Energy Procedia 50 (2014) 71– 78, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.06.009. [193] F. Stazi, A. Mastrucci, C. di Perna, Trombe wall management in summer conditions: an experimental study, Sol. Energy 86 (2012) 2839–2851, doi:10.1016/ j.solener.2012.06.025. [194] J. Ji, C. Luo, W. Sun, H. Yu, W. He, G. Pei, An improved approach for the application of Trombe wall system to building construction with selective thermo-insulation façades, Chin. Sci. Bull. 54 (2009) 1949–1956, doi:10.1007/ s11434- 009- 0353- 6. [195] F. Stazi, A. Mastrucci, C. Di Perna, The behaviour of solar walls in residential buildings with different insulation levels: an experimental and numerical study, Energy Build. 47 (2012) 217–229, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.11.039. [196] Y. Li, S. Liu, Experimental study on thermal performance of a solar chimney combined with PCM, Appl. Energy 114 (2014) 172–178, doi:10.1016/j. apenergy.2013.09.022. [197] O. Saadatian, C.H. Lim, K. Sopian, E. Salleh, A state of the art review of solar walls: concepts and applications, J. Build. Phys. 37 (2013) 55–79, doi:10.1177/ 1744259113479336. [198] H. Yang, J. Burnett, J. Ji, Simple approach to cooling load component calculation through PV walls, Energy Build. 31 (20 0 0) 285–290, doi:10.1016/ S0378-7788(99)0 0 041-9. [199] M. Rabani, V. Kalantar, A.A. Dehghan, A.K. Faghih, Empirical investigation of the cooling performance of a new designed Trombe wall in combination with solar chimney and water spraying system, Energy Build. 102 (2015) 45–57, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.05.010. [200] E. Bacharoudis, M.G. Vrachopoulos, M.K. Koukou, D. Margaris, A.E. Filios, S.A. Mavrommatis, Study of the natural convection phenomena inside a wall solar chimney with one wall adiabatic and one wall under a heat flux, Appl. Therm. Eng. 27 (2007) 2266–2275, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007. 01.021. [201] T. Miyazaki, A. Akisawa, T. Kashiwagi, The effects of solar chimneys on thermal load mitigation of office buildings under the Japanese climate, Renew. Energy 31 (2006) 987–1010, doi:10.1016/j.renene.20 05.05.0 03. [202] L. Shi, G. Zhang, W. Yang, D. Huang, X. Cheng, S. Setunge, Determining the influencing factors on the performance of solar chimney in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 88 (2018) 223–238, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.02.033. [203] N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee, A review of solar chimney integrated systems for space heating and cooling application, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81 (2018) 2714–2730, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.078. [204] J. Khedari, N. Rachapradit, J. Hirunlabh, Field study performance of solar chimney with air-conditioned building, Energy 28 (2003) 1099–1114, doi:10. 1016/S0360-5442(03)0 0 092-6. [205] S. Chungloo, B. Limmeechokchai, Application of passive cooling systems in the hot and humid climate: the case study of solar chimney and wetted roof in Thailand, Build. Environ. 42 (2007) 3341–3351, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006. 08.030. [206] S. Punyasompun, J. Hirunlabh, J. Khedari, B. Zeghmati, Investigation on the application of solar chimney for multi-storey buildings, Renew. Energy 34 (2009) 2545–2561, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2009.03.032. [207] L. Ramírez-Dávila, J. Xamán, J. Arce, G. Álvarez, I. Hernández-Pérez, Numerical study of earth-to-air heat exchanger for three different climates, Energy Build. 76 (2014) 238–248, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.02.073. [208] R. Rabani, A.K. Faghih, M. Rabani, M. Rabani, Numerical simulation of an innovated building cooling system with combination of solar chimney and wa-

[209] [210] [211] [212]

[213]

[214]

[215] [216]

[217]

[218]

[219]

[220]

[221]

[222]

[223]

[224]

[225]

[226]

[227]

[228]

[229]

[230] [231] [232]

[233]

[234]

[235]

[236]

[237] [238]

489

ter spraying system, Heat Mass Transf. 50 (2014) 1609–1625 Und Stoffuebertragung, doi:10.10 07/s0 0231- 014- 1366- 5. E.H. Amer, Passive options for solar cooling of the buildings in arid areas, Energy 31 (2006) 1332–1344, doi:10.1016/j.energy.20 05.06.0 02. J. Watt, Evaporative Air Conditioning Handbook, Springer, US, 1986. K. Al-Jamal, Greenhouse cooling in hot countries, Energy (1994) 1187–1192. B. Costelloe, D. Finn, Indirect evaporative cooling potential in air-water systems in temperate climates, Energy Build. 35 (2003) 573–591, doi:10.1016/ S0378-7788(02)00161-5. P.M. Cuce, S. Riffat, A state of the art review of evaporative cooling systems for building applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 54 (2016) 1240–1249, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.066. B. Riangvilaikul, S. Kumar, An experimental study of a novel dew point evaporative cooling system, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 637–644, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild. 2009.10.034. ASHRAE, ASHARE Handbook–Fundamentals (SI), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1997. K. Daou, R.Z. Wang, Z.Z. Xia, Desiccant cooling air conditioning: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 10 (2006) 55–77, doi:10.1016/j. rser.2004.09.010. Y. Fan, L. Luo, B. Souyri, Review of solar sorption refrigeration technologies: development and applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11 (2007) 1758– 1775, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.01.007. Y.J. Dai, K. Sumathy, Theoretical study on a cross-flow direct evaporative cooler using honeycomb paper as packing material, Appl. Therm. Eng. 22 (2002) 1417–1430, doi:10.1016/S1359-4311(02)0 0 069-8. J.R. Camargo, C.D. Ebinuma, J.L. Silveira, Experimental performance of a direct evaporative cooler operating during summer in a Brazilian city, Int. J. Refrig. 28 (2005) 1124–1132, doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2004.12.011. J.M. Wu, X. Huang, H. Zhang, Theoretical analysis on heat and mass transfer in a direct evaporative cooler, Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 980–984, doi:10. 1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.05.016. J.M. Wu, X. Huang, H. Zhang, Numerical investigation on the heat and mass transfer in a direct evaporative cooler, Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 195–201, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.02.018. E. Ibrahim, L. Shao, S.B. Riffat, Performance of porous ceramic evaporators for building cooling application, Energy Build. 35 (2003) 941–949, doi:10.1016/ S0378-7788(03)0 0 019-7. D. Bishoyi, K. Sudhakar, Experimental performance of a direct evaporative cooler in composite climate of India, Energy Build. 153 (2017) 190–200, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.08.014. ˇ B. Porumb, P. Ungures¸ an, L.F. Tutunaru, A. S¸ erban, M. BAlan, A review of indirect evaporative cooling operating conditions and performances, Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 452–460, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.226. G.P. Maheshwari, F. Al-Ragom, R.K. Suri, Energy-saving potential of an indirect evaporative cooler, Appl. Energy 69 (2001) 69–76, doi:10.1016/ S0306-2619(0 0)0 0 066-0. E. Hajidavalloo, Application of evaporative cooling on the condenser of window-air-conditioner, Appl. Therm. Eng. 27 (2007) 1937–1943, doi:10.1016/ j.applthermaleng.2006.12.014. J.K. Jain, D.A. Hindoliya, Energy saving potential of indirect evaporative cooler under Indian climates, Int. J. Low-Carbon Technol. 11 (2016) 193–198, doi:10. 1093/ijlct/ctt076. G. Heidarinejad, M. Bozorgmehr, S. Delfani, J. Esmaeelian, Experimental investigation of two-stage indirect/direct evaporative cooling system in various climatic conditions, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 2073–2079, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv. 2009.02.017. S. Delfani, J. Esmaeelian, H. Pasdarshahri, M. Karami, Energy saving potential of an indirect evaporative cooler as a pre-cooling unit for mechanical cooling systems in Iran, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 2169–2176, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild. 2010.07.009. C.G. Granqvist, Radiative heating and cooling with spectrally selective surfaces, Appl. Opt. 20 (1981) 2606, doi:10.1364/AO.20.002606. T.S. Eriksson, C.G. Granqvist, Radiative cooling computed for model atmospheres, Appl. Opt. 21 (1982) 4381, doi:10.1364/AO.21.004381. D.A. Bainbridge, K.L. Haggard, Passive Solar Architecture: Heating, Cooling, Ventilation, Daylighting, and More Using Natural Flows, Chelsea Green Pub, Burlington, 2011. M. Mahdavinejad, K. Javanrudi, Assessment of ancient fridges: a sustainable method to storage ice in hot-arid climates, Asian Cult. Hist. 4 (2012) 133–139, doi:10.5539/ach.v4n2p133. S. Vall, A. Castell, Radiative cooling as low-grade energy source: a literature review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 77 (2017) 803–820, doi:10.1016/j. rser.2017.04.010. M. Zeyghami, D.Y. Goswami, E. Stefanakos, A review of clear sky radiative cooling developments and applications in renewable power systems and passive building cooling, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 178 (2018) 115–128, doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2018.01.015. A.P. Raman, M.A. Anoma, L. Zhu, E. Rephaeli, S. Fan, Passive radiative cooling below ambient air temperature under direct sunlight, Nature 515 (2014) 540– 544, doi:10.1038/nature13883. R. Family, M.P. Mengüç, Materials for radiative cooling: a review, Procedia Environ. Sci. 38 (2017) 752–759, doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.158. K.N. Nwaigwe, C.A. Okoronkwo, N.V. Ogueke, E.E. Anyanwu, Review of nocturnal cooling systems, Int. J. Energy Clean Environ. 11 (2010) 117–143, doi:10. 1615/InterJEnerCleanEnv.2011003225.

490

D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

[239] J. Khedari, J. Waewsak, S. Thepa, J. Hirunlabh, Field investigation of night radiation cooling under tropical climate, Renew. Energy 20 (20 0 0) 183–193, doi:10.1016/S0960-1481(99)00104-4. [240] H.S. Bagiorgas, G. Mihalakakou, Experimental and theoretical investigation of a nocturnal radiator for space cooling, Renew. Energy 33 (2008) 1220–1227, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2007.04.015. [241] M. Hanif, T.M.I. Mahlia, A. Zare, T.J. Saksahdan, H.S.C. Metselaar, Potential energy savings by radiative cooling system for a building in tropical climate, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 32 (2014) 642–650, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.053. [242] M.G. Meir, J.B. Rekstad, O.M. LØvvik, A study of a polymer-based radiative cooling system, Sol. Energy 73 (2002) 403–417, doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(03) 0 0 019-7. [243] J. Hollick, Nocturnal radiation cooling tests, Energy Procedia 30 (2012) 930– 936, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.11.105. [244] T. Catalina, J. Virgone, F. Kuznik, Evaluation of thermal comfort using combined CFD and experimentation study in a test room equipped with a cooling ceiling, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 1740–1750, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2008. 11.015. [245] G. Sastry, First radiant cooled commercial building in India – critical analysis of energy, comfort and cost n.d.:6. [246] K. Zhao, X.H. Liu, Y. Jiang, Application of radiant floor cooling in large space buildings - a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 55 (2016) 1083–1096, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.028. [247] K.N. Rhee, K.W. Kim, A 50 year review of basic and applied research in radiant heating and cooling systems for the built environment, Build. Environ. 91 (2015) 166–190, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.03.040.

[248] Y. Khan, M. Bhandari, J. Mathur, Energy-saving potential of a radiant cooling system in different climate zones of India, Sci. Technol. Built Environ. 24 (2018) 356–370, doi:10.1080/23744731.2017.1348140. [249] Y. Khan, V.R. Khare, J. Mathur, M. Bhandari, Performance evaluation of radiant cooling system integrated with air system under different operational strategies, Energy Build. 97 (2015) 118–128, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.03.030. [250] D.O. Rijksen, C.J. Wisse, A.W.M. van Schijndel, Reducing peak requirements for cooling by using thermally activated building systems, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 298–304, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.20 09.09.0 07. [251] R.A. Memon, S. Chirarattananon, P. Vangtook, Thermal comfort assessment and application of radiant cooling: a case study, Build. Environ. 43 (2008) 1185–1196, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.04.025. [252] R. Hu, J.L. Niu, Operation dynamics of the building with radiant cooling system based on Beijing weather, Energy Build. 151 (2017) 344–357, doi:10.1016/ j.enbuild.2017.06.068. [253] J.L. Niu, L.Z. Zhang, H.G. Zuo, Energy savings potential of chilled-ceiling combined with desiccant cooling in hot and humid climates, Energy Build. 34 (2002) 487–495, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(01)00132-3. [254] X. Hao, G. Zhang, Y. Chen, S. Zou, D.J. Moschandreas, A combined system of chilled ceiling, displacement ventilation and desiccant dehumidification, Build. Environ. 42 (2007) 3298–3308, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.08.020. [255] C. Stetiu, Energy and peak power savings potential of radiant cooling systems in US commercial buildings, Energy Build. 30 (1999) 127–138, doi:10.1016/ S0378-7788(98)0 0 080-2.