- Email: [email protected]
Perceived drinking norms among black college students: The race of reference group members
Addictive Behaviors 38 (2013) 2586–2588
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Addictive Behaviors
Short Communication
Perceived drinking norms among black college students: The race of reference group members Jessica L. Martin ⁎, Gabrielle Groth, Lindsay Buckner, Michael M. Gale, Melanie E. Kramer Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA
H I G H L I G H T S • • • • •
Black students perceived all three reference groups as drinking more than they did. White students were perceived as drinking the most, followed by the typical student. Students of the same race were perceived as drinking the least. Perceptions of typical student drinking predicted personal alcohol use. Prevention efforts aimed at the typical student may be effective for Black students.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords: Social norms Alcohol use College student drinking African American Black
a b s t r a c t Social norms have been consistently shown to influence alcohol use among college students. Much of the research in this area is focused on mostly White samples. This study sought to expand our understanding of social norms theory by examining perceptions of normative alcohol use among Black students and determining the impact of the race of reference group members on personal alcohol use. Participants (N = 130; 73.8% female) completed an online questionnaire. Results of repeated measures of analysis of variance indicated that participants perceived all referent groups (i.e., White, same race, typical student) as drinking significantly more than they did. Results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that perceptions of typical student drinking significantly predicted personal alcohol use. Implications for practice and research are discussed. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Existing research on college student drinking centers around mainly White samples and yet according to the 2009 US Census, 37.7% of students enrolling in college were non-White, an increase from 31.7% of students in 2000 (US Census, 2012). Drinking patterns differ among college students of various ethnic/racial groups with Black1 students typically consuming less alcohol than White and other minority students (Grekin, 2012; Lewis, Likis-Werle, & Fulton, 2011). That Black students tend to consume less alcohol than their White peers does not negate the importance of exploring the reasons for their drinking. Research examining risk and protective factors associated with drinking among college students must be expanded to more diverse samples to better reflect the increasingly diverse population of the United States.
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, ED 220, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA. Tel.: +1 518 442 4935; fax: +1 518 442 4953. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.L. Martin). 1 We recognize the unique meanings encompassed by the terms “African American” and “Black.” For the purposes of this study we have chosen to use the term “Black” to refer to all individuals of African descent. 0306-4603/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.06.003
One risk factor found to be associated with alcohol use is students' perceptions of normative drinking among peers, or descriptive norms. Researchers have consistently found that students tend to overestimate the alcohol consumption of peers and that this overestimation is associated with greater personal alcohol consumption (Borsari & Carey, 2001, 2003; Larimer et al., 2009). Most studies have found that the more distant the reference group, the greater the overestimation of alcohol use (Borsari & Carey, 2003). Multiple studies have shown that, consistent with theories of social identity (Tajfel, 1982) and social comparison (Festinger, 1954), more salient peer groups, such as close friends, had a greater impact on personal alcohol consumption than more distal peer groups such as “typical college student” (Larimer et al., 2009; Martens, Dams-O'Connor, Duffy-Paiement, & Gibson, 2006). Several studies have examined racial/ethnic differences in perceived norms (Larimer et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2011; Rice, 2006). While each of the aforementioned studies examined drinking norms among minority college students, some among Black students specifically, none investigated normative perceptions of alcohol use among specific racial groups along with the influence of racial group referents on personal alcohol use. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to expand our understanding of social norms theory by investigating differences in perceptions of alcohol use among referents that differed by race and the impact of
J.L. Martin et al. / Addictive Behaviors 38 (2013) 2586–2588
those descriptive norms on personal alcohol use within a Black student sample. We used three referents: typical student, typical White student, and typical student of the same race. We hypothesized that a) participants would overestimate the alcohol consumption of all three referent groups, with overestimations being the highest for the most general group (i.e. typical student) and lowest for the most proximal group (i.e. typical student of the same race), and b) perceived descriptive norms would be associated with personal alcohol use, with the most salient group (i.e. typical student of the same race) being the strongest predictor. 2. Method Participants were 130 undergraduate students ranging from freshmen to seniors who identified as Black/African American. The mean age of participants was 21.12 (SD = 2.98) and 73.8% were female. Students were enrolled at the following types of educational institutions: 2-year community or junior colleges (43.1%), public 4-year college/university (23.1%), private 4-year college/university (3.8%), historically Black college/university (4.6%), and other (0.8%). Participants were recruited in person and via e-mail solicitation from colleges and universities across the United States. After providing informed consent, participants completed an online survey composed of a demographic questionnaire, quantity and frequency measures of alcohol consumption, and perceptions of peers' alcohol use. The Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ; Collins, Parks, & Marlatt, 1985) was used to assess the number of drinks per week consumed by participants. Definitions of a standard drink were provided for reference. The Drinking Norms Rating Form (DNRF; Baer, Stacy, & Larimer, 1991) was used to assess participants' perceptions of the typical amount of alcohol consumed per day by the following reference groups at their college/university in the following order: a) “typical, same-gender student,” b) “typical, same-gender, White student,” and c) “typical, same-gender, student of the same racial/ethnic group.” Perceived total number of drinks per week for each reference group was calculated by summing daily totals. All participants were eligible to enter a raffle to win one of ten $50 gift cards to a large, national retailing company. 3. Results Excluded from data analysis were participants missing data (10% or more) and participants whose reports of personal alcohol use or perceived use among peers were univariate outliers (p b .001). A correlation analysis was conducted to determine whether the type of institution participants attended as well as other demographic variables (i.e. age, gender, fraternity/sorority membership) were associated with personal or perceived alcohol consumption. Results indicated that institution type was not significantly associated with personal use (r = .14) or perceived alcohol use (r = −.12, r = −.08, r = −.06 for typical student, White student, and same race student, respectively). Age was not significantly correlated with personal use (r = .12) or perceived alcohol use (r = −.05, r = .05, r = −.07 for typical
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for personal alcohol use and normative perceptions of other students' alcohol use.
Alcohol use
Personal
Typical student
Typical White student
Typical same race student
3.72 (6.08)
13.96 (14.67)
19.69 (25.23)
9.95 (9.55)
Note: Standard deviations are in parentheses. Personal = Estimate of personal drinks per week. Typical student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical college student. Typical White student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical White student. Typical same race student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical student of the same race.
2587
student, White student, and same race student, respectively). Significant correlations (p b .05) were found between personal drinks per week and gender (r = − .19) and fraternity/sorority involvement (r = − .21). Repeated measures of analysis of variance were computed to assess whether there were differences between participants' personal alcohol consumption per week and perceived normative consumption among various reference groups at one's academic institution. Results revealed significant differences among self-reported drinks per week and all three social norms estimates, F (3, 116) = 23.18, p b .001; η2 = .38. Consistent with our hypotheses, participants estimated that others consumed more drinks per week than they did. Pairwise contrasts indicated that significant differences (p b .001) existed between personal consumption and perceived consumption of all three of the following reference groups (see Table 1). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between perceived normative consumption and personal alcohol use. Gender and fraternity/sorority status were entered as covariates on Step 1 because of their association with personal alcohol use. Perceived normative alcohol consumption per week for each of the three reference groups were entered on Step 2. Results indicated that perceived social norms collectively accounted for a significant increase in variance explained for personal drinks per week, ΔF (3, 114) = 6.97, p b .001, ΔR2 = .14. However, only the typical student norm demonstrated a significant relationship with personal alcohol use β = .44, p b .01, accounting for approximately 6% of the variance in personal alcohol use (see Table 2). Gender was not a significant moderator of the relationship between personal alcohol use and perceptions of weekly alcohol consumption of the typical student, though it approached significance (p = .053). 4. Discussion Consistent with previous research using mostly White student samples (Baer et al., 1991; Borsari & Carey, 2001, 2003; Larimer et al., 2009; Perkins, 2002), Black college students in the present sample perceived that all other student referents (typical college student, White college students, and students of their same race) drink significantly more per week than they do. The typical White college student was perceived as consuming the greatest number of drinks per week. Perceptions of normative alcohol use collectively accounted for increases in personal alcohol use. Contrary to theories of social identity (Tajfel, 1982) and social comparison (Festinger, 1954), and previous research findings (Borsari & Carey, 2003), our findings indicated that only perceptions of typical student drinking, the most distal referent, predicted personal alcohol use. There are several potential explanations for the finding that the typical student referent was the only significant predictor of personal alcohol use. First, our a-priori hypotheses were based on findings of previous research findings that perceptions about the drinking behavior of reference groups with the least social distance are most influential in predicting alcohol use for White students, but this may not hold true for Black students. Second, it is possible that the relative influence of a target group on drinking behavior may differ depending on the extent to which race is a salient aspect of one's identity. We may have incorrectly assumed that making the referent more similar to Black participants in regard to race would make that group more salient to them. The behavior of participants in this sample may be influenced more by perceptions of the behavior of peer groups defined by a factor more salient to them (gender, year in school, residence etc.) than race. Differentiating between descriptive and injunctive norms may further explain our findings. Borsari and Carey (2003) found that participants' misperceptions of others' approval of drinking (injunctive norms) were better predictors of alcohol use than self-other discrepancies in drinking behavior (descriptive norms). This may be true for Black students as well.
2588
J.L. Martin et al. / Addictive Behaviors 38 (2013) 2586–2588
Table 2 Hierarchical regression summary of norms predicting drinks per week. Variable
Step 1 Gender Frat/sorority Step 2 Typical student Typical White student Typical same race Step 3 Sex × typical
B
SE B
β
p
sr
95% CI Lower bound
Upper bound
−2.86 −1.17
1.15 .51
−.21 −.19
.01 .02
−5.14 −2.17
−.58 −.17
−.21 −.19
.18 −.03 .03
.06 .03 .07
.44 −.12 .05
.00 .40 .67
.06 −.10 −.11
.31 .04 .17
.24 −.07 .04
−.14
.07
−.55
.05
−.27
−.00
−.16
Note: Frat/sorority = Fraternity/sorority involvement. Typical student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical college student. Typical White student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical White student. Typical same race = Perceived drinks per week of the typical student of the same race. Sex × typical = Interaction between gender and perceived drinks per week of the typical college student. sr = Semi-partial correlation. Squaring the semi-partial correlation coefficient provides the unique variance accounted for by that variable.
Implications stemming from the results of the current study include the need to better understand how students differentially conceptualize the “typical student.” Lewis and Neighbors (2006) found that most students perceived the ‘typical college student’ as a White, non-Hispanic full-time student, but this was in a predominantly White sample attending a four-year institution. It is possible that perceptions of the typical student may differ according to one's gender, racial or ethnic identity, year in school, type of institution, etc. The relative salience of the aforementioned factors may vary among individuals thereby impacting which particular reference groups are more or less proximal for each individual. Future research should explore personal constructions of the typical college student drinker among different college student populations. Additionally, further examination of the role of race in alcohol use may demand a more nuanced consideration of racial identity, with attention to the salience and meaning of one's racial identity across persons and contexts (Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998). Another potential area of future research is the role of injunctive versus descriptive norms to determine if and how perceived attitudes or moral standards around drinking predict alcohol use among Black students. Results of the present study provide further support for social norms-based prevention efforts on college campuses (Berkowitz, 2004; Perkins & Craig, 2002). Unlike research that suggests that prevention efforts targeted at more specific, proximal, groups may be more effective (Larimer et al., 2009), our results suggest that for Black students, prevention efforts addressing misconceptions regarding the typical college student may be the best approach in reducing and preventing drinking. Further research investigating the role of the race of referent groups on normative perceptions and personal alcohol use is encouraged. Several limitations to the present study must be noted. First, the majority of participants (73.8%) were female, limiting the generalizability of findings to Black male college students. Additional limitations include reliance on self-report measures to collect data on alcohol consumption, and the cross-sectional design which precludes causal inference. Further, social norms reference groups were presented in the same order to all participants making order effects a possible confound. However, it is unlikely that order effects influenced the results of the present study as previous research investigating perceptions of behavior using multiple reference groups did not find order effects to be problematic. Nonetheless, future research should consider employing a longitudinal design that counterbalances the order of questionnaires.
Role of funding sources This study was not supported by external funding.
Contributors Dr. Martin designed the study and wrote the protocol. Ms. Groth, Ms. Buckner, Mr. Gale and Ms. Kramer conducted literature searches and provided summaries of previous research studies. Dr. Martin conducted the statistical analysis, wrote the results section, and assisted with the first draft of all other sections. All authors significantly contributed to and have approved the final manuscript. Conflict of interest All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
References Baer, J. S., Stacy, A., & Larimer, M. (1991). Biases in the perception of drinking norms among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 580–586. Berkowitz, A. D. (2004). The social norms approach: Theory, research and annotated bibliography. Retrieved from. www.edc.org/hec/socialnorms Borsari, B., & Carey, K. B. (2001). Peer influences on college drinking: A review of the research. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 391–424, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S08993289(01)00098-0. Borsari, B., & Carey, K. B. (2003). Descriptive and injunctive norms in college drinking: A meta-analytic integration. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 331–341. Collins, R. L., Parks, G. A., & Marlatt, G. A. (1985). Social determinants of alcohol consumption: The effects of social interaction and model status on the selfadministration of alcohol. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 189–200. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140. Grekin, E. R. (2012). Perceived racism and alcohol consequences among African American and Caucasian college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26, 924–930, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0029593. Larimer, M. E., Kaysen, D. L., Lee, C. M., Kilmer, J. R., Lewis, M. A., Dillworth, T., et al. (2009). Evaluating level of specificity of normative referents in relation to personal drinking behavior. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 16, 115–121. Lewis, T. F., Likis-Werle, E., & Fulton, C. L. (2011). Modeling alcohol use intensity at a historically black university: The role of social norms, perceptions for risk, and selected demographic variables. Journal of Black Psychology, 38, 368–390, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0095798411424745. Lewis, M. A., & Neighbors, C. (2006). Who is the typical college student? Implications for personalized normative feedback interventions. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 2120–2126, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.01.011. Martens, M. P., Dams-O'Connor, K., Duffy-Paiement, C., & Gibson, J. T. (2006). Perceived alcohol use among friends and alcohol consumption among college athletes. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20, 178–184, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.20.2.178. Perkins, H. W. (2002). Social norms and the prevention of alcohol misuse in collegiate contexts. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 164–172. Perkins, H. W., & Craig, D. W. (2002). A multifaceted social norms approach to reduce high-risk drinking: Lessons from Hobart and William Smith Colleges. Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention and the U.S. Department of Education. Rice, C. (2006). Misperception of college drinking norms: Ethnic/race differences. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 14, 17–30, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1300/J137v14n04_02. Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, N., Rowley, S. A. J., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18–39. Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. New York: Cambridge University Press. U.S. Census Bureau (2012). Education: Higher education: Institutions and enrollment. Retrieved from. www.census.gov
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Addictive Behaviors
Short Communication
Perceived drinking norms among black college students: The race of reference group members Jessica L. Martin ⁎, Gabrielle Groth, Lindsay Buckner, Michael M. Gale, Melanie E. Kramer Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA
H I G H L I G H T S • • • • •
Black students perceived all three reference groups as drinking more than they did. White students were perceived as drinking the most, followed by the typical student. Students of the same race were perceived as drinking the least. Perceptions of typical student drinking predicted personal alcohol use. Prevention efforts aimed at the typical student may be effective for Black students.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords: Social norms Alcohol use College student drinking African American Black
a b s t r a c t Social norms have been consistently shown to influence alcohol use among college students. Much of the research in this area is focused on mostly White samples. This study sought to expand our understanding of social norms theory by examining perceptions of normative alcohol use among Black students and determining the impact of the race of reference group members on personal alcohol use. Participants (N = 130; 73.8% female) completed an online questionnaire. Results of repeated measures of analysis of variance indicated that participants perceived all referent groups (i.e., White, same race, typical student) as drinking significantly more than they did. Results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that perceptions of typical student drinking significantly predicted personal alcohol use. Implications for practice and research are discussed. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Existing research on college student drinking centers around mainly White samples and yet according to the 2009 US Census, 37.7% of students enrolling in college were non-White, an increase from 31.7% of students in 2000 (US Census, 2012). Drinking patterns differ among college students of various ethnic/racial groups with Black1 students typically consuming less alcohol than White and other minority students (Grekin, 2012; Lewis, Likis-Werle, & Fulton, 2011). That Black students tend to consume less alcohol than their White peers does not negate the importance of exploring the reasons for their drinking. Research examining risk and protective factors associated with drinking among college students must be expanded to more diverse samples to better reflect the increasingly diverse population of the United States.
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, ED 220, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA. Tel.: +1 518 442 4935; fax: +1 518 442 4953. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.L. Martin). 1 We recognize the unique meanings encompassed by the terms “African American” and “Black.” For the purposes of this study we have chosen to use the term “Black” to refer to all individuals of African descent. 0306-4603/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.06.003
One risk factor found to be associated with alcohol use is students' perceptions of normative drinking among peers, or descriptive norms. Researchers have consistently found that students tend to overestimate the alcohol consumption of peers and that this overestimation is associated with greater personal alcohol consumption (Borsari & Carey, 2001, 2003; Larimer et al., 2009). Most studies have found that the more distant the reference group, the greater the overestimation of alcohol use (Borsari & Carey, 2003). Multiple studies have shown that, consistent with theories of social identity (Tajfel, 1982) and social comparison (Festinger, 1954), more salient peer groups, such as close friends, had a greater impact on personal alcohol consumption than more distal peer groups such as “typical college student” (Larimer et al., 2009; Martens, Dams-O'Connor, Duffy-Paiement, & Gibson, 2006). Several studies have examined racial/ethnic differences in perceived norms (Larimer et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2011; Rice, 2006). While each of the aforementioned studies examined drinking norms among minority college students, some among Black students specifically, none investigated normative perceptions of alcohol use among specific racial groups along with the influence of racial group referents on personal alcohol use. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to expand our understanding of social norms theory by investigating differences in perceptions of alcohol use among referents that differed by race and the impact of
J.L. Martin et al. / Addictive Behaviors 38 (2013) 2586–2588
those descriptive norms on personal alcohol use within a Black student sample. We used three referents: typical student, typical White student, and typical student of the same race. We hypothesized that a) participants would overestimate the alcohol consumption of all three referent groups, with overestimations being the highest for the most general group (i.e. typical student) and lowest for the most proximal group (i.e. typical student of the same race), and b) perceived descriptive norms would be associated with personal alcohol use, with the most salient group (i.e. typical student of the same race) being the strongest predictor. 2. Method Participants were 130 undergraduate students ranging from freshmen to seniors who identified as Black/African American. The mean age of participants was 21.12 (SD = 2.98) and 73.8% were female. Students were enrolled at the following types of educational institutions: 2-year community or junior colleges (43.1%), public 4-year college/university (23.1%), private 4-year college/university (3.8%), historically Black college/university (4.6%), and other (0.8%). Participants were recruited in person and via e-mail solicitation from colleges and universities across the United States. After providing informed consent, participants completed an online survey composed of a demographic questionnaire, quantity and frequency measures of alcohol consumption, and perceptions of peers' alcohol use. The Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ; Collins, Parks, & Marlatt, 1985) was used to assess the number of drinks per week consumed by participants. Definitions of a standard drink were provided for reference. The Drinking Norms Rating Form (DNRF; Baer, Stacy, & Larimer, 1991) was used to assess participants' perceptions of the typical amount of alcohol consumed per day by the following reference groups at their college/university in the following order: a) “typical, same-gender student,” b) “typical, same-gender, White student,” and c) “typical, same-gender, student of the same racial/ethnic group.” Perceived total number of drinks per week for each reference group was calculated by summing daily totals. All participants were eligible to enter a raffle to win one of ten $50 gift cards to a large, national retailing company. 3. Results Excluded from data analysis were participants missing data (10% or more) and participants whose reports of personal alcohol use or perceived use among peers were univariate outliers (p b .001). A correlation analysis was conducted to determine whether the type of institution participants attended as well as other demographic variables (i.e. age, gender, fraternity/sorority membership) were associated with personal or perceived alcohol consumption. Results indicated that institution type was not significantly associated with personal use (r = .14) or perceived alcohol use (r = −.12, r = −.08, r = −.06 for typical student, White student, and same race student, respectively). Age was not significantly correlated with personal use (r = .12) or perceived alcohol use (r = −.05, r = .05, r = −.07 for typical
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for personal alcohol use and normative perceptions of other students' alcohol use.
Alcohol use
Personal
Typical student
Typical White student
Typical same race student
3.72 (6.08)
13.96 (14.67)
19.69 (25.23)
9.95 (9.55)
Note: Standard deviations are in parentheses. Personal = Estimate of personal drinks per week. Typical student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical college student. Typical White student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical White student. Typical same race student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical student of the same race.
2587
student, White student, and same race student, respectively). Significant correlations (p b .05) were found between personal drinks per week and gender (r = − .19) and fraternity/sorority involvement (r = − .21). Repeated measures of analysis of variance were computed to assess whether there were differences between participants' personal alcohol consumption per week and perceived normative consumption among various reference groups at one's academic institution. Results revealed significant differences among self-reported drinks per week and all three social norms estimates, F (3, 116) = 23.18, p b .001; η2 = .38. Consistent with our hypotheses, participants estimated that others consumed more drinks per week than they did. Pairwise contrasts indicated that significant differences (p b .001) existed between personal consumption and perceived consumption of all three of the following reference groups (see Table 1). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between perceived normative consumption and personal alcohol use. Gender and fraternity/sorority status were entered as covariates on Step 1 because of their association with personal alcohol use. Perceived normative alcohol consumption per week for each of the three reference groups were entered on Step 2. Results indicated that perceived social norms collectively accounted for a significant increase in variance explained for personal drinks per week, ΔF (3, 114) = 6.97, p b .001, ΔR2 = .14. However, only the typical student norm demonstrated a significant relationship with personal alcohol use β = .44, p b .01, accounting for approximately 6% of the variance in personal alcohol use (see Table 2). Gender was not a significant moderator of the relationship between personal alcohol use and perceptions of weekly alcohol consumption of the typical student, though it approached significance (p = .053). 4. Discussion Consistent with previous research using mostly White student samples (Baer et al., 1991; Borsari & Carey, 2001, 2003; Larimer et al., 2009; Perkins, 2002), Black college students in the present sample perceived that all other student referents (typical college student, White college students, and students of their same race) drink significantly more per week than they do. The typical White college student was perceived as consuming the greatest number of drinks per week. Perceptions of normative alcohol use collectively accounted for increases in personal alcohol use. Contrary to theories of social identity (Tajfel, 1982) and social comparison (Festinger, 1954), and previous research findings (Borsari & Carey, 2003), our findings indicated that only perceptions of typical student drinking, the most distal referent, predicted personal alcohol use. There are several potential explanations for the finding that the typical student referent was the only significant predictor of personal alcohol use. First, our a-priori hypotheses were based on findings of previous research findings that perceptions about the drinking behavior of reference groups with the least social distance are most influential in predicting alcohol use for White students, but this may not hold true for Black students. Second, it is possible that the relative influence of a target group on drinking behavior may differ depending on the extent to which race is a salient aspect of one's identity. We may have incorrectly assumed that making the referent more similar to Black participants in regard to race would make that group more salient to them. The behavior of participants in this sample may be influenced more by perceptions of the behavior of peer groups defined by a factor more salient to them (gender, year in school, residence etc.) than race. Differentiating between descriptive and injunctive norms may further explain our findings. Borsari and Carey (2003) found that participants' misperceptions of others' approval of drinking (injunctive norms) were better predictors of alcohol use than self-other discrepancies in drinking behavior (descriptive norms). This may be true for Black students as well.
2588
J.L. Martin et al. / Addictive Behaviors 38 (2013) 2586–2588
Table 2 Hierarchical regression summary of norms predicting drinks per week. Variable
Step 1 Gender Frat/sorority Step 2 Typical student Typical White student Typical same race Step 3 Sex × typical
B
SE B
β
p
sr
95% CI Lower bound
Upper bound
−2.86 −1.17
1.15 .51
−.21 −.19
.01 .02
−5.14 −2.17
−.58 −.17
−.21 −.19
.18 −.03 .03
.06 .03 .07
.44 −.12 .05
.00 .40 .67
.06 −.10 −.11
.31 .04 .17
.24 −.07 .04
−.14
.07
−.55
.05
−.27
−.00
−.16
Note: Frat/sorority = Fraternity/sorority involvement. Typical student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical college student. Typical White student = Perceived drinks per week of the typical White student. Typical same race = Perceived drinks per week of the typical student of the same race. Sex × typical = Interaction between gender and perceived drinks per week of the typical college student. sr = Semi-partial correlation. Squaring the semi-partial correlation coefficient provides the unique variance accounted for by that variable.
Implications stemming from the results of the current study include the need to better understand how students differentially conceptualize the “typical student.” Lewis and Neighbors (2006) found that most students perceived the ‘typical college student’ as a White, non-Hispanic full-time student, but this was in a predominantly White sample attending a four-year institution. It is possible that perceptions of the typical student may differ according to one's gender, racial or ethnic identity, year in school, type of institution, etc. The relative salience of the aforementioned factors may vary among individuals thereby impacting which particular reference groups are more or less proximal for each individual. Future research should explore personal constructions of the typical college student drinker among different college student populations. Additionally, further examination of the role of race in alcohol use may demand a more nuanced consideration of racial identity, with attention to the salience and meaning of one's racial identity across persons and contexts (Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998). Another potential area of future research is the role of injunctive versus descriptive norms to determine if and how perceived attitudes or moral standards around drinking predict alcohol use among Black students. Results of the present study provide further support for social norms-based prevention efforts on college campuses (Berkowitz, 2004; Perkins & Craig, 2002). Unlike research that suggests that prevention efforts targeted at more specific, proximal, groups may be more effective (Larimer et al., 2009), our results suggest that for Black students, prevention efforts addressing misconceptions regarding the typical college student may be the best approach in reducing and preventing drinking. Further research investigating the role of the race of referent groups on normative perceptions and personal alcohol use is encouraged. Several limitations to the present study must be noted. First, the majority of participants (73.8%) were female, limiting the generalizability of findings to Black male college students. Additional limitations include reliance on self-report measures to collect data on alcohol consumption, and the cross-sectional design which precludes causal inference. Further, social norms reference groups were presented in the same order to all participants making order effects a possible confound. However, it is unlikely that order effects influenced the results of the present study as previous research investigating perceptions of behavior using multiple reference groups did not find order effects to be problematic. Nonetheless, future research should consider employing a longitudinal design that counterbalances the order of questionnaires.
Role of funding sources This study was not supported by external funding.
Contributors Dr. Martin designed the study and wrote the protocol. Ms. Groth, Ms. Buckner, Mr. Gale and Ms. Kramer conducted literature searches and provided summaries of previous research studies. Dr. Martin conducted the statistical analysis, wrote the results section, and assisted with the first draft of all other sections. All authors significantly contributed to and have approved the final manuscript. Conflict of interest All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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