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Perceived stress, sensation seeking, and college students’ abuse of the Internet
Computers in Human Behavior 26 (2010) 1526–1530
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Computers in Human Behavior journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
Perceived stress, sensation seeking, and college students’ abuse of the Internet Rodrigo Velezmoro a,*, Katharine Lacefield a, Jonathan W. Roberti b a b
University of Central Florida, Department of Clinical Psychology, USA New College of Florida and the University of South Florida, Sarasota/Manatee, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Available online 3 June 2010 Keywords: Perceived stress Sensation seeking Internet abuse Internet addiction College students Internet usage patterns
a b s t r a c t College students (n = 140) were examined to test whether sensation seeking and perceived stress would predict abuse of the Internet. Previous studies have found that disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, and total sensation seeking scores were related to Internet abuse (Chaney & Chang, 2005; Lin & Tsai, 2001). Because stress has been documented to have a negative effect on students (Pierceall & Keim, 2007), and may be linked to Internet use (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001), it was tested as a possible predictor of Internet abuse. This study also analyzed abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes, because sexuality is prevalent online, and college students are in an age of sexual exploration. Results of stepwise regression analyses revealed that disinhibition and total perceived stress were predictive of Internet abuse for sexual purposes, and perceived hopelessness and boredom susceptibility were predictive of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. Implications for students and Internet abuse are discussed. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction It has been noted that a college student receives the following when they begin school: an ID card, a meal card, and high-speed Internet access (Young, 2004). Results of a survey of 2054 college students from 27 universities and colleges revealed that 74% of college students use the Internet four or more hours per week, with 19% using it 12 or more hours per week (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2002). Researchers suggest that college students’ greater accessibility and usage of the Internet may increase their vulnerability to Internet abuse (Brenner, 1997). The proposed reasons include increased accessibility, freedom, autonomy from authority, large periods of unstructured time, and encouragement given from school faculty and administration to use the Internet, all of which leaves students more vulnerable to Internet abuse (Kandell, 1998; Moore, 1995; Young, 2004). Physical and psychological risks associated with the use of the Internet have been identified (Brenner, 1997; Greenfield, 2000; Griffiths, 2000; Kraut et al., 1998). Abuse of the Internet may be correlated with psychological impairment including social withdrawal/alienation, dysfunction in interpersonal and romantic relationships, and loss of occupational/educational productivity (Greenfield, 2000). Fortson, Scotti, Chen, Malone, and Del Ben (2007) examined 485 college students using adapted DSM-IV criteria for substance abuse to test for Internet dependency and found
* Corresponding author. Address: University of Central Florida, Department of Clinical Psychology, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816-1390, USA. Tel.: +1 407 823 4344. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Velezmoro). 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.020
that dependent individuals showed signs of social withdrawal and isolation, depressive symptoms, and had problems managing responsibilities. These negative findings have been found consistently in the relevant literature (Brenner, 1997; Greenfield, 2000; Griffiths, 2000). Currently, there is no standardized definition of Internet abuse. In fact, a discussion has arisen regarding whether Internet ‘‘addiction” exists and, if it does, how it should be viewed in relation to other disorders (Shaffer, 2002). Various nomenclatures include: Internet addiction (Young, 1999), Internet addiction disorder (Goldberg, 1996), Internet dependency (Wang, 2001), problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), and Internet abuse (Fortson et al., 2007). Yet, critics posit that Internet addiction is a creation of the psychological and psychiatric professions (Eppright, Allwood, Stern, & Theiss, 1999). Although there may be some addictive aspects of it (Shapira et al., 2003; Young, 1996), ‘‘addiction” is difficult to define with the multitude of applications online; hence, Internet abuse will be used to include all of the aforementioned symptoms. Specifically, Internet abuse is defined as using the Internet for any purpose that leads to distress or impairment in one’s life. There is a growing consensus that certain applications, rather than the Internet as an entity, are conducive to abuse (Bell, 2007; Griffiths, 2000; Yen, Ko, Yen, Wu, & Yang, 2007). The Internet is abused in myriad ways with various applications (Davis, 2001; Young, Pistner, O’Mara, & Buchanan, 1999). It may be helpful to determine first whether an individual abuses the Internet for non-sexual purposes (gaming, web surfing, etc.) or sexual purposes. This distinction is useful because the Internet has a plethora of applications that can be abused and often is used as an outlet for
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sexuality. Cooper (2004) has labeled the factors that make the Internet such an attractive outlet for sexuality the Triple A Engine: accessibility, affordability, and anonymity. Others have highlighted convenience and escapism (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Young, 1999).
ceptibility warrant more careful examination, as these variables may be related to Internet abuse, but have been studied with different populations in previous research. This study aims to examine the role that these variables play in a sample of college students.
1.1. Sensation seeking
1.2. Perceived stress
Sensation seeking theory provides evidence of an individual characteristic that may contribute to Internet abuse. Sensation seeking is ‘‘a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience” (Zuckerman, 1994). Sensation seeking has been found to influence both occupational choices and the types of reactions and interactions in which individuals engage (Roberti, 2004). Sensation seekers are motivated by the novelty of the experience and the complexity of the stimulus, and they attempt to increase the intensity of the stimulation they experience (Roberti, 2004; Zuckerman, 2006). For example, high sensation seekers are more likely to engage in sports (Zuckerman, 1994), show a greater desire to engage in physical aggression (Joireman, Anderson, & Strathman, 2003), to watch violent action films (Aluja-Fabregat & TorrubiaBeltri, 1998), and are more prone to listen to rock music (Little & Zuckerman, 1986). Sensation seeking also tends to be more common among men than women (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thornquist, & Kiers, 1991). Furthermore, sensation seekers show a tendency to seek out media depicting arousing material (Greenberg & Woods, 1999; Schierman & Rowland, 1985; Vanwesenbeeck, 2001; Zuckerman, Tushup, & Finner, 1976) and hold more permissive sexual attitudes (Zuckerman, 1994). This would make the Internet very attractive, given that the Internet has become a novel outlet for sexual expression (Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, & Boies, 1999; Griffiths, 2004) and has begun to replace traditional means of accessing sexually explicit material (Chou, Condron, & Belland, 2005). Findings on sensation seeking and Internet abuse have varied. Some have proposed that high sensation seekers are not drawn to the Internet. Lavin, Marvin, McLarney, Nola, and Scott (1998) found that sensation seeking scores were negatively related to Internet usage in college students. Yet, in a sample of 753 Taiwanese high school adolescents, Internet dependents scored significantly higher on total sensation seeking and disinhibition than Internet non-dependents (Lin & Tsai, 2001). Similar studies examining a sample of Chinese middle and high students did not find that sensation seeking led to Internet abuse (Qing-Xin, Rong-Gang, Yan, Xian-Gang, & Kan, 2005). It is possible that the negative findings are due to methodological differences and problems defining Internet abuse. Examining Internet abuse as it relates to sexual matters may be necessary. For example, viewing sexually explicit material online has been found to lead to Internet abuse later on (Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden, & Garretsen, 2006). Perry, Accordino, and Hewes (2007) examined sexual sensation seeking and sexual compulsivity among 307 college students. They found that with students who used the Internet for sexual material, as they progressed through school (or consumed more material), their sexual sensation seeking score increased. Further, Chaney and Chang (2005) suggest that among men who have sex with men (MSM), those with increased levels of boredom may be more likely to abuse the Internet for sexual purposes. Although this was hypothesized for MSM, it is possible that college students experience a similar relationship between boredom and Internet abuse. However, further examination of college students’ abuse the Internet for sexual purposes and how that abuse relates to different aspects of sensation seeking is needed to elucidate any relationships that may exist. Total sensation seeking, disinhibition, and boredom sus-
Perceived stress entails perception or assessment of threat coupled with a lack of resources to combat the stressor, irrespective of the actual threat or tax on resources (Greenberg, 1981; Lazarus, 1966). Many researchers have found increasing stress levels among college students (Misra & Castillo, 2004; Roberti, Harrington, & Storch, 2006). Pierceall and Keim (2007) examined the perceived stress of 212 college students and found that 75% of the students were classified as having moderate stress, 12% as having high stress, and only 13% having low stress. Perceived stress also has been found to influence physical health (Ng & Jeffery, 2003; Pandya, 1998; Tennant, 2000) and have negative effects on students by reducing academic performance (American College Health Association, 2007). The connection between Internet abuse and perceived stress needs to be further examined. Some researchers have found that the Internet is used by some as a means of stress relief (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001). Further, previous studies have found that impulse control disorders (Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, & McElroy, 2000) and depression (Caplan, 2003, 2005; Young & Rogers, 1998) are found among those that abuse the Internet. Although it is not possible to determine any causal relationships, and a bidirectional relationship may exist, it is possible that those who have pre-existing psychological problems may use the Internet as a means of stress relief. In the same manner, it is possible that the high level of stress associated with college life may lead some individuals to abuse the Internet. Additionally, the Internet’s saturation with sexually explicit material may be especially attractive to college students eager to explore their sexuality. 1.3. Current study With the potential influence of the Internet on college students’ overall well-being, further elucidation of how college students abuse the Internet and what factors lead to that abuse is warranted. Two predictions were made for this study. First, based on the findings Lin and Tsai (2001) and Chaney and Chang (2005), it was predicted that scores on the disinhibition, total sensation seeking, and boredom susceptibility scales will be associated with abusing the Internet for sexual purposes but not for non-sexual purposes. Although previous studies examined different populations, this study is the first to examine these variables among college students. Further, we predict that some of the mixed findings may be related to the lack of examination of sexual uses of the Internet. We anticipate that the Internet will appeal to sensations seekers only if they use the Internet for sexual purposes. Additionally, based on Lavoie and Pychyl (2001), it was predicted that perceived stress will be a predictor of Internet abuse for sexual and non-sexual purposes. Due to the high levels of stress that college students experience, we expect that perceived stress will lead some individuals to use the Internet for both sexual and non-sexual purposes. 2. Method 2.1. Participants Data were collected from 58 male and 82 female undergraduates attending two 4-year public universities in the southeast Uni-
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ted States. The survey was conducted as part of a larger study investigating risk taking practices among college students. Fortyone percent of the sample was male and 59% was female. Of the participants, the mean age of females was 23.95 (SD = 8.07) and 23.43 (SD = 7.05) for males. The ethnic distribution of the sample was as follows: 82.1% Caucasian, 4.2% African–American, 4.2% Hispanic, 2.1% Asian, .7% Native American, and 3.5% ‘‘other.” The majority of the participants indicated that they were not married (96%). 2.2. Measurements 2.2.1. Demographic questionnaire Participants were asked to complete a brief demographic questionnaire. These questions included: age, gender, academic rank, marital status, and ethnicity. 2.2.2. Internet addiction test In order to assess participants’ abuse of the Internet, a modified version of Young’s (1998) Internet addiction test (IAT) was used. Researchers have found that the IAT examines salience, excessive use and anticipation, lack of control, and neglecting responsibilities related to Internet use (Widyanto & Mcmurran, 2004). Of the 20 original items, seven were excluded because they were deemed to be inaccurate predictors of abuse. Participants responded to statements using a 5-point Likert-type scale with response options ranging from 1 (rarely) to 5 (always). Items are summed to a total of 13 to 65, with higher scores indicating more abuse. An example item is: ‘‘How often do your grades or school work suffers because of the amount of time you spend online?” Cronbach’s alpha for the present sample was found to be acceptable (.70). 2.2.3. Cyber-sex addiction test Young’s (1998) cyber-sex addiction test was used to measure abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes. Participants responded to 10 items by endorsing ‘‘yes” or ‘‘no”. Items were then summed. A total score of 10 was possible, with higher scores indicating more abuse. An example item is: ‘‘Do you feel preoccupied with using the Internet to find on-line sexual partners?” Cronbach’s Alpha for these items in this sample was found to be acceptable (.69). 2.2.4. Sensation seeking scale In order to determine differences in arousal and stimulation needs, Zuckerman’s, 1994 sensation scale (SSS-V) was used. For this study, the disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, and total score were used. The disinhibition subscale measures lack of inhibition in behavior, including sexually. The boredom susceptibility subscale measures an aversion for repetitive experiences of any kind, routine work, or even dull or predictable people. Previous studies have found good psychometric properties (Zuckerman, 1994). In the present sample, Cronbach’s alpha for each subscale was as follows: Total (0.74), disinhibition subscale (0.79), and boredom susceptibility subscale (0.76). 2.2.5. Perceived stress scale Cohen and Williamson’s (1988) perceived stress scale-10 (PSS) was used to determine how stressful individuals appraised their lives to be. This scale is a shorten version of Cohen, Kamarck, and Mermelstein’s (1983) perceived stress scale. The 10 items appraise perceived stress during the last month on a 4-point Likert-type scale with response options ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). Furthermore, Roberti et al. (2006) found that PSS has two subscales; perceived helplessness and perceived self-efficacy. Higher scores on perceived helplessness indicate less perceived hope, whereas higher scores on perceived self-efficacy indicate less perceived self-efficacy in handling stress. In the current sample, Cra-
nach’s alpha for each subscale was as follows: perceived helplessness (.84), perceived self-efficacy (.83), and total perceived stress (.88). 2.3. Procedure After obtaining approval from the appropriate institutional review board, arrangements were made with professors for group administration of the questionnaires during scheduled class time. Courses surveyed consisted of intermediate level classes in psychology and education. Participation was voluntary, and students received extra credit as compensation for their involvement. The participants were asked to complete paper questionnaires related to their risk-taking behaviors. The larger packet included questions about their risk-taking behaviors (e.g., driving and drinking). Questions related to their Internet habits were in the last section of the packet. A research assistant was present at each administration to provide instructions, inform students of the nature of the study, and collect consent forms from participating students. Participants were allowed as much time as needed to complete the instruments and no identifying information was collected. All participants completed the entire study within the time allotted, and none withdrew or terminated prematurely. Participants were told that his or her responses would be confidential, and future publication of the results would not include identifying characteristics of individual participants. 3. Results Two stepwise regression analyses were conducted with Internet abuse and sexual Internet abuse as criterion variables. To control for any gender differences, gender was entered first for both regressions, followed by subscales of the SSS-V (disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, total SSS) and stress (total perceived stress, perceived hopelessness, and perceived self-efficacy). Tolerance limits for inclusion in the equation were set at p 6 .05. 3.1. Internet abuse As anticipated, perceived hopelessness significantly predicted Internet abuse scores, b = .294, t(137) = 3.645, p < .001. Unexpectedly, boredom susceptibility also predicted Internet abuse scores, b = .200, t(137) = 2.486, p = .014. Table 1 displays the variables in the equation, and those excluded. Although the equation was significant, predictive value remained low with only 11% of the variance being accounted for with these predictors. 3.2. Internet abuse for sexual purposes As predicted, total perceived stress significantly predicted sexual Internet abuse scores, b = .277, t(137) = 3.443, p = .001. Disinhi-
Table 1 Stepwise regression with internet abuse as the criterion variable. Variables in equation
t
p
b
Perceived hopelessness Boredom susceptibility
3.645 2.486
.000 .014
.294 .200
Variables not in equation
t
p
B in
Gender Disinhibition Total score SSS-V Total perceived stress Perceived self-efficacy
1.615 1.125 .030 .839 .839
1.09 .263 .976 .403 .403
.132 .109 .003 .127 .092
F (2, 137), F = 9.033, p < .05 Adj. R2 .11.
R. Velezmoro et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 26 (2010) 1526–1530 Table 2 Stepwise regression with internet abuse for sexual purposes as the criterion variable. Variables in equation
t
p
b
Total perceived stress Disinhibition
3.443 2.296
.001 .023
.277 .185
Variables not in equation
t
p
B in
Gender Boredom susceptibility Total score SSS-V Perceived hopelessness Perceived self-efficacy
1.135 .678 .228 1.105 1.105
.258 .499 .779 .271 .271
.093 .062 .038 .167 .340
F (2, 137), F = 8.731, p < .05 Adj R2 .10.
bition also predicted Internet abuse scores, b = .185, t(139) = 2.296, p = .023. No other sensation seeking subscale was a significant predictor. Table 2 displays the variables in the equation and those excluded. Although the equation yielded significant results, predictive value remained low with only 10% of the variance being accounted for with these predictors.
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ness have been highlighted as catalysts for Internet abuse by some researchers (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2003). It should be noted that causality cannot be determined, and, although it is also possible that those who feel hopeless turn to the Internet, using the Internet also can lead to feeling hopeless due to decreased interactions with others. Finally, a bidirectional relationship is possible. Regardless of the direction of the relationship, stress appears to be an important variable in Internet abuse that needs to be further explored. These findings are to be considered in light of several limitations. The Internet addiction test measures consequences of Internet abuse, and not the behavior itself. Future studies would benefit from including items that examine specifically the behavior, and not just the consequences. Future studies also would benefit from examining college students’ views of school and school work, their activities, and especially their pattern of Internet use. Further elucidation of these variables and how they use the Internet for different purposes would be helpful in understanding abuse. Next, predictive value remained low suggesting that other variables still need to be explored. Finally, these results examined only a college environment, and are not to be generalized to other populations.
4. Conclusions and discussion
References
The purpose of this study was to examine whether sensation seeking and stress would predict abuse of the Internet. Previous studies have found that certain subscores of sensation seeking are associated with the abuse of the Internet (Chaney & Chang, 2005; Lin & Tsai, 2001). This study attempted to elucidate whether the same association would be found with abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes. Furthermore, due to the documented stress associated with college life (Pierceall & Keim, 2007), perceived stress was also tested as a predictor. Our findings related to sensation seeking scores did not support our hypothesis that individuals scoring higher in sensation seeking also would report high incidence of Internet abuse for sexual purposes. This finding is inconsistent with some research (Lin & Tsai, 2001) and consistent with another researcher’s findings (Lavin et al., 1998). Sensation seeking as a whole does not appear to be related to Internet abuse, as those with high total sensation seeking scores probably seek out more engaging activities. While it was expected that those subscores of sensation seeking would predict Internet abuse for sexual purposes, only disinhibition significantly predicted abuse. It appears that lack of inhibition may provoke some students to use and abuse the Internet for sexual purposes. It may be the case, however, that the sexual material found online is not engaging enough to attract the attention of high sensation seekers. Furthermore, boredom susceptibility was a significant predictor of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. It is possible that those that have an aversion to school work may seek out the Internet (e.g., chatting, gaming, web-surfing). Total sensation seeking is not associated with Internet abuse for sexual or non-sexual purposes, but consistent with other research (Lin & Tsai, 2001), subscales (disinhibition, boredom susceptibility) are associated with Internet abuse, but not for sexual purposes only. Additionally, this study examined the role of perceived stress in abusing the Internet for either sexual or non-sexual purposes. Perceived hopelessness was found to significantly predict abusing the Internet for non-sexual purposes, and total perceived stress significantly predicted abusing the Internet for sexual purposes. This finding suggests that those who abuse the Internet for sexual purposes may be driven by stress. Further, perceived hopelessness was a predictor of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. This suggests that perhaps suffering consequences from using the Internet is associated with feeling hopeless, and perhaps suffering from other minor psychological problems. Social problems and loneli-
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
Perceived stress, sensation seeking, and college students’ abuse of the Internet Rodrigo Velezmoro a,*, Katharine Lacefield a, Jonathan W. Roberti b a b
University of Central Florida, Department of Clinical Psychology, USA New College of Florida and the University of South Florida, Sarasota/Manatee, USA
a r t i c l e
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Article history: Available online 3 June 2010 Keywords: Perceived stress Sensation seeking Internet abuse Internet addiction College students Internet usage patterns
a b s t r a c t College students (n = 140) were examined to test whether sensation seeking and perceived stress would predict abuse of the Internet. Previous studies have found that disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, and total sensation seeking scores were related to Internet abuse (Chaney & Chang, 2005; Lin & Tsai, 2001). Because stress has been documented to have a negative effect on students (Pierceall & Keim, 2007), and may be linked to Internet use (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001), it was tested as a possible predictor of Internet abuse. This study also analyzed abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes, because sexuality is prevalent online, and college students are in an age of sexual exploration. Results of stepwise regression analyses revealed that disinhibition and total perceived stress were predictive of Internet abuse for sexual purposes, and perceived hopelessness and boredom susceptibility were predictive of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. Implications for students and Internet abuse are discussed. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction It has been noted that a college student receives the following when they begin school: an ID card, a meal card, and high-speed Internet access (Young, 2004). Results of a survey of 2054 college students from 27 universities and colleges revealed that 74% of college students use the Internet four or more hours per week, with 19% using it 12 or more hours per week (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2002). Researchers suggest that college students’ greater accessibility and usage of the Internet may increase their vulnerability to Internet abuse (Brenner, 1997). The proposed reasons include increased accessibility, freedom, autonomy from authority, large periods of unstructured time, and encouragement given from school faculty and administration to use the Internet, all of which leaves students more vulnerable to Internet abuse (Kandell, 1998; Moore, 1995; Young, 2004). Physical and psychological risks associated with the use of the Internet have been identified (Brenner, 1997; Greenfield, 2000; Griffiths, 2000; Kraut et al., 1998). Abuse of the Internet may be correlated with psychological impairment including social withdrawal/alienation, dysfunction in interpersonal and romantic relationships, and loss of occupational/educational productivity (Greenfield, 2000). Fortson, Scotti, Chen, Malone, and Del Ben (2007) examined 485 college students using adapted DSM-IV criteria for substance abuse to test for Internet dependency and found
* Corresponding author. Address: University of Central Florida, Department of Clinical Psychology, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816-1390, USA. Tel.: +1 407 823 4344. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Velezmoro). 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.020
that dependent individuals showed signs of social withdrawal and isolation, depressive symptoms, and had problems managing responsibilities. These negative findings have been found consistently in the relevant literature (Brenner, 1997; Greenfield, 2000; Griffiths, 2000). Currently, there is no standardized definition of Internet abuse. In fact, a discussion has arisen regarding whether Internet ‘‘addiction” exists and, if it does, how it should be viewed in relation to other disorders (Shaffer, 2002). Various nomenclatures include: Internet addiction (Young, 1999), Internet addiction disorder (Goldberg, 1996), Internet dependency (Wang, 2001), problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), and Internet abuse (Fortson et al., 2007). Yet, critics posit that Internet addiction is a creation of the psychological and psychiatric professions (Eppright, Allwood, Stern, & Theiss, 1999). Although there may be some addictive aspects of it (Shapira et al., 2003; Young, 1996), ‘‘addiction” is difficult to define with the multitude of applications online; hence, Internet abuse will be used to include all of the aforementioned symptoms. Specifically, Internet abuse is defined as using the Internet for any purpose that leads to distress or impairment in one’s life. There is a growing consensus that certain applications, rather than the Internet as an entity, are conducive to abuse (Bell, 2007; Griffiths, 2000; Yen, Ko, Yen, Wu, & Yang, 2007). The Internet is abused in myriad ways with various applications (Davis, 2001; Young, Pistner, O’Mara, & Buchanan, 1999). It may be helpful to determine first whether an individual abuses the Internet for non-sexual purposes (gaming, web surfing, etc.) or sexual purposes. This distinction is useful because the Internet has a plethora of applications that can be abused and often is used as an outlet for
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sexuality. Cooper (2004) has labeled the factors that make the Internet such an attractive outlet for sexuality the Triple A Engine: accessibility, affordability, and anonymity. Others have highlighted convenience and escapism (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Young, 1999).
ceptibility warrant more careful examination, as these variables may be related to Internet abuse, but have been studied with different populations in previous research. This study aims to examine the role that these variables play in a sample of college students.
1.1. Sensation seeking
1.2. Perceived stress
Sensation seeking theory provides evidence of an individual characteristic that may contribute to Internet abuse. Sensation seeking is ‘‘a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience” (Zuckerman, 1994). Sensation seeking has been found to influence both occupational choices and the types of reactions and interactions in which individuals engage (Roberti, 2004). Sensation seekers are motivated by the novelty of the experience and the complexity of the stimulus, and they attempt to increase the intensity of the stimulation they experience (Roberti, 2004; Zuckerman, 2006). For example, high sensation seekers are more likely to engage in sports (Zuckerman, 1994), show a greater desire to engage in physical aggression (Joireman, Anderson, & Strathman, 2003), to watch violent action films (Aluja-Fabregat & TorrubiaBeltri, 1998), and are more prone to listen to rock music (Little & Zuckerman, 1986). Sensation seeking also tends to be more common among men than women (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thornquist, & Kiers, 1991). Furthermore, sensation seekers show a tendency to seek out media depicting arousing material (Greenberg & Woods, 1999; Schierman & Rowland, 1985; Vanwesenbeeck, 2001; Zuckerman, Tushup, & Finner, 1976) and hold more permissive sexual attitudes (Zuckerman, 1994). This would make the Internet very attractive, given that the Internet has become a novel outlet for sexual expression (Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, & Boies, 1999; Griffiths, 2004) and has begun to replace traditional means of accessing sexually explicit material (Chou, Condron, & Belland, 2005). Findings on sensation seeking and Internet abuse have varied. Some have proposed that high sensation seekers are not drawn to the Internet. Lavin, Marvin, McLarney, Nola, and Scott (1998) found that sensation seeking scores were negatively related to Internet usage in college students. Yet, in a sample of 753 Taiwanese high school adolescents, Internet dependents scored significantly higher on total sensation seeking and disinhibition than Internet non-dependents (Lin & Tsai, 2001). Similar studies examining a sample of Chinese middle and high students did not find that sensation seeking led to Internet abuse (Qing-Xin, Rong-Gang, Yan, Xian-Gang, & Kan, 2005). It is possible that the negative findings are due to methodological differences and problems defining Internet abuse. Examining Internet abuse as it relates to sexual matters may be necessary. For example, viewing sexually explicit material online has been found to lead to Internet abuse later on (Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden, & Garretsen, 2006). Perry, Accordino, and Hewes (2007) examined sexual sensation seeking and sexual compulsivity among 307 college students. They found that with students who used the Internet for sexual material, as they progressed through school (or consumed more material), their sexual sensation seeking score increased. Further, Chaney and Chang (2005) suggest that among men who have sex with men (MSM), those with increased levels of boredom may be more likely to abuse the Internet for sexual purposes. Although this was hypothesized for MSM, it is possible that college students experience a similar relationship between boredom and Internet abuse. However, further examination of college students’ abuse the Internet for sexual purposes and how that abuse relates to different aspects of sensation seeking is needed to elucidate any relationships that may exist. Total sensation seeking, disinhibition, and boredom sus-
Perceived stress entails perception or assessment of threat coupled with a lack of resources to combat the stressor, irrespective of the actual threat or tax on resources (Greenberg, 1981; Lazarus, 1966). Many researchers have found increasing stress levels among college students (Misra & Castillo, 2004; Roberti, Harrington, & Storch, 2006). Pierceall and Keim (2007) examined the perceived stress of 212 college students and found that 75% of the students were classified as having moderate stress, 12% as having high stress, and only 13% having low stress. Perceived stress also has been found to influence physical health (Ng & Jeffery, 2003; Pandya, 1998; Tennant, 2000) and have negative effects on students by reducing academic performance (American College Health Association, 2007). The connection between Internet abuse and perceived stress needs to be further examined. Some researchers have found that the Internet is used by some as a means of stress relief (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001). Further, previous studies have found that impulse control disorders (Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, & McElroy, 2000) and depression (Caplan, 2003, 2005; Young & Rogers, 1998) are found among those that abuse the Internet. Although it is not possible to determine any causal relationships, and a bidirectional relationship may exist, it is possible that those who have pre-existing psychological problems may use the Internet as a means of stress relief. In the same manner, it is possible that the high level of stress associated with college life may lead some individuals to abuse the Internet. Additionally, the Internet’s saturation with sexually explicit material may be especially attractive to college students eager to explore their sexuality. 1.3. Current study With the potential influence of the Internet on college students’ overall well-being, further elucidation of how college students abuse the Internet and what factors lead to that abuse is warranted. Two predictions were made for this study. First, based on the findings Lin and Tsai (2001) and Chaney and Chang (2005), it was predicted that scores on the disinhibition, total sensation seeking, and boredom susceptibility scales will be associated with abusing the Internet for sexual purposes but not for non-sexual purposes. Although previous studies examined different populations, this study is the first to examine these variables among college students. Further, we predict that some of the mixed findings may be related to the lack of examination of sexual uses of the Internet. We anticipate that the Internet will appeal to sensations seekers only if they use the Internet for sexual purposes. Additionally, based on Lavoie and Pychyl (2001), it was predicted that perceived stress will be a predictor of Internet abuse for sexual and non-sexual purposes. Due to the high levels of stress that college students experience, we expect that perceived stress will lead some individuals to use the Internet for both sexual and non-sexual purposes. 2. Method 2.1. Participants Data were collected from 58 male and 82 female undergraduates attending two 4-year public universities in the southeast Uni-
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ted States. The survey was conducted as part of a larger study investigating risk taking practices among college students. Fortyone percent of the sample was male and 59% was female. Of the participants, the mean age of females was 23.95 (SD = 8.07) and 23.43 (SD = 7.05) for males. The ethnic distribution of the sample was as follows: 82.1% Caucasian, 4.2% African–American, 4.2% Hispanic, 2.1% Asian, .7% Native American, and 3.5% ‘‘other.” The majority of the participants indicated that they were not married (96%). 2.2. Measurements 2.2.1. Demographic questionnaire Participants were asked to complete a brief demographic questionnaire. These questions included: age, gender, academic rank, marital status, and ethnicity. 2.2.2. Internet addiction test In order to assess participants’ abuse of the Internet, a modified version of Young’s (1998) Internet addiction test (IAT) was used. Researchers have found that the IAT examines salience, excessive use and anticipation, lack of control, and neglecting responsibilities related to Internet use (Widyanto & Mcmurran, 2004). Of the 20 original items, seven were excluded because they were deemed to be inaccurate predictors of abuse. Participants responded to statements using a 5-point Likert-type scale with response options ranging from 1 (rarely) to 5 (always). Items are summed to a total of 13 to 65, with higher scores indicating more abuse. An example item is: ‘‘How often do your grades or school work suffers because of the amount of time you spend online?” Cronbach’s alpha for the present sample was found to be acceptable (.70). 2.2.3. Cyber-sex addiction test Young’s (1998) cyber-sex addiction test was used to measure abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes. Participants responded to 10 items by endorsing ‘‘yes” or ‘‘no”. Items were then summed. A total score of 10 was possible, with higher scores indicating more abuse. An example item is: ‘‘Do you feel preoccupied with using the Internet to find on-line sexual partners?” Cronbach’s Alpha for these items in this sample was found to be acceptable (.69). 2.2.4. Sensation seeking scale In order to determine differences in arousal and stimulation needs, Zuckerman’s, 1994 sensation scale (SSS-V) was used. For this study, the disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, and total score were used. The disinhibition subscale measures lack of inhibition in behavior, including sexually. The boredom susceptibility subscale measures an aversion for repetitive experiences of any kind, routine work, or even dull or predictable people. Previous studies have found good psychometric properties (Zuckerman, 1994). In the present sample, Cronbach’s alpha for each subscale was as follows: Total (0.74), disinhibition subscale (0.79), and boredom susceptibility subscale (0.76). 2.2.5. Perceived stress scale Cohen and Williamson’s (1988) perceived stress scale-10 (PSS) was used to determine how stressful individuals appraised their lives to be. This scale is a shorten version of Cohen, Kamarck, and Mermelstein’s (1983) perceived stress scale. The 10 items appraise perceived stress during the last month on a 4-point Likert-type scale with response options ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). Furthermore, Roberti et al. (2006) found that PSS has two subscales; perceived helplessness and perceived self-efficacy. Higher scores on perceived helplessness indicate less perceived hope, whereas higher scores on perceived self-efficacy indicate less perceived self-efficacy in handling stress. In the current sample, Cra-
nach’s alpha for each subscale was as follows: perceived helplessness (.84), perceived self-efficacy (.83), and total perceived stress (.88). 2.3. Procedure After obtaining approval from the appropriate institutional review board, arrangements were made with professors for group administration of the questionnaires during scheduled class time. Courses surveyed consisted of intermediate level classes in psychology and education. Participation was voluntary, and students received extra credit as compensation for their involvement. The participants were asked to complete paper questionnaires related to their risk-taking behaviors. The larger packet included questions about their risk-taking behaviors (e.g., driving and drinking). Questions related to their Internet habits were in the last section of the packet. A research assistant was present at each administration to provide instructions, inform students of the nature of the study, and collect consent forms from participating students. Participants were allowed as much time as needed to complete the instruments and no identifying information was collected. All participants completed the entire study within the time allotted, and none withdrew or terminated prematurely. Participants were told that his or her responses would be confidential, and future publication of the results would not include identifying characteristics of individual participants. 3. Results Two stepwise regression analyses were conducted with Internet abuse and sexual Internet abuse as criterion variables. To control for any gender differences, gender was entered first for both regressions, followed by subscales of the SSS-V (disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, total SSS) and stress (total perceived stress, perceived hopelessness, and perceived self-efficacy). Tolerance limits for inclusion in the equation were set at p 6 .05. 3.1. Internet abuse As anticipated, perceived hopelessness significantly predicted Internet abuse scores, b = .294, t(137) = 3.645, p < .001. Unexpectedly, boredom susceptibility also predicted Internet abuse scores, b = .200, t(137) = 2.486, p = .014. Table 1 displays the variables in the equation, and those excluded. Although the equation was significant, predictive value remained low with only 11% of the variance being accounted for with these predictors. 3.2. Internet abuse for sexual purposes As predicted, total perceived stress significantly predicted sexual Internet abuse scores, b = .277, t(137) = 3.443, p = .001. Disinhi-
Table 1 Stepwise regression with internet abuse as the criterion variable. Variables in equation
t
p
b
Perceived hopelessness Boredom susceptibility
3.645 2.486
.000 .014
.294 .200
Variables not in equation
t
p
B in
Gender Disinhibition Total score SSS-V Total perceived stress Perceived self-efficacy
1.615 1.125 .030 .839 .839
1.09 .263 .976 .403 .403
.132 .109 .003 .127 .092
F (2, 137), F = 9.033, p < .05 Adj. R2 .11.
R. Velezmoro et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 26 (2010) 1526–1530 Table 2 Stepwise regression with internet abuse for sexual purposes as the criterion variable. Variables in equation
t
p
b
Total perceived stress Disinhibition
3.443 2.296
.001 .023
.277 .185
Variables not in equation
t
p
B in
Gender Boredom susceptibility Total score SSS-V Perceived hopelessness Perceived self-efficacy
1.135 .678 .228 1.105 1.105
.258 .499 .779 .271 .271
.093 .062 .038 .167 .340
F (2, 137), F = 8.731, p < .05 Adj R2 .10.
bition also predicted Internet abuse scores, b = .185, t(139) = 2.296, p = .023. No other sensation seeking subscale was a significant predictor. Table 2 displays the variables in the equation and those excluded. Although the equation yielded significant results, predictive value remained low with only 10% of the variance being accounted for with these predictors.
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ness have been highlighted as catalysts for Internet abuse by some researchers (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2003). It should be noted that causality cannot be determined, and, although it is also possible that those who feel hopeless turn to the Internet, using the Internet also can lead to feeling hopeless due to decreased interactions with others. Finally, a bidirectional relationship is possible. Regardless of the direction of the relationship, stress appears to be an important variable in Internet abuse that needs to be further explored. These findings are to be considered in light of several limitations. The Internet addiction test measures consequences of Internet abuse, and not the behavior itself. Future studies would benefit from including items that examine specifically the behavior, and not just the consequences. Future studies also would benefit from examining college students’ views of school and school work, their activities, and especially their pattern of Internet use. Further elucidation of these variables and how they use the Internet for different purposes would be helpful in understanding abuse. Next, predictive value remained low suggesting that other variables still need to be explored. Finally, these results examined only a college environment, and are not to be generalized to other populations.
4. Conclusions and discussion
References
The purpose of this study was to examine whether sensation seeking and stress would predict abuse of the Internet. Previous studies have found that certain subscores of sensation seeking are associated with the abuse of the Internet (Chaney & Chang, 2005; Lin & Tsai, 2001). This study attempted to elucidate whether the same association would be found with abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes. Furthermore, due to the documented stress associated with college life (Pierceall & Keim, 2007), perceived stress was also tested as a predictor. Our findings related to sensation seeking scores did not support our hypothesis that individuals scoring higher in sensation seeking also would report high incidence of Internet abuse for sexual purposes. This finding is inconsistent with some research (Lin & Tsai, 2001) and consistent with another researcher’s findings (Lavin et al., 1998). Sensation seeking as a whole does not appear to be related to Internet abuse, as those with high total sensation seeking scores probably seek out more engaging activities. While it was expected that those subscores of sensation seeking would predict Internet abuse for sexual purposes, only disinhibition significantly predicted abuse. It appears that lack of inhibition may provoke some students to use and abuse the Internet for sexual purposes. It may be the case, however, that the sexual material found online is not engaging enough to attract the attention of high sensation seekers. Furthermore, boredom susceptibility was a significant predictor of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. It is possible that those that have an aversion to school work may seek out the Internet (e.g., chatting, gaming, web-surfing). Total sensation seeking is not associated with Internet abuse for sexual or non-sexual purposes, but consistent with other research (Lin & Tsai, 2001), subscales (disinhibition, boredom susceptibility) are associated with Internet abuse, but not for sexual purposes only. Additionally, this study examined the role of perceived stress in abusing the Internet for either sexual or non-sexual purposes. Perceived hopelessness was found to significantly predict abusing the Internet for non-sexual purposes, and total perceived stress significantly predicted abusing the Internet for sexual purposes. This finding suggests that those who abuse the Internet for sexual purposes may be driven by stress. Further, perceived hopelessness was a predictor of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. This suggests that perhaps suffering consequences from using the Internet is associated with feeling hopeless, and perhaps suffering from other minor psychological problems. Social problems and loneli-
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