Perception of the new competition formats in the Innsbruck 2012 Youth Olympic Games sports programme—A spectators’ perspective

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Perception of the new competition formats in the Innsbruck 2012 Youth Olympic Games sports programme—A spectators’ perspective Martin Schnitzer *, Sabrina Scheiber, Madeleine Lang, Elisabeth Brandstetter, Martin Kopp Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Fu¨rstenweg 185, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 8 May 2013 Received in revised form 17 January 2014 Accepted 22 January 2014

The Youth Olympic Games (YOG) was initiated by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2007 aiming to reach out to a younger target group. Besides the introduction of a Culture and Education Programme the creation of new competition formats was an important initiative. The objective of this study was to assess the spectators’ perception of the new sports competitions at the first Winter YOG 2012 in Innsbruck, Austria. The aim was to understand how the Games were perceived by on-site spectators attending the event. For this purpose a quantitative research approach was chosen. Based on an extensive literature review a paper questionnaire was developed and distributed among the spectators during the YOG in Innsbruck. The results revealed that the Level of Performance was perceived very positively across all competitions. Regarding the Entertainment Value, Future Development, Eustress and Rules the spectators’ perception differed between the various competitions. The findings from the study in hand provide important insights for future organisers of sports events and other related stakeholders (federations and sports clubs) with respect to the implementation of new sports competitions. ß 2014 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Youth Olympic Games Sports programme Competition Spectator perception Sport Spectator

1. Introduction The International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to introduce the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) in 2007. The YOG targets talented young athletes aged 14–18 and is designed to provide an insight into the fields of sport, education and culture (Krieger, 2012; Kristiansen, 2013; Wong, 2012). Some opinions around and within the IOC point to the fact that the IOC is struggling to attract younger spectators, as viewing audiences of the Olympic Games become steadily older (Sports Business, 2008). The YOG was seen as a marketing tool for the IOC and a means of recapturing the youth, while the IOC set itself mainly idealistic goals for the YOG (IOC, 2011b). One such goal is that the YOG should act as a platform for initiatives within the Olympic Movement. The main innovation of the YOG was without doubt the introduction of the Culture and Education Programme (CEP). Furthermore, the creation of new competition formats aiming to reach out to a younger target group and thus rejuvenate the Olympic Movement (Judge, Petersen, & Lydum, 2009) can be seen as another important initiative.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 512 507 45865. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Schnitzer). 1441-3523/$ – see front matter ß 2014 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.01.002

Please cite this article in press as: Schnitzer, M., et al., Perception of the new competition formats in the Innsbruck 2012 Youth Olympic Games sports programme—A spectators’ perspective. Sport Management Review (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.smr.2014.01.002

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Hence, the aim of this paper is to understand how the new competition formats have been perceived by on-site spectators attending the event, using the first Winter YOG 2012 in Innsbruck, Austria as an example. In this context, the article discusses various attributes used to describe the perception of a competition and delivers valuable findings with respect to the initiation, operation and presentation of new competitions at sports events. Finally, recommendations will be given for future actions of event organisers and sports associations. 1.1. Spectators’ perception of sports events The term sports spectator can be described with reference to the definitions by Heckhausen (1980) and Strauß and Ju¨rgensen (1998). They define a sports spectator as a person who observes the sporting activity without actively taking part and who thus primarily satisfies personal motives and has to expend corresponding resources to do so. Scholarly literature widely discusses what drives people to attend sports events and factors influencing attendance (Dale, van Iwaarden, van der Wiele, & Williams, 2005; Laverie & Arnett, 2000; Pan, Zhu, Gabert, & Brown, 1999) as well as spectators’ behaviours and attitudes (Bristow & Sebastian, 2001). Research on spectators often focuses on measuring the perception of aspects related to services provided, which can be based on Dale et al. (2005) with differentiations made in terms of functional quality dimensions (‘‘how’’ are services provided), technical quality dimensions (‘‘what’’ services are provided) and image quality dimensions. Also Theodorakis, Kambitsis, Laios, and Koustelios (2001) and Theodorakis, Koustelios, Robinson, and Barbos (2009) have assessed the perception of service quality among sports spectators and introduced five dimensions (tangible dimension, responsiveness, access, security and reliability), while Kelley and Turley (2001) have developed nine factors for measuring service quality at spectator sports (employees, facility access, concessions, comfort, games experience, show-time, convenience, price and smoking). Finally, a Model of Event Quality for Spectator Sport (MEQSS) introduced by Ko, Zhang, Cattani, and Pastore (2011) discusses key factors that determine service and event quality at spectator sports, such as (1) game quality, (2) augmented service quality, (3) interaction quality, (4) outcome quality and (5) physical environment quality. In order to classify the spectators’ perceptions of sports events more easily it is important to understand their motives for attending sports events. These may range from socio-emotive dimensions to on-site entertainment, depending, among others, on the different fan types. Preuss, Seguin, and O’Reilly (2007) discuss sports event visitors in terms of consumer patterns. Robertson and Pope (1999) as well as Zhang, Smith, Pease, and Jambor (1997) highlight the fact that other forms of entertainment (e.g. leisure activities, television) influence spectator attendance at sports events. Furthermore, sports events provide an opportunity for people to socialise with friends and family (Kahle & Riley, 2004; Wann, Waddill, & Dunham, 2004). Gladden and Milne (1999) discuss the inclusion of entertainment before and after the event as a means of engaging and maintaining spectator interest. Finally, issues such as size, seating comfort, access as well as the stadium’s aesthetic qualities (Buttle, Morres, & Tomlinson, 1995; Shank, 2001) influence attendance at sports events. 1.2. The role of the competition for spectators at sports events The competition as such is only one part of the spectators’ experience at a sports event. Kelley and Turley (2001) see the games experience as one of nine service quality factors and Ko et al. (2011) discuss game quality as one of five event quality factors for spectators. Hall, O’Mhony, and Vieceli (2010) criticise that academic research on attendance at sports events does not identify the factors that influence emotions during the sports event. Kim and Chalip (2004) discuss push and pull factors for sports event tourists attending mega events and stress the fact that ‘‘although different research has used different instruments, research consistently finds that fan motives are multidimensional, and attendance, frequency, likelihood, or interest are significantly predicted by fans’ motives’’ (Kim & Chalip, 2004, p. 696). The authors refer also to Wann, Melnick, Russell, and Pease’s (2001) insights on fan interest as well as to Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, and Hirakawa’s (2001) dimension for predicting attendance at sports events. Kim and Chalip (2004) identified event interest (also motives related to the competition as such and the experience of attending the event) as an important motive for attending mega events, but they see constraints (e.g. financial, time) as a third important factor besides push and pull factors. In the sports management literature, it is commonly known that spectator sport boasts special characteristics that may increase demand for a sports competition. Whereas in the case of normal products and services consumers look for identical quality and certainty, Heinemann (1995) indicates that in the world of sport it is primarily the factor of uncertainty that makes a sporting event particularly attractive for the spectator. The uncertainty of outcome of a sports competition and the often dramatic course facilitates a kind of positive physiological arousal that spectators seek. Referred to as eustress in the literature this phenomenon is considered as an important motive in the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) (Wann, 1995; Wann & Waddill, 2003). Woratschek and Schafmeister (2004) also identify a delight in sensation as a characteristic of spectator sports, which includes, for example, the hope for fierce competition. Woratschek and Schafmeister also mention relevance as an element affecting the demand for a spectator sport. Accordingly, the relevance of a World Cup Final is considerably higher than that of a friendly match. Relevance thus can be interpreted as one facet of the so-called game attractiveness factor introduced by Schofield (1983). The attractiveness factor however contains several types of variables that are influencing fan attendance such as the record (won-loss) of a team, rivalry between opponent teams, number of star athletes involved or the closeness of competition (Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983). Related to this context Woratschek and Schafmeister pointed out that spectators can only fully exploit the entertainment value of a sport (as being

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closely related to game attractiveness) if they have sufficient knowledge of the sport. Schierl (2009) holds the view that the creation of sports heroes is an additional distinctive feature of spectator sports. 1.3. The YOG: research related to the competition/sports programme and spectators Only a few scholars have dedicated their research to the YOG. The YOG as such are discussed by Digel (2008), Judge et al. (2009), Hanstad, Parent, and Kristiansen (2013), Parent, Kristiansen, Skille, and Hanstad (2013) and Schnitzer (2011). Krieger (2012), Wong (2012), Go¨tzel (2013), Kristiansen (2013) and Schnitzer, Peters, and Pocecco (2013) concentrate on different aspects of the CEP as a new element of this Olympic event. Ledochowski, Unterrainer, Ruedl, Schnitzer, and Kopp (2012) investigated psychological aspects of YOG athletes by focusing on quality of life, coach behaviour and competitive anxiety using Innsbruck 2012 as an example. Research linked to the competition and the sports programme has been conducted by Raschner, Mu¨ller, and Hildebrandt (2012), Ruedl et al. (2012) and Ullrich (2012). The study by Raschner et al. (2012) examined the role of a relative age effect (RAE) regarding sex, type of sport and performance of the athletes at the Innsbruck 2012 YOG. Ruedl et al. (2012) analysed the occurrence of injuries and illnesses during the 2012 Winter YOG in Innsbruck. Ullrich (2012) evaluated to what extent the new sporting elements in particular and the YOG 2012 programme in general were perceived as successful and whether their execution was in line with the overall YOG vision. Taking the perspective of the seven International Winter Sports Federations, as the creators of the new innovative format together with the IOC and the local organisers, the results were merely positive regarding the overall sports programme and especially the new mixed gender and mixed country elements. The first YOG 2012 constituted a major step towards positioning the event as an inherent part of the Olympic Movement, but improvements in the overall programme will be necessary to guarantee long-term success. Research relating to the spectators at the YOG has been overlooked. Only Schnitzer and Fischer (2012) as well as Tho¨ni and Schnitzer (2013) have conducted research involving spectators attending the YOG. The studies relating to consumer behaviour and satisfaction reveal that spectators attending the YOG 2012 showed a high level of overall satisfaction (37% very satisfied, 48% satisfied) with the event (Schnitzer & Fischer, 2012). Furthermore, based on the methodology of Preuss et al. (2007) Tho¨ni and Schnitzer calculated almost 76,000 YOG 2012 related overnight stays and a primary economic injection of EUR 7.5 million for the state of Tyrol and the YOG 2012 host city Innsbruck. 1.4. The (new) competition formats at the YOG The summer YOG sports programme includes 28 sports and more than 200 medal events, while the winter YOG programme is composed of seven sports and more than 60 medal events. The YOG sports programme in general is strongly linked to the traditional sports programme of the Olympic Games. As far as the quality and level of sports competitions are concerned, the IOC indicates that ‘‘the YOG competition standards, across all sports, shall be equivalent to average Junior International level competitions’’ (IOC, 2011a, p. 142). Generally speaking, the new competitions in the Sports Programme for the YOG can be grouped into three categories: the mixed-gender relays, the relays with athletes from different National Olympic Committees (NOCs) and mixed genders, and the innovative competitions that have never before been part of the Olympic Programme (IOC, 2011b). Table 1 shows the new competition formats introduced at the first Winter YOG 2012. A total of 14 new competition formats were included in the Sports Programme in Innsbruck 2012. In the biathlon and curling, a mixed gender relay was introduced. The mixed NOC and mixed gender competitions took place in the figure skating, curling, luge and short track events. Thus, in the Curling NOC Doubles Competition, Germany/Switzerland and Korea/Norway met in the final, with each team comprising a male and a female athlete (Innsbruck, 2012a, 2012b). The greatest innovations, however, comprised the completely new competitions. Similar to the FIS Alpine Ski World Championships 2011 in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, the Parallel Slalom competition was also offered as a mixed parallel team Table 1 New competition formats at the YOG 2012. Sports discipline

Event

Mixed gender

Alpine Skiing Biathlon Cross-Country/Biathlon Curling Figure Skating Luge Short Track Ski Jumping Freestyle skiing Ice hockey Ski Jumping Snowboard Speed Skating

Team Relay Relay Team/Doubles Team Relay Relay Team Ski Halfpipe Skills Challenge Women’s Ski Jumping Snowboard Slopestyle Speed Skating Mass Start

x x x x x x x x

Mixed NOCs

Completely new format

x x x x x x x x x

Sources: Own illustration-data retrieved from IOC (2011b, 2011d), Kauerhof, Nagel, and Zebisch (2010). Note: NOC, National Olympic Committee.

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competition. Thus, at the Winter YOG the young men and women could prove their skills for the first time with the skiers in the Halfpipe. The young athletes also competed for a medal in a combination of cross country skiing and biathlon. For the first time in Olympic history, women were allowed to participate in the Olympic Ski Jumping competition. In addition, a Team Ski Jumping competition was staged. In the discipline of snowboarding, the Snowboard Slopestyle Competition became an Olympic sport for both genders for the first time. The Speed Skating Mass Start for men and women was, likewise, among the new competitions. An innovation was introduced in ice hockey in the form of an individual skills competition called the Skills Challenge (Innsbruck, 2012a, 2012c). The Skills Challenge comprises six disciplines that test the skills needed by ice hockey players as defined by the IIHF. The athletes competed in the fields of fastest lap, shooting accuracy, skating agility, hardest ¨ sterreichischer Eishockeyverband, 2012). shot, passing precision and puck control (O 2. Methodology The objective of this study was to assess important aspects of the spectators’ perception of the new sport competitions at the Innsbruck 2012 Winter Youth Olympic Games. For this purpose a quantitative research approach was chosen. Based on extensive literature research, a paper questionnaire was developed and distributed among the spectators during the event. In the following, the questionnaire, the spectator sample and the statistical analyses are presented in detail. 2.1. Questionnaire design and data collection The questionnaire itself was divided into a spectator specific and a general section. In the first section spectators were asked about their demographic background as well as additional questions with a view to compiling spectator profiles. The second section included questions on the spectators’ perception of the sports events at the Innsbruck 2012 YOG. Academic literature has investigated the motives spectators generally have for attending events (Gabler, 1998; Messing & Lames, 1996; Wann, 1995). Additionally, researchers have conducted studies measuring service and event quality aspects of spectator sports (Kelley & Turley, 2001; Ko et al., 2011; Theodorakis et al., 2009). However, tried-and-tested methods of evaluating different aspects of specifically a sports competition could not be found. For this reason, the present research takes an exploratory approach. The several categories in the general section have been formed inductively considering literature related to the evaluation of sports competitions and on the basis of what such categories should logically contain. The following list provides an overview of the categories in the general section:         

Set of Rules Excitement Level Entertainment Atmosphere Aesthetics Transferability Sustainability Level of Performance Media Effectiveness

The category ‘‘Set of Rules’’ aimed at testing the degree to which the rules were comprehensible. Schramm (2009) also thinks that the rules are an important attribute in helping a recipient evaluate a sport. The two constructs ‘‘Excitement Level’’ and ‘‘Entertainment’’ are closely intertwined. In motivation research, these two categories represent the most relevant factors for attending events (Gabler, 1998; Messing & Lames, 1996; Wann, 1995). In this study, entertainment refers to the fun and variety factor during the competition. Excitement level was defined as the level of excitement experienced. The atmosphere, the buzz and the thrill of the competition were grouped within the category ‘‘Atmosphere’’. In research, this category is often investigated as a separate topic (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010; Uhrich & Ko¨nigstorfer, 2009). ‘‘Aesthetics’’ referred to the kind of sporting activity, with the emphasis falling mainly on harmonious and stylish movement. This does not mean that aesthetics is limited to stylistic sports; indeed, it is in evidence in other sports as well (McDonald, Milne, & Hong, 2002; Wann, 1995). The categories ‘‘Transferability’’ and ‘‘Sustainability’’ were inductively formed. Transferability described the potential for transferring the sport to other sports events in the future. Sustainability referred to the influence of the sport on future developments in the Olympic Games and to participation in the sport. An additional, inductively formed category was the ‘‘Level of Performance’’. Based on logical content, the athletes’ level of performance also constitutes an important factor in judging the impact of a sport. As Schierl (2004) has already pointed out, sports can gain in popularity through media coverage. Consequently, a category covering ‘‘Media Effectiveness’’ was, likewise, created. The questions surveying the spectators’ perception of the events could be answered in five different ways using a 5 point Likert-type scale: 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = partly agree, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree. The survey was carried out during and after the competitions in the finish and spectator areas of the venues between 15th January and 22nd January 2012.

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Table 2 Sample spectators (N = 412). n [responses] Age

408

Mean 29.84

SD [] 13.16

Gender

408

Male 59.5%

Female 39.6%

Nationality

412

(1) AUT: 46.4% (2) GER: 17% (3) NED: 6.1%

Highest level of qualification

405

(1) (2) (3) (4)

University/University of Applied Science: 36.4% Higher School Leaving Certificate: 32.5% Apprenticeship/Professional school qualification: 15.5% Compulsory School Leaving Certificate: 13.8%

2.2. Sample Among the spectators a total convenience sample of N = 412 valid questionnaires was achieved for the evaluation of the innovative competitions. Any questionnaires that were less than half full were not included in the evaluation. Around 30% of respondents refused to complete a questionnaire. As Table 2 shows 39.6% of spectators were female and 59.5% male. The cross-gender age averaged 29.84, with the average age of the females amounting to 29.66 and that of the males averaging 29.97 (13.16). Of the 412 spectators asked, 46.4% were Austrian, whilst 17.0% were of German and 6.1% of Dutch origin. Other spectators (at least 2%) were from Canada (4.1%), Italy and United Kingdom (3.4% each) and Switzerland (2.4%). The majority of spectators at the Winter Youth Olympic Games, that is, 36.4%, had a university or university of applied sciences degree. 32.5% of the spectators had a higher school leaving certificate, whilst 15.5% had completed an apprenticeship or attended professional college and 13.8% had the compulsory leaving certificate. In the spectator-specific part of the questionnaire, respondents were asked to give further profile information. When asked about their relationship with sport (Table 3), the majority said they engaged in sport as a hobby (26.5%). Many also stated that they were members of a sports club (21.9%), that they actively practised sport (20.8%) and followed sport in the media (17.2%). Comparatively few respondents said they were members of fan clubs (2.6%) or engaged in sport professionally (2.2%). Eight people were actually participating in the Winter Youth Olympic Games. 2.3. Statistical analysis The data were evaluated using the SPSS (PASW) 18.0 statistics programme, at a significance level of a = 0.05. In accordance with Bortz and Do¨ring (2006) a normal distribution was assumed given the size of the sample. The first step in the evaluation process involved subjecting the deductively formed categories to an inductive check, using a factor analysis. Following a descriptive analysis of the data, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out with the items from the general section with a view to ascertaining possible differences between the new competitions. On a category level, the factors also underwent an analysis of variance. In addition, the correlation coefficient was also calculated according to Pearson.

3. Results 3.1. Relevant aspects for the evaluation of the new sport competitions The first step of the analysis involved checking the nine categories that evolved from the literature research and were subsequently used in the spectator questionnaire. For this purpose, a factor analysis was conducted. When testing the Table 3 Spectators’ affinity to sports. N = 876

(%)

Hobby athlete Member of a sports club Active athlete Fan of sport in the media Member of a sporting fan-club Professional athlete Participant in one of the events Other

26.5 21.9 20.8 17.2 2.6 2.2 0.9 7.9

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6 Table 4 Results of the factor analysis. Factor/items

Category

Factor (loadings) F1

F1. Entertainment Value 8. The event was exciting 13. The event was entertaining 11. The event was a pleasure to watch 9. The event was compelling 12. The event represents a welcome change from the pre-existing ones 14. I had a good time during the event 10. The event really gripped me

Excitement Level Entertainment Entertainment Excitement Level Entertainment Entertainment Excitement Level

F2. Future Development 23. This event modernises the Olympic Games 24. This event makes the Youth Olympic Games more interesting 26. This event encourages young people to participate in sports 25. This event encourages adults to participate in sports 31. This event should have a higher media profile (newspaper, TV, radio) 22. This event should be offered by a club in my local area 29. This event is particularly media-friendly 30. I would also watch this event on TV

Sustainability Sustainability Sustainability Sustainability Media Effectiveness Transferability Media Effectiveness Media Effectiveness

F3. Eustress 17. The spectators participated actively and vocally at the event 16. The event was well attended 15. A great deal of enthusiasm could be felt during the event 18. The event was lively and action-packed

Atmosphere Atmosphere Aesthetics Atmosphere

F4. Level of Performance 28. The athletes conducted themselves professionally 27. The competition was of an international standard

Level of Performance Level of Performance

F5. Rules 5. I am familiar with the rules of the event 6. The rules of the event were easy to follow

Set of Rules Set of Rules

Cronbach’s a Number of items (total = 23)

F2

F3

F4

F5

0.773 0.759 0.725 0.724 0.622 0.619 0.608

0.656 0.653 0.651 0.634 0.630 0.623 0.572 0.552

0.827 0.767 0.719 0.550

0.815 0.648

0.845 0.825 0.913 7

0.849 8

0.857 4

0.602 2

0.811 2

sampling adequacy, a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value of 0.933 was determined which, according to Bartlett, was highly significant (p = 0.000). This means that the set of data was suitable for a factor analysis. An eigenvalue of 1 was determined as a condition for factor extraction. A five-factor solution was established for the spectators’ perception of the events. The five extracted factors explained 62.15% of the total variance. In this context, those items were taken into account that had a loading of aij  0.50 for the allocated factors. The findings were calculated on the basis of the Varimax Rotation. The five factors identified for the spectators’ evaluation were labelled Entertainment Value, Future Development, Eustress, Level of Performance and Rules. The detailed results of the factor analysis are displayed in Table 4. The original list of items used for the questionnaire can be found in the Appendix. Items 19, 20 and 21 were not taken into account due to their uneven distribution, whilst Items 20 and 21 were analysed separately on an item basis. Item 7 was removed since it reduced the internal consistency of this sub-scale (Cronbach Alpha’ (a)). Since the Level of Performance clearly represents an important attribute for the evaluation of sport, this factor can be treated as an autonomous category, having a Cronbach Alpha of a < 0.65. As Table 4 shows, the reliability of the five scales can generally be described as good (Entertainment Value a = 0.913, Future Development a = 0.849; Eustress a = 0.857; Level of Performance a = 0.602 und Rules a = 0.811). Overall, there was an internal consistency of a = 0.780. 3.2. Spectators’ perception of the new competition From the spectators’ view the Level of Performance in the competitions received the best evaluations with a mean value of 1.60 (0.747). The Entertainment Value amounted to 1.75 (0.782), compared with Future Development with 2.15 (0.817), Eustress with 2.17 (0.917) and Rules with 2.27 (1.181). The individual five factors were also evaluated separately on the basis of the new competitions. At the end an additional overall evaluation across the five factors was carried out. Table 5 illustrates the mean scores attributed to each event by the spectators and the consequential rankings. The spectators awarded the best scores for the Level of Performance to the Cross Country Skiing Biathlon Mixed Team Relay (1.35  0.730), followed by the Figure Skating Mixed NOC Team Competition (1.37  0.438). With a mean score of 1.91 (1.260), the Ski Jumping Team Competition received the worst rating. The factor Level of Performance was the only one of the five factors not to show any significant differences between the competitions (p = 0.152). Taking a look at the Entertainment Value

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Table 5 Spectators’ perception of the new competitions with regard to the five factors. Event

Level of Performance

Entertainment Value

Future Development

N

Mean

SD []

Rank

N

Mean

SD []

Rank

N

Mean

SD []

Rank

Short Track mixed NOC relay Cross Country Skiing/Biathlon mixed team relay Speed Skating Mass Start Ski Jumping Women Freestyle Skiing Halfpipe Biathlon mixed relay Alpine Skiing mixed parallel team event Ice Hockey Skills Challenge Luge mixed team relay Figure Skating mixed NOC team event Snowboard Slopestyle Ski Jumping team competition Curling NOC double competition Curling mixed team competition

39 23 48 42 72 30 39 109 15 43 52 11 51 66

1.50 1.35 1.50 1.60 1.49 1.55 1.64 1.66 1.47 1.37 1.77 1.91 1.68 1.73

0.716 0.730 0.676 0.665 0.780 0.592 0.827 0.710 0.719 0.438 0.926 1.260 0.706 0.800

(6) (1) (5) (8) (4) (7) (9) (10) (3) (2) (13) (14) (11) (12)

39 23 48 42 73 31 40 110 15 44 53 11 51 67

1.48 1.64 1.67 1.75 1.56 1.75 1.92 1.85 2.15 1.90 1.91 1.87 2.01 2.46

0.530 0.819 0.625 0.594 0.675 0.628 0.797 0.783 0.886 0.684 0.790 0.525 0.962 1.086

(1) (3) (4) (5) (2) (6) (11) (7) (13) (9) (10) (8) (12) (14)

39 23 48 42 73 31 39 110 15 43 52 11 51 67

1.88 1.90 2.19 1.99 1.77 2.04 2.13 2.23 2.35 2.20 1.88 2.23 2.51 2.69

0.689 0.641 0.823 0.779 0.610 0.753 0.723 0.706 0.827 0.670 0.598 0.774 1.036 1.052

(3) (4) (8) (5) (1) (6) (7) (10) (12) (9) (2) (11) (13) (14)

Total

640

1.60

0.747

647

1.75

0.782

644

2.15

0.817

Event

Eustress

Rules

Overall Result

N

Mean

SD []

Rank

N

Mean

SD []

Rank

N

Mean

SD []

Rank

Short Track mixed NOC relay Cross Country Skiing/Biathlon mixed team relay Speed Skating Mass Start Ski Jumping Women Freestyle Skiing Halfpipe Biathlon mixed relay Alpine Skiing mixed parallel team event Ice Hockey Skills Challenge Luge mixed team relay Figure Skating mixed NOC team event Snowboard Slopestyle Ski Jumping team competition Curling NOC double competition Curling mixed team competition

39 23 48 42 73 31 39 110 15 43 53 11 51 67

1.76 2.25 1.57 2.13 2.02 1.90 2.65 2.01 2.27 2.02 2.38 2.80 2.74 2.52

0.660 1.136 0.787 0.685 0.907 0.638 1.040 0.776 1.033 0.767 0.857 1.150 0.850 1.027

(2) (8) (1) (7) (5) (3) (12) (4) (9) (6) (10) (14) (13) (11)

39 23 48 42 73 31 40 111 15 43 53 11 51 67

2.19 1.78 2.09 1.57 2.26 1.98 1.58 2.33 1.93 2.84 2.85 2.14 2.67 2.51

1.212 0.975 1.085 0.852 1.270 1.136 0.805 1.054 1.116 1.238 1.284 0.869 1.169 1.215

(8) (3) (6) (1) (9) (5) (2) (10) (4) (13) (14) (7) (12) (11)

39 23 48 42 73 31 40 111 15 44 53 11 51 67

1.76 1.78 1.80 1.81 1.82 1.85 1.97 2.02 2.03 2.05 2.16 2.19 2.32 2.38

0.593 0.670 0.617 0.515 0.637 0.516 0.635 0.572 0.629 0.504 0.692 0.739 0.679 0.808

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Total

645

2.17

0.917

647

2.27

1.181

648

2.01

0.659

the Short Track Mixed NOC Relay with a mean of 1.48 (0.530) achieved the best evaluation, followed by Freestyle Ski Halfpipe with a score of 1.56 (0.675). The Curling Mixed Team Competition had the poorest rating (2.46  1.086). Considering the mean values for the factor Future Development, the spectators have the highest hopes for Freestyle Ski Halfpipe with a score of 1.77 (0.610), followed by Snowboard Slopestyle (1.88  0.598). The Curling Mixed Team Competition had the poorest rating with a mean score of 2.69 (01.052). In terms of the factor Eustress the best values were for Speed Skating Mass Start (1.57  0.787) and Short Track Mixed NOC Relay (1.76  0.660). The poorest score in this category went to the Ski Jumping Team Competition (2.80  1.150). Taking a closer look at the factor Rules, best score was for the Ski Jumping Individual Competition Women (1.57  0.852), followed by the Alpine Skiing Mixed Parallel Team Competition (1.58  0.805). Finally, Snowboard Slopestyle scored 2.85 (1.284). In the latter four categories, Entertainment Value, Future Development, Eustress and Rules there was a highly significant difference between the competitions (p = 0.000**). In the overall spectator rating the Short Track Mixed NOC Relay (1.76  0.593) had the best score. This was followed by the Cross Country Skiing Biathlon Mixed Team Relay (1.78  0.670) and the Speed Skating Mass Start (1.80  0.617). The highest and thus worst mean values were recorded for the two Curling competitions with mean scores of 2.32 (0.679) and 2.38 (0.808) respectively. Generally speaking, the competitions and their different characteristics were perceived as positive throughout. The total mean scores per competition ranged between 1.76 as the best score and 2.38 as the poorest score. Thus, even the competitions in the lower overall ranking still received a satisfying appraisal (considering the range of 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree). With respect to the factor-related results, the Level of Performance was perceived very positively across all the different competitions. The results for Entertainment Value, Future Development, Eustress and Rules revealed stronger variations between the competitions and will therefore be discussed more critically in the next section. 4. Discussion When surveying the spectators’ perception of an event, scholars have mostly measured the perception of aspects related to services provided at an event (Dale et al., 2005; Kelley & Turley, 2001; Ko et al., 2011; Theodorakis et al., 2001, 2009) but not aspects directly related to the competition. Thus, the purpose of this study was to assess important aspects in the

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spectators’ perception of the new sports competitions at the Innsbruck 2012 Winter Youth Olympic Games in order to arrive at new findings with respect to the initiation, operation and presentation of new competitions at sports events. In the following sections the primary results of this study will be discussed highlighting the latter’s additional value for the existing literature on the spectators’ role in and their perception of events. Important management implications can be derived from the findings which are of relevance to the future actions of event organisers and sports associations. Finally, the limitations of this study and the potential for future research are outlined. 4.1. Discussion of primary results The level of performance of the competing athletes is important with respect to the spectators’ interest in an event. Having the chance to watch world-class athletes raises the relevance of an event in the spectators’ perception. Woratschek and Schafmeister (2004) have classified relevance as an element affecting the demand for a spectator sport. The empirical results revealed that the spectators perceived the level of performance attributed to the new competitions as very high. The fact that the respondents showed a strong relationship with sports (see Table 1) leads us to the assumption that spectators had a profound knowledge of sports in general and thus their perception of the level of performance is valuable and quite realistic. The positive results can also be supported by Schnitzer et al. (2014) who revealed that most of the participating athletes at the YOG 2012 in Innsbruck saw the event as the peak sports event of their season. Nearly half of the participants (49.5%) considered the level of competition as equal to a World Championship, 18.0% to a Continental Championship and 7.7% to a National Championship. The excitement experienced by spectators and the entertainment in terms of the fun and variety factor during a competition are two constructs that are closely interwined in the literature. Both are among the most relevant motives for attending events (Gabler, 1998; Messing & Lames, 1996; Wann, 1995). In the study in hand, these two constructs constituted a single factor that was labelled Entertainment Level. Items or comments relating to the action-packed features of the event and the enthusiasm of the audience were grouped in the factor Eustress. Although the factor analysis produced two separate factors, both relating to the socio-emotional level of the competition (Entertainment Level and Eustress), the results of the spectators’ perception revealed a similar picture. It was evident that fast and action-packed events (e.g. Speed Skating, Short Track) received very positive feedback from the spectators, while the Curling competitions, where the spectator had to wait and watch for a long time in order to see the results, received rather low values for Entertainment and Eustress. These findings are congruent with Woratschek and Schafmeister (2004) who identified a delight in sensation as a characteristic of spectator sports, which includes, for example, the hope for fierce competition. Furthermore, it can be argued that the results reflect the circumstance that spectators tend to favour more telegenic sports (Wopp, 2006). Thus, those competitions where spectators could actually see and follow most of the happening came top in the ranking (e.g. Speed Skating, Short Track, Biathlon, Freestyle Ski Halfpipe). In fact, the YOG did not provide the spectators with video walls at the actual venues. This may explain the comparatively poor rating for Alpine Skiing, Snowboard Slopestyle or Luge, since the spectators at these events were able to watch parts of a run for just a few seconds at a time. The ability to follow these competitions on television and to use slow motion and replays whilst providing coverage of the entire descent naturally improves the atmosphere and enthusiasm among the spectators. The installation of video walls could potentially improve the quality of an event and attract more spectators. Woratschek and Schafmeister (2004) noted that spectators can only fully exploit the entertainment value of a sport if they have sufficient knowledge of the sport. Knowledge of the sport includes, amongst others, a full understanding of the competition rules. All competitions evaluated in this study were new competition formats that had never before been part of an Olympic Sports Programme. Even if, for the majority of the new events, national and international competitions had taken place prior to the YOG, the disciplines and especially their set of rules were not well known among the spectators. Ski Halfpipe and Snowboard Slopestyle, for example, usually only attract a very specific target group such that the general public hardly understands how the tricks are judged in detail. The sample of spectators in this study displayed a strong connection with sport in general, being hobby or even professional athletes themselves. Even so, it was evident that completely new formats such as the Ice Hockey Skills Challenge were not fully understood. With reference to the Ice Hockey Skills Challenge, a new format that had never before been staged as a competition, a European or a World Championship, the federations in charge need to make a special effort and provide sufficient information on the competition rules. For the spectators, detailed on-site information might be given by the presenters whilst the media and broadcasting stations could be used to disseminate information for audiences watching in all four corners of the world. The last attribute surveyed in the spectators’ perception of the competitions was the potential for future development. This factor referred on the one hand to the transferability of the competition to other sports events in the future and, on the other hand, to the participation of the general public in the sport. Freestyle Skiing Halfpipe and Snowboard Slopestyle were ranked in first and second place in the Future Development factor. These results confirm the decisions made by the IOC, since both competitions named have already been included in the Olympic Programme for Sochi (IOC, 2011c). Some respondents may, however, have been influenced in their assessment by having a prior knowledge of the competitions scheduled to take place in Sochi, which had already been decided at the time the survey was conducted. Interestingly, the Luge Team Competition, also a new competition included in the Sochi Programme, received a rather low value regarding its potential for future development. Other competitions found at the bottom of the future development ranking are the Ice Hockey Skills Challenge and the two Curling competitions (NOC double and mixed team competition). These three competitions are

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among those that were generally at the medium or low end of the rankings across all five aspects. As mentioned earlier, the Ice Hockey Skills Challenge is a completely new event with no prior competitions and, although it accounted for the biggest sample in this survey, it received rather low scores. This might be explained by the fact that the competition lacks the specific characteristics of a spectator sport. The essential characteristic of a spectator and media sport as defined by Heinemann (1995) is the element of uncertainty, which is in evidence only to a limited degree here. With the exception of the final outcome, the regulated structure of the Ice Hockey Skills Challenge offers complete transparency. The direct, planned duel in the head-to-head rules out the possibility of fouls and spontaneous duels which means that the criterion defined as the desire for sensation (Gabler, 1998; Woratschek & Schafmeister, 2004) is only partially met. As far as Curling in general is concerned, it is a highly technical sport which in comparison with other action-packed events is rather boring and lengthy to watch. The results of this study delivered important insights into how the spectators perceived the different aspects of those competitions newly introduced at the 1st Winter Youth Olympic Games 2012 in Innsbruck. The findings can be used as guidance for sports associations (IOC, International and National Federations, local sport clubs) as well as for future organisers of other multi-sport events such as the European Youth Olympic Festival (EYOF), the Winter Universiade or other continental Games (e.g. Asian Games). To ensure that the Sports Programme of the YOG, the Olympic Games and other sports events including similar competitions reflect today’s needs as accurately as possible, certain changes could be made to the programme on the basis of the results outlined above. Finally, this study will add to the existent body of literature on the assessment of sports competitions from a spectators’ perspective. 4.2. (Managerial) implications The aim of this study was to arrive at findings with respect to the initiation, operation and presentation of new competitions at sports events with a view to deriving recommendations for future action. Important implications drawn from the results are discussed below. 4.2.1. Implications for organisers of multi-sport events The particularly positive results for the level of performance across all competitions illustrates that the Winter YOG as such is comparable to other international top standard competitions. For future organisers of the event, this knowledge needs to be used when setting up marketing and communication campaigns. Promoting the professional level of participating athletes will increase public interest and subsequently encourage more spectators to watch the competitions on-site. Especially with respect to sports where the young athletes are already among the best in the world (e.g. Freestyle Ski Halfpipe, Snowboard Slopestyle), our findings indicate that there is huge marketing potential for the organisers of future YOG’s as well as other multi-sport events including similar competitions (e.g. EYOF, Winter Universiade, X Games) to attract additional spectators with sideline events such as signing sessions or Meet&Greet events. Referring to the entertainment value and eustress, the findings indicate that the organiser should try to provide video walls for competitions where the spectator cannot see parts of the competition (e.g. Luge, Alpine Skiing, Snowboard Slopestyle). Such a service would enable spectators to follow the whole spectacle from the start right through to the finish which subsequently has a major influence on the excitement levels and thus the atmosphere within the spectator areas. Moreover, especially at outdoor winter sports events, people have to bear cold temperatures for relatively long periods which might have a negative impact on the event experience. Event organisers are therefore challenged to keep the audience’s attention and excitement. One approach to reducing waiting times for spectators prior the start of a competition and during the breaks can be to organise additional entertainment in the form of music or other performances. The factor Future Development reflects the spectators’ opinion on potential transferability to other events but also peoples’ interest in participating in the different sports themselves. Multi-sport events offer the unique opportunity for spectators to experience and observe sports to which they otherwise have little access due to non-existent infrastructure (e.g. Curling, Ski Halfpipe). In an attempt to increase peoples’ attention and knowledge of certain sports, event organisers could build on the excitement generated after an international event and open the facilities to the public after the competitions or even provide the infrastructure for a few days after the event. When introducing new event formats, competition rules should also be given special attention by the organisers. The spectators’ lacking understanding of the rules can be countered by providing continuous information through the on-site speakers. Additionally, video walls may be used to make rules and judgements easier for spectators to understand (e.g. illustrations of trick judgements during the Ski Halfpipe). 4.2.2. Implications for associations and local sports clubs The results of this study reveal that spectators at the YOG 2012 gave the new, youth-driven competition formats very encouraging reviews. This emphasizes that the IOC and IFs’ path to creating and introducing new innovative competitions is moving in the right direction and is positively perceived by the audience. Even if the factor Future Development received diverging evaluations for the new competitions, the findings indicate that the YOG can serve as a testing ground as to whether or not a competition should be included in the future programmes of multi-sport events. Worth mentioning at this point is also the new Cross Country Skiing Biathlon Mixed Team Relay, which was perceived very positively with respect to most aspects. This evaluation is insightful not least because this new competition was the only one to be organised in

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cooperation with two specialist associations. Particularly at a multi-sport event such as the YOG or the Olympic Games, which in its role as a joint project already involves many associations, a form of cross-association cooperation of this kind can only be deemed positive. Generally, International and National Federations as well as local sports clubs should be aware that events of this kind help to place their sport in the public eye, giving associations the chance to promote their sport among spectators worldwide. As already mentioned, missing or poor infrastructure keeps people from actively participating in sports. The staging of sports events leads to the creation of sports facilities and it is in the associations’ interest to ensure that the general public gains access to them during or after an event. Federations or local sports clubs could work together with event organisers and facilitate the use of infrastructure for a few days after an event so that interested adolescents, young adults or adults can try out different sports while being instructed by professionals. 4.3. Limitations and future research Though clearly structured, there are some limitations to this study that should be acknowledged. In the following, several conditions will be discussed that should be considered in future studies in this field of research. First of all, the scale developed in this study exclusively reflects the spectators’ perception of newly introduced competitions at the YOG 2012. Thus, it can be argued that the extracted attributes are primarily important with regard to the evaluation of new event formats. As no control group was used in the study it is unclear whether the same attributes are useful in assessing the spectators’ perception of already known ‘‘traditional’’ events. This fact represents the core limitation of this study. An interesting approach for a future study might be to conduct a survey using the same competition attributes to assess the spectators’ perception of the ‘‘traditional’’ and the new competitions at an event. Another limitation is the fact that the new competitions were evaluated only from the spectators’ perspective. Many of the spectators at the YOG were closely related to sports, some were even professional athletes themselves. In order to gain a broader and more valuable insight, it is therefore recommended to investigate the perception of different groups of stakeholders involved in an event. Thus, the perspectives of the media or the IFs could be analysed when conducting future studies in this field. Focusing on various stakeholders’ perspectives would also be interesting with a view to further justifying the scale of sporting competitions developed in the study in hand. The third limitation of this study constitutes the uneven distribution of the sample sizes for the different competitions. When conducting the spectator survey, the short duration of the individual competitions and the cold temperatures at the outdoor events posed great difficulties and therefore caused a problem with the sample sizes. On the one hand, it was necessary to start the survey during the competitions since the spectators left the venues as soon as the competitions had ended on account of the freezing temperatures. On the other hand, the spectators took a long time to fill in the form because they paused to watch the competitions, leaving less time to interview more spectators. The volunteers were forced to distribute the questionnaires very quickly and effectively. The sub-zero temperatures, which at times fell to 15 8C, proved to be the biggest hurdle since several spectators refused to remove their gloves to fill in a questionnaire (approximately 30%). The number of spectators at the outdoor events (N = 353 at 9 competitions) was lower than expected which can, likewise, be attributed to the cold weather (as well as cancellations and postponements). The icy temperatures meant that generally more spectators were surveyed at the indoor events (N = 329 at 5 competitions), resulting as already mentioned in the differing sample sizes. In this regards, moreover it needs to be acknowledged that by surveying the spectators directly at the venue during a competition might have biased their perception. It can be argued that their excitement of being right at the action at one competition influenced their perception and satisfaction with the respective event in comparison to other evaluated competitions that they had followed on earlier days. For future research dealing with spectators’ perception on sports competitions it is generally recommended to consider taking a qualitative approach in order to provide a more detailed and in-depth understanding of the different aspects of the spectators’ perception in this field. 5. Conclusion Various scholars (Dale et al., 2005; Kelley & Turley, 2001; Ko et al., 2011; Theodorakis et al., 2001, 2009) have assessed sport events from a spectators’ perspective and thereby mostly focused on the perception of the services provided at events. The aim of the study in hand, however, was to assess the spectators’ perception of attributes specifically related to a sports competition. The sports competitions investigated in this case were exclusively the new competitions introduced at the Innsbruck 2012 Winter Youth Olympic Games. So far no study conducted in the field of sport events has analysed the spectators’ perception by surveying completely new competitions introduced to a sports programme. The attributes used for the investigation were developed on the basis of an extensive literature review about spectator sports in general and the role of competitions in the spectator experience. The newly created scale is of additional value and contributes to the existing body of literature in the field of sports events. The findings from the study provide important insights for future organisers of sport events and other related stakeholders (federations and sport clubs) with respect to the implementation of new sports competitions. Additionally, this study contains information that could be of use to the IOC in the further development of the Olympic Programme. In contrast

Please cite this article in press as: Schnitzer, M., et al., Perception of the new competition formats in the Innsbruck 2012 Youth Olympic Games sports programme—A spectators’ perspective. Sport Management Review (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.smr.2014.01.002

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to the Olympic Programme, which is put together by the IOC, a so-called Co-Creation process takes place for the YOG. This procedure draws both the relevant Organising Committee and the corresponding associations into the decision-making process. In the period from the bidding process to the Games, the YOG 2012 programme was developed further in cooperation with the national and international federations and the IOC to include the new events. This demonstrates quite patently the role played by the YOG in promoting new competition formats. In conclusion, this study recommends that future innovations at the next Winter YOG in Lillehammer in 2016 and the new competitions in Sochi 2014 be evaluated from the perspectives of different stakeholders (athletes, spectators, media, IFs, etc.) so that the scale for the assessment of new sport competitions derived from this study can be tested further and the Olympic Programme can be optimally adapted to the wishes of the IOC and the youth of today. Appendix Original list of items used in the spectator questionnaire. No.

Item

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

I enjoyed the event I am familiar with the rules of the event The rules of the event were easy to follow The finishing places were predictable The event was exciting The event was compelling The event really gripped me The event was a pleasure to watch The event represents a welcome change from the pre-existing one The event was entertaining I had a good time during the event A great deal of enthusiasm could be felt during the event The event was well attended The spectators participated actively and vocally at the event The event was lively and action-packed The event was of aesthetic value The event has potential to be included in the Olympic Games The event should be included in the next Youth Olympic Games This event should be offered by a club in my local area This event modernises the Olympic Games This event makes the Youth Olympic Games more interesting This event encourages adults to participate in sports This event encourages young people to participate in sports The competition was of an international standard The athletes conducted themselves professionally This event is particularly media-friendly I would also watch this event on TV This event should have a higher media profile (newspaper, TV, radio)

Note: NOC, National Olympic Committee.

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Please cite this article in press as: Schnitzer, M., et al., Perception of the new competition formats in the Innsbruck 2012 Youth Olympic Games sports programme—A spectators’ perspective. Sport Management Review (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.smr.2014.01.002