Perfectionism, social physique anxiety and disordered eating: a comparison of male and female elite athletes

Psychology of Sport and Exercise 3 (2002) 209–222 www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Perfectionism, social physique anxiety and disordered eating: a comparison of male and female elite athletes Anne M. Haase b

a,*

, Harry Prapavessis b, R. Glynn Owens

a

a Department of Psychology, Tamaki Campus, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Tamaki Campus, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Received 11 September 2000; received in revised form 21 March 2001; accepted 23 May 2001

Abstract Objective: To examine the relationship between Positive and Negative Perfectionism and Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) and the extent to which these two variables predict disturbed eating attitudes in male and female elite athletes. Design: Cross-sectional survey. Method: Athletes (n=316) completed measures of Positive and Negative Perfectionism, SPA, disordered eating and social desirability. Zero- and first-order (partial) correlations were examined to determine the relationship between Positive and Negative Perfectionism and SPA. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine how two individual difference variables, perfectionism and SPA, relate and contribute to disordered eating. Results: For both male and female athletes, Negative Perfectionism was significantly related to SPA. For males, Positive Perfectionism made a small, yet significant, contribution (i.e. 6%) in predicting disturbed eating attitudes. For females, Negative Perfectionism and SPA uniquely and in combination significantly contributed 41% of the variance in the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes. Discussion: These findings suggest that Negative Perfectionism is strongly linked with SPA and that, in females, SPA is an additional psychosocial variable to consider in the relationship between Negative Perfectionism and disordered eating.  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Perfectionism; Social physique anxiety; Disordered eating; Elite athletes; Personality; Gender

Introduction Several studies have examined various different aspects of perfectionism, although not as frequently in athletic populations (Frost & Henderson, 1991; Gould, Udry, Tuffey, & Loehr, 1996; * Corresponding author.

1469-0292/02/$ - see front matter  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 4 6 9 - 0 2 9 2 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 1 8 - 8

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Hewitt & Flett, 1991a). In general, perfectionism has been defined as the setting of unrealistic, excessively high standards in relation to one’s goals and expectations (Burns, 1983). The maladaptive effects of perfectionism have been linked with various psychopathologies, such as eating disorders, depression, neuroticism, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and a variety of different anxiety disorders (Davis, 1997; Flett, Hewitt, & Dyck, 1989; Pacht, 1984). Over the years, a convergence of descriptive studies on perfectionism has emerged, suggesting both a ‘normal’ form along with a ‘neurotic’ form. For instance, Hamachek (1978) distinguished between normal and neurotic perfectionists, where normal perfectionists experience high satisfaction and increased self-esteem from their achievements. Neurotic perfectionists, on the other hand, “…are unable to feel satisfaction because in their own eyes they never seem to do things good enough…” (p. 27), focusing on the perceived inadequacy and failure of their efforts. This distinction parallels that which was made by Slade and Dewey (1986) between ‘Satisfied’ and ‘Dissatisfied’ perfectionists and that by Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, and Neubauer (1993) between ‘Positive Achievement Striving’ and ‘Maladaptive Evaluative Concerns’. Terry-Short, Owens, Slade and Dewey (1995) recently proposed a theoretically-based distinction between normal healthy perfectionism and unhealthy neurotic perfectionism. Positive (normal) Perfectionism can be defined as the motivation to achieve a certain goal in order to obtain a favourable outcome. Negative (neurotic) Perfectionism can be defined as the motivation to achieve a certain goal in order to avoid adverse consequences (Terry-Short et al., 1995). This distinction is grounded in behavioural theory (Skinner, 1968). Skinner noted that similar behaviour might be associated with different emotional responses depending on whether it is a function of positive or negative reinforcement. For instance, performing a behaviour for positive reinforcement is perceived to be a free choice whereas performing the same behaviour for negative reinforcement is perceived as coerced (Skinner, 1968). These two types of perfectionism vary across individuals and can be assessed with the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale (PANPS) (Terry-Short et al., 1995). Terry-Short et al. (1995) provided initial construct validation for the PANPS and its underlying theory by examining Positive and Negative Perfectionism scores among four groups: athletes, eating disorder patients, depressed patients and controls. The results showed that athletes scored the highest on Positive Perfectionism whereas eating disorder patients scored the highest on Negative Perfectionism. With respect to the ratios of Positive to Negative Perfectionism, they found significant differences between the clinical and non-clinical groups. Specifically, athletes and controls showed higher levels of Positive Perfectionism than Negative Perfectionism, while in contrast, eating disordered and depressed groups showed lower levels of Positive Perfectionism than Negative Perfectionism. Further construct validation for the PANPS has been provided by Haase, Prapavessis and Owens (1999). They showed that relations between Negative Perfectionism and disturbed eating attitudes were strongest for female lightweight rowers with higher body mass index scores. Positive Perfectionism was unrelated to disturbed eating. As mentioned earlier, research has demonstrated a relationship between perfectionism and many different forms of anxiety. For instance, Hewitt and Flett (1991a,b) found socially-prescribed perfectionism (i.e. maladaptive perfectionism) correlated strongly with social anxiety in both student and clinical samples. Saboonchi and Lundh (1997) reported similar findings between dimensions associated with maladaptive perfectionism (i.e. concern over mistakes, doubts about action, socially-prescribed perfectionism) and measures of social anxiety and agoraphobia. Lundh and Ost (1996)

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reported that social phobics exhibited higher levels of perfectionism (concern over mistakes) and self-consciousness than controls. Finally, Hall, Kerr and Matthews (1998) and Onwuegbuzie and Daley (1999) both showed a significant relationship between concern over mistakes and doubt about action dimensions (i.e. maladaptive perfectionism) and competitive sport anxiety and statistics anxiety, respectively. In short, these studies provide evidence that maladaptive perfectionism is strongly associated with anxiety psychopathology. Through extension to Terry-Short et al.’s theoretical distinction, maladaptive perfectionism (e.g. concern over mistakes, doubts over action and socially-prescribed perfectionism dimensions) closely parallels and lends itself to Negative Perfectionism. In light of the connection between perfectionism and social anxiety, it would be logical to assess the implications of other possible types of anxiety. Within the self-presentational framework, social physique anxiety (SPA) is one type of social anxiety that has yet to be linked to perfectionism. SPA relates to the anxiety experienced when an individual perceives that his/her body shape or figure is being negatively evaluated by others (Hart, Leary & Rejeski, 1989). A number of studies have shown that athletes and exercisers experience SPA in a variety of situations and contexts (Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Hausenblas & Mack, 1999; Spink, 1992). According to Schlenker and Leary (1982), individuals may set unrealistic high standards in relation to their social performance, resulting in the inability and failure to be satisfied with how they are regarded by others. Over a period of time, this excessive concern may be continually reinforced through repeated failures of attempting to achieve the desired social performance and to self-present to other important individuals in the ‘perfect’ manner. Through extension of TerryShort et al.’s (1995) perfectionism distinction, Negative Perfectionism, not Positive Perfectionism, should be closely related to social anxiety. By setting unrealistic high standards and attempting to avoid failure in the perceived eyes of important others (whether in performance or physical shape or appearance), athletes may experience more anxiety and concern about their physique due to the possibility of failure to self-present according to their perceived ‘perfect’ standard. One purpose of the present study, then, was to determine the relationship between perfectionism — both positive and negative — and SPA (a specific physique or body social anxiety) among male and female elite athletes. Females consistently score significantly higher in SPA than males (Hart et al., 1989; Martin & Mack, 1996; McAuley, Bane, & Mihalko, 1995). Hence, it was suspected that in our current culture’s obsession for thinness and physical attractiveness, female athletes might pursue and struggle with bodily perfection issues to a greater extent than their male counterparts (Brownell, 1991), and in turn experience more anxiety about their physique if they fail to meet their high and unrealistic standards. This proposition suggests that relations between the two constructs, Perfectionism and SPA, should be more robust for females than males. As also noted earlier, perfectionism has been identified as influencing disordered eating in clinical and student female groups (Davis, 1997; Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1995). Insofar as athletes are concerned, it has been suggested that athletes may share many of the same psychological factors that have been implicated in the development of eating disorders within clinical populations. These psychological factors include high levels of competitiveness (Borgen & Corbin, 1987), high emphasis on control (Slade, Newton, Butler, & Murphy, 1991), and perfectionist tendencies (Taub & Benson, 1992). Athletes may also represent a high-risk population for disordered eating behaviour because it is assumed they are exposed to body shape and weight pressures unique to sport (Leung,

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Geller, & Katzman, 1996). For instance, Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, and Rodin (1986) suggested that sport, with its emphasis on obtaining an optimal weight for athletic performance, represents a subculture that augments society’s pressures to be thin. The above arguments support the proposition that SPA may be an additional individual difference factor in the development of disordered eating to consider in athletic populations. For instance, one might expect eating pathologies to be related to self-presentational concerns involving the physique, due to the close parallel between the two constructs. As previously mentioned, this relationship may potentially stem from socio-cultural pressures to conform to the ‘ideal’ fit and toned image (Striegel-Moore et al., 1986) and the desire to self-present in that manner. For example, SPA has been shown to be related to important self-presentational motives for exercise that include exercising for body tone, weight control and physical attractiveness (Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Eklund & Crawford, 1994), which are the same underlying motives for developing and maintaining disordered eating (cf. Leary, Tchividjian, & Kraxberger, 1994). In short, both SPA and disordered eating are driven, at least in part, by self-presentational concerns about the appearance of one’s physique. Empirically, Chad and Spink (1996), Hausenblas and Mack (1999) and Reel and Gill (1996) showed positive relations between SPA and disordered eating among female gymnasts, divers, and cheerleaders, respectively (three groups where self-presentational concerns about one’s physique are a salient feature of the activity). These findings were extended to other athletic groups through a study of college athletes by Whitehead, Bratrud and Eklund (1998). Hence, a secondary purpose of this study was to examine both the unique, and joint contribution of perfectionism and SPA in predicting disordered eating among male and female athletes. From a theoretical perspective, it seems reasonable to assume that SPA and perfectionism relations with disordered eating might be stronger for females than males. For instance, girls are praised more for physical appearance and boys for physical functioning such as athletic skills (Striegel-Moore & Kearney-Cooke, 1994). It also has been suggested that perfectionism may be relevant to understanding how physical attractiveness plays a role in the aetiology of disordered eating behaviour (Davis, 1997; Davis, Claridge, & Fox, 2000). As previously mentioned, negative perfectionistic individuals will tend to set excessively high and often unattainable standards in whatever goals assist them to achieve and validate their self-esteem — this applies where physical attractiveness is the main source of self-regard. Through extension, this proposition could be extended such that as female athletes’ perfectionistic standards toward body shape and size are unable to be met, SPA may occur, leading to the use of unhealthy eating to attempt to adjust the body in line with the unrealistic goals. Method Participants The sample consisted of 316 Australian elite athletes (females n=181 and males n=135) from a number of different sports. The 135 male athletes competed in 14 sports (aerobics (n=2); archery (n=5); basketball (n=12); cricket (n=16); cycling (n=1); diving (n=4); hockey (n=15); kayaking (n=1); rowing (n=11); soccer (n=15); squash (n=6); volleyball (n=13); waterpolo (n=18); and wrestling (n=16). The 181 female athletes competed in 15 different sports (aerobics (n=6); archery (n=2);

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basketball (n=9); cycling (n=2); diving (n=10); gymnastics (n=6); hockey (n=7); kayaking (n=2); netball (n=34); rowing (n=25); soccer (n=47); squash (n=6); volleyball (n=13); and waterpolo (n=12). Males’ mean age was 19.33 years (SD=4.07) and females’ mean age was 18.54 (SD=4.11). Measures Positive and negative perfectionism The Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale (PANPS) was developed by Terry-Short et al. (1995) to assess Positive and Negative Perfectionism — two constructs that distinguish between ‘normal’ and ‘neurotic’ perfectionism. The PANPS is a self-report measure where participants respond to 20 Positive Perfectionism items and 20 Negative Perfectionism items on a 5-point Likert type scale with anchors of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. A cut-off point for individuals at risk of eating disorders is a score of 69 and above on the Negative Perfectionism subscale. TerryShort et al. reported initial factor and discriminant validity evidence for the scale. For instance, they demonstrated that PANPS scores identified 86% of the clinically diagnosed eating disorder patient group. Using a larger sample of rowers, Haase et al. (1999) showed the scale demonstrated acceptable factor structure and internal consistency, as well as predictive validity.1 In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha values were 0.84 for Positive Perfectionism and 0.83 for Negative Perfectionism. Social physique anxiety The Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) was originally designed by Hart et al. (1989) to assess the trait of SPA — anxiety associated with concerns that one’s physique may be negatively evaluated by others. The SPAS is a self-report inventory where participants respond to 12-items on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Convergent validity has also been demonstrated by Hart et al. (1989), who showed SPAS scores to be correlated with other measures involving evaluative concerns. Recently, Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, and Bain (1997) suggested that three items (items 1, 2, and 5) be removed from the original inventory based on confirmatory analyses of the construct, in order to produce a more parsimonious unidimensional scale. Furthermore, Motl and Conroy (2000) provided additional evidence of factorial validity, factorial invariance and construct validity for the unidimensional nine-item model of SPA. Hence, the nine-item version of the SPAS, as described by Martin et al. (1997), was used in the present study. The reliability coefficient value for the 9-item SPAS was a=0.87. Eating attitudes The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40) was developed by Garner and Garfinkel (1979) to assess a range of behaviours and attitudes related to eating disorders, specifically anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. The EAT-40 is a self-report measure where participants respond to 40 items on a 5-point Likert type scale. A score of 30 and above is commonly identified as a cut-off value

1 The factor structure of the PANPS from the data used in the present study was similar to that reported by Terry-Short et al. (1995) and Haase et al. (1999). Specifically, two coherent and interpretable factors representing positive (16-items) and negative (11-items) perfectionism were found. When we re-computed the scales using the reduced number of items from the factor analysis virtually identical results were found. Hence, we decided to retain the full scale. Both reduced and full Positive and Negative Perfectionism scales were found to be mildly correlated (r⬍0.30), hence they should not be considered completely orthogonal.

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identifying individuals with anorexia or bulimia (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Garner, Olmsted, & Polivy, 1983). Construct validity and internal consistency for the EAT-40 have been demonstrated by Garner and Garfinkel (1979). Cronbach’s alpha in the present study was 0.88. Social desirability The Short Form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC-SDS) is a 13-item selfreport inventory developed by Reynolds (1982) to control for potential response repression and/or distortion effects. A nominal (true/false) response format is used with the MC-SDS. Social desirability also may be associated with self-reported anxiety (Hackfort & Schwenkmezger, 1989) and eating attitude (Haase et al., 1999; Newton, Butler, & Slade, 1988) measures. Specifically, elite athletes completing self-report measures relating to eating disorders may potentially withhold truthful responses due to fear of reprisal and restriction on competing if coaches become aware of the athletes’ unhealthy eating attitudes and behaviours. Reynolds (1982) provided validity data for the SDS via correlations with other social desirability scales, and also reported acceptable internal consistency for the scale. Cronbach’s alpha for the present study was 0.69. Procedures The PANPS, SPAS, EAT-40 and MC-SDS measures, along with a consent form and cover sheet requesting demographic information, were distributed to Australian athletes at training sessions at three Australian sport institutes (the Australian Institute of Sport, the South Australian Sport Institute, and the New South Wales Institute of Sport). Athletes participating in a number of different sports were surveyed in order to increase the generalisability of the results. All the athletes were competing at either the national or international level. Athletes were tested at least four weeks prior to international competition to control for state anxiety levels. Coaches from the sports represented at each institute were contacted to gain permission to distribute the questionnaires before any athlete contact was made. After informing the coaches of the study, consent to distribute the questionnaires to the athletes was obtained from the coaches and the sport psychologists at each institute. All the athletes were informed that completing the questionnaires was voluntary and completely anonymous and that their results would remain confidential. The completed questionnaires from those athletes who chose to participate were returned immediately to the investigator at each venue with an overall response rate of 90%. The questionnaires were approved by the university’s ethics committee and were approved by the sport psychologists at the three institutes of sport.

Results In order to assess the relationship between Perfectionism and SPA, zero-order and first order (partial) correlations, controlling for social desirability, were conducted for both males and females. In order to assess both the unique and joint contribution of Perfectionism and SPA to the prediction of disordered eating, a series of hierarchical regression analyses for both males and females were carried out with EAT scores serving as the dependent measure. The variables of interest were

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entered in the order of social desirability, perfectionism (Positive and Negative), SPA, and finally the interaction term of perfectionism X SPA. Perfectionism and social physique anxiety relations Descriptive statistics for males and females are presented in Table 1. Zero and first-order (partial) correlations between the variables are presented in Table 2. Results in Table 2 show for both males and females that Negative Perfectionism was moderately and positively correlated with SPA. No relationship was found between Positive Perfectionism and SPA. Prediction of disturbed eating attitudes Males Hierarchical regression results are presented in Table 3. Results showed that, after controlling for social desirability (step 1), the introduction of Positive Perfectionism and Negative Perfectionism scores (step 2) made a significant contribution to the prediction of EAT scores (F change (3,127)=3.67, p⬍0.05). Results showed that Positive Perfectionism increased the R2 by 6% (see Step 2 in Table 3). When SPA was added (step 3) to the equation, the change in R2 was not significant (F change (4, 126)=1.05, p⬎0.05). When the interaction terms (SPA×Positive Perfectionism and SPA×Negative Perfectionism) were added (step 4), the change in R2 was not significant (F change (6, 124)=0.60, p⬎0.05). These data show that Positive (healthy) Perfectionism, not Negative (unhealthy) Perfectionism, is related to disturbed eating attitudes. Specifically, as Positive Perfectionism increases in male athletes, disturbed eating attitudes and behaviours decrease. These data also show that SPA failed to contribute independently or in combination with perfectionism to the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes. Females Hierarchical regression results are presented in Table 4. Results showed that, after controlling for social desirability (step 1), the introduction of Positive Perfectionism and Negative Perfectionism scores (step 2) significantly contributed to the prediction of EAT scores (F change (3, 170)=20.00, Table 1 Means and standard deviations of the variables of interest for males and females Variable

Males (n=135) Mean

Negative Perfectionism Positive Perfectionism Social Physique Anxietya Eating Attitudesb Social Desirability a b

52.20 75.49 20.26 10.00 6.58

Females (n=181) SD 9.39 8.05 6.39 7.89 3.06

Mean 51.97 76.30 25.89 14.51 7.26

Significant gender differences were found between Social Physique Anxiety, p⬍0.001. Significant gender differences were found between Eating Attitudes, p⬍0.001.

SD 10.08 8.29 7.43 12.15 2.78

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Table 2 Zero- and first-order correlations for the variables of interest in males and females Zero-order correlations Males (n=135) Negative Perfectionism Positive Perfectionism Social Physique Anxiety Eating Attitudes Social Desirability Females (n=181) Negative Perfectionism Positive Perfectionism Social Physique Anxiety Eating Attitudes Social Desirability First-order (partial) correlations Controlling for SD Males (n=135) Negative Perfectionism Positive Perfectionism Social Physique Anxiety Eating Attitudes Females (n=181) Negative Perfectionism Positive Perfectionism Social Physique Anxiety Eating Attitudes

NP

PP

SPA

EAT

0.24** 0.45*** 0.09 ⫺0.02

⫺0.08 ⫺0.19* 0.00

0.00 ⫺0.23**

⫺0.02

0.22** 0.41*** 0.43*** ⫺0.21**

0.06 0.21** ⫺0.01

0.49*** ⫺0.27***

⫺0.12

NP

PP

SPA

EAT

0.25** 0.41*** 0.08

0.23** 0.38*** 0.42***

⫺0.08 ⫺0.19*

0.06 0.21**

0.00

0.48***

Note: *p⬍0.05; **p⬍0.01; ***p⬍0.001. PP is Positive Perfectionism, NP is Negative Perfectionism, SPA is Social Physique Anxiety, EAT is Eating Attitudes Test, and SD is Social Desirability.

p⬍0.001). Results showed that Negative Perfectionism increased the R2 by 19% (see Step 2 in Table 4). When SPA was added (step 3) to the equation, the change in R2 was significant (F change (4, 169)=29.79, p⬍0.001). Results at step 3 showed that SPA increased the R2 by 12%. When the interaction terms (SPA×Positive Perfectionism and SPA×Negative Perfectionism) were introduced into the equation (step 4), the change in R2 was significant (F change (6, 167)=13.47, p⬍0.001). The interaction term of Negative Perfectionism×SPA increased the R2 by 9%. These data, taken together, show that Negative Perfectionism and SPA uniquely and in combination explain 41% of the response variance in disturbed eating attitudes in females. To further elucidate the nature of the interaction between Negative Perfectionism and SPA in predicting disturbed eating attitudes, female athletes were subdivided on the basis of SPA scores. Two regression analyses were then computed: one with athletes scoring high (the top 25% of the distribution) on SPA and the other with athletes scoring low (the bottom 25% of the distribution) on SPA. With female athletes scoring high on SPA, the analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between Negative Perfectionism and disturbed eating attitudes (R=0.56, F (3,43)=11.82, p⬍0.001). On the

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Table 3 Hierarchical regression analysis examining relationships between Social Desirability, Positive and Negative Perfectionism, Social Physique Anxiety and Eating Attitudes for males Prediction of Disturbed Eating Attitudes B Step 1 Social Desirability Step 2 Social Desirability Perfectionism Positive Negative Step 3 Social Desirability Perfectionism Positive Negative SPA Step 4 Social Desirability Perfectionism Positive Negative SPA Interaction Terms PP×SPA NP×SPA

t

R2

R

0.02 0.03 ⫺0.23 0.15

0.00

R2 change

0.00

0.28 ⫺2.53* 1.58

0.24

0.06

0.06*

0.25

0.01

0.01

0.26

0.01

0.01

Note: *p⬍0.05. PP is Positive Perfectionism, NP is Negative Perfectionism, and SPA is Social Physique Anxiety.

other hand, with female athletes scoring low on SPA, the analysis revealed a non-significant relationship (R=0.08, F (3,35)=0.97, p⬎0.05). In short, these data provide evidence that females with higher SPA scores and higher Negative Perfectionism are more likely to exhibit disturbed eating attitudes. Discussion One purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between perfectionism — both positive and negative — and SPA (a specific physique or body social anxiety) among male and female elite athletes. Our results showed that for both males and females, Negative Perfectionism was moderately and positively correlated with SPA, while Positive Perfectionism was unrelated to SPA (see Table 2). These findings are consistent with previous research that has shown maladaptive perfectionism (e.g. socially-prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about action), and not positive striving perfectionism (e.g. personal standards, organisation), is more related to various types of anxiety (Hall et al., 1998; Hewitt & Flett, 1991a; Saboonchi & Lundh, 1997). These findings raise a number of issues. Firstly, contrary to what was expected, both male and

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Table 4 Hierarchical regression analysis examining relationships between Social Desirability, Positive and Negative Perfectionism, Social Physique Anxiety and Eating Attitudes for females Prediction of Disturbed Eating Attitudes B

t

Social Desirability Step 2 Social Desirability Perfectionism Positive Negative Social Desirability Perfectionism Positive Negative SPA Social Desirability Perfectionism Positive Negative SPA Interaction Terms PP×SPA NP×SPA

−0.35

−2.55*

3.02 −5.19 0.11

1.67 −2.65** 0.09

−3.36 5.42

−1.49 2.75***

R

R2

R2 change Step 1 0.01

0.12

0.01

0.45

0.20***

0.19*** Step 3

0.57

0.32***

0.12*** Step 4

0.71

0.51*

0.10*

Note: *p⬍0.05; **p⬍0.01; ***p⬍0.001. PP is Positive Perfectionism, NP is Negative Perfectionism, and SPA is Social Physique Anxiety.

female athletes showed the same pattern of results between Negative Perfectionism and SPA. Although our SPA data support previous studies (Hart et al., 1989) that showed females report higher levels of SPA compared to males (see Table 1), these differences did not influence the within group relationships between the variables. As previously mentioned, it was suspected that within our current culture’s obsession for thinness and physical attractiveness, female athletes might pursue and struggle with bodily perfection issues to a greater extent than their male counterparts (Brownell, 1991), and in turn experience more anxiety about their physique if they fail to meet their high unrealistic standards. We, therefore, expected relations between the two constructs Perfectionism and SPA to be more robust for females than males. Given our unexpected results, future research is warranted to understand the Negative Perfectionism–SPA relationship. Secondly, what is the causal relationship between Negative Perfectionism and SPA? According to Leary and Kowalski’s (1990) impression management model, people experience social anxiety when they are motivated to make a particular impression on others but doubt whether they will be successful. This model is consistent with the tenet that perfectionism leads to SPA. By setting unrealistic high standards and attempting to avoid perceived failure in the eyes of important others

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(whether in performance or physical shape or appearance), these athletes may experience more anxiety and concern about their physique due to the possibility of failure to self-present according to their perceived ‘perfect’ standard. In contrast, Horney (1950) offers an alternative explanation. Horney proposed that insecurity and apprehension as ‘basic anxiety’ fosters the development of perfectionist tendencies as a means of coping with the anxiety. A second purpose of the present study was to determine the extent to which perfectionism and SPA contribute to the prediction of disordered eating. As expected, differences were found between male and female athletes. For male athletes, Negative Perfectionism and SPA made no contribution to the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes (see Table 3). We can only conjecture that perhaps males may address their SPA and Negative Perfectionism through other means (e.g. aggression or social withdrawal) than body weight regulation through food management practice. Or perhaps, these other mechanisms (aggression or social withdrawal) may allow male athletes to handle the anxiety experienced when attempting to present the ‘perfect’ ideal physique image. A mild inverse relationship, however, was found between Positive Perfectionism and disturbed eating attitudes among male athletes (see Table 3). To date, there have been few systematic studies into normal (healthy) perfectionism. It is possible that male athletes demonstrating high Positive Perfectionism may predispose them to manage and self-regulate their eating behaviour in a more healthy manner. It is also possible that high levels of Positive Perfectionism may act through an indirect mechanism to reduce the risk of developing disordered eating in elite male athletes. That is, relations between Negative Perfectionism and disordered eating may be reduced under conditions where levels of Positive Perfectionism are high. This finding lends support to the need for further understanding of the reinforcement of Positive Perfectionism in male athletes. Unfortunately, it was beyond the scope of the present study to shed light on this issue. From an intervention perspective, this would suggest that resiliency against unhealthy eating could be increased by teaching athletes how to develop and maintain high levels of Positive Perfectionism and cautioning against Negative Perfectionism. Intervention with this goal in mind is a worthy topic for future research, not only in relation to disordered eating, but also for other psychopathologies (e.g. depression). For female athletes, results showed that both Negative Perfectionism and SPA made a unique and combined contribution to the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes (see Table 4). Specifically, females with higher SPA scores and higher Negative Perfectionism were more likely to exhibit disturbed eating attitudes. These findings raise some important issues. Firstly, what are the underlying mechanisms for the effect observed? For instance, female athletes with higher Negative Perfectionism and SPA may resort to disordered eating to cope with their inability to self-present their ‘perfect’ ideal physique image, since disordered eating tends to be a frequent coping mechanism for females according to socio-cultural theory (Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, and Ahrens, 1992). On the other hand, female athletes may engage in unhealthy pathological eating patterns in order to compensate for their inability to achieve the desired ‘perfect’ physique, yet suffer anxiety when unable to accomplish this. In a previous study, Davis et al. (2000) suggested that perfectionism on its own does not necessarily act as a risk factor in the development of eating disorders. Davis et al. demonstrated that weight preoccupation in combination with neurotic perfectionism may result in disordered eating. Our findings indirectly support this position. The above suggestions concerning the underlying mechanisms for the effect observed are, of course, speculative. Further work is needed to clarify the directionality of relations between the individual difference variables used in the present study (i.e. Perfectionism and SPA) and disordered

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eating. Previous research, and present study, have employed correlational designs and have therefore not shed light on the causal relationship between these constructs. From a theoretical perspective, Slade (1982) has proposed a model where the need to control serves as the mechanism through which disordered eating develops. Through this model, it is suggested that potential trigger factors act on this need for control (e.g. perfectionism and low self-esteem). We suggest that social-cultural pressures to fit a prescribed image leading to high SPA may be another trigger factor to consider within this framework. A further issue relates to the translation of disturbed eating attitudes into psychopathology. Of the 316 participants in the present study, only 7% (22 athletes) scored above the 30 point cut-off on the EAT for identifying individuals at risk of developing an eating disorder (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979). However, 11% (20) of the female athletes exhibited EAT scores above the cut-off value. Of those female athletes with higher Negative Perfectionism and higher SPA, 86% demonstrated EAT scores similar to clinical populations. Clearly, the combination of Negative Perfectionism and high SPA in female athletes presents a strong argument for these two variables to be considered important in the development of disordered eating. It remains unclear, however, whether the observed eating attitude concerns reflect psychological abnormalities or unusual performance-driven weight management practices. The present results, however, suggest that there may be value in considering motivational aspects of perfectionism and SPA in identifying those elite athletes potentially at risk for developing disordered eating. Consideration also needs to be given to the specific sport of the athletes and of the self-presentational concerns potentially couched within that sport. For example, some athletes wear revealing attire and success, in part, is due to the ability to convey physical impressions of beauty and grace to the judges. Such issues may be associated with adopting unhealthy eating attitudes and behaviours. In reference to disordered eating, Hausenblas and Carron (1999) and Smolak, Murnen, and Ruble (2000) conducted meta-analyses on studies relating to athletes and disordered eating, demonstrating that disordered eating occurs slightly more frequently in athletes than non-athletes. However, differences were greater in female athletes from certain sports, specifically sports requiring a lean physique. Hence, it is possible that sports where the physique is under scrutiny (e.g. aerobics, diving, gymnastics) may influence Negative Perfectionism and SPA relations, as well as relations between these variables and disordered eating. Unfortunately, the small representation of athletes sampled from these sports prevented exploration of this issue. In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of Negative Perfectionism affecting SPA in both male and female athletes. Furthermore, this study provides some evidence for the consideration of the impact of both Negative Perfectionism and SPA as two important psychosocial constructs that may influence disordered eating in elite female athletes.

Acknowledgements This research was supported by an Australia–New Zealand Sport Exchange Program Grant from Sport Science New Zealand and the Hillary Commission. A special note of thanks to the sport psychologists at all the institutes of sport involved with this exchange program.

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