- Email: [email protected]
Performance and cost analysis of building scale micro-grid operation
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
Availableonline onlineatatwww.sciencedirect.com www.sciencedirect.com Available Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy (2019) 000–000 425–429 EnergyProcedia Procedia156 00 (2017) www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE 2018, 19-21 September Nagoya, Japan Engineering, CPESE 2018, 2018 5th International Conference on Power2018, and Energy Systems 19-21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan
a a
Performance and cost analysis of building scale micro-grid Performance cost analysis scale The 15th and International Symposiumof onbuilding District Heating andmicro-grid Cooling operation operation a feasibility of b Assessing the usingElborg the heat demand-outdoor Karina Vink *, Eriko Ankyua, Martin , Michihisa Koyamaa a a b a Karina Vink *, Eriko , Martin Elborg , Michihisa Koyama temperature function forAnkyu a long-term heat demand forecast Technology Integration Unit (TIU), Global Research Center for Environment anddistrict Energy based on Nanomaterials Science (GREEN), National for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki,and Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan. Science (GREEN), National Technology Integration UnitInstitute (TIU), Global Research Center for Environment EnergyIbaraki based on Nanomaterials b aNIMS, a 1-1 b305-0047, cposition until 2017-12-31) c International Centera,b,c forInstitute Young for Scientists, 1-2-1(NIMS), Sengen, Tsukuba, (former Materials Science Namiki,Ibaraki Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan 305-0044, Japan. b
I. Andrić
*, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
International Center for Young Scientists, NIMS, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan (former position until 2017-12-31) a IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal b Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France c Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France
Abstract The energy targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) call for both a reduction of total energy use and an increase in the share oftargets renewables part of theDevelopment total consumed energy. With of Renewable Energyuse Systems onina The energy of theas Sustainable Goals (SDGs) callthe foremergence both a reduction of total energy and an(RES) increase Abstract local scaleofthere is still little research the efficiency actual With micro-grids on building scale, let alone on how their (RES) functioning the share renewables as part of theontotal consumed of energy. the emergence of Renewable Energy Systems on a relates to reaching the energy targetson of the theefficiency SDGs. Here it is shown how an ofalone decrease in renewable energy local scale there is still little research of actual micro-grids onexpected building degree scale, let on how their functioning District networks arecombined commonly in as one ofbuilding the most effective solutions for decreasing the generation from solar a failure to the anticipate intensifying energy can in impede reaching the relates to heating reaching thepanels, energy targets of with theaddressed SDGs. Here it isliterature shown how an expected degree ofneeds, decrease renewable energy greenhouse gastargets emissions from thelevel. building These systems require investments are solar returned through the the heat SDGs’ energy on the local When examining a building scalehigh micro-grid, not which only had panel performance generation from solar panels, combined with asector. failure to anticipate intensifying building energy needs, can impede reaching sales. energy Due the the changed conditions and energy building renovation heat not demand in the future decrease, decreased by to twice expected average, but building had doubled by 156-203%, and the share of renewable SDGs’ targets on the climate local level. When examining a use building scalepolicies, micro-grid, onlythereby had solar panelcould performance prolonging the investment return period. energy of total energy use has decreased by 29-47%, depending on the season. This indicates that in order to reach the SDG decreased by twice the expected average, but building energy use had doubled by 156-203%, and thereby the share of renewable The main scope of important thisuse paper isdecreased tonewly assessdesigned the of using the heat demand –Energy outdoor temperature function for demand targets, itenergy is building, as well community Management Systems, do heat not energy of total hasthat by feasibility 29-47%, depending onas the season. This indicates that in order to reach themerely SDG forecast. of users, Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used toasincreasing aEnergy case study. The district is consisted of 665 account forThe current accommodate increasing energy demand. energy targets, itdistrict is energy important thatbut newly designed building, asRES wellconcurrent as community Management Systems, do not merely buildings varyenergy in both construction period and typology. Three weatherto scenarios medium, account for that current users, but accommodate increasing RES concurrent increasing(low, energy demand.high) and three district scenariosPublished were developed (shallow, ©renovation 2018 The Authors. by Elsevier Ltd. intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were ©compared 2019 The Authors. Published by Ltd. with results from aunder dynamic heatBY-NC-ND demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. This is an open access article the CC license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Theisresults showed when only weather change is considered, the margin of error on could be acceptable some applications Selection peer-review under responsibility of the 2018 5th International Conference Power and Energyfor Systems This an and open accessthat article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection peer-review underwas responsibility of20% the 2018 International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, (the errorand inCPESE annual 2018, demand lower than2018, for all5th weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation Engineering, 19–21responsibility September Nagoya, Japan. Selection and peer-review under of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems CPESE 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan. scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered). Engineering, CPESE 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan. The value of slope increased on average thePV; range of 3.8% upSDGs to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the Keywords: BEMS; RES;coefficient micro-grid; performance analysis; costwithin analysis; lead-acid battery; decrease BEMS; in the RES; number of heating hours ofanalysis; 22-139h during thePV; heating season (depending on the combination of weather and Keywords: micro-grid; performance cost analysis; lead-acid battery; SDGs renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations. © 2017 The Authors. by Elsevier fax: Ltd.+81-29-860-4981. * Corresponding author.Published Tel.: +81-29-851-3354; Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and E-mail address:author. [email protected] * Corresponding Tel.: +81-29-851-3354; fax: +81-29-860-4981. Cooling. E-mail address: [email protected]
1876-6102 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) This is an open access under the CC BY-NC-ND 1876-6102 © 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 2018, 19–21 2018, Nagoya, Japan. of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE Selection andSeptember peer-review under responsibility 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan. 10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.095
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1. Introduction Goal 7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), affordable and clean energy, calls for energy transition in the form of both a substantial increase in renewable energy as a share of total energy use, and a doubling of the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency, to be reached by 2030 [1]. Methods to help reach the energy targets of the SDGs include decreasing total energy consumption and the localized generation of renewable energy (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Current and future energy use as envisioned by the SDGs (based on [2]).
For individual households there are now ample options to both decrease total energy consumption and increase the share of renewable energy used. Scaling up to larger, especially high-rise buildings, achieving the SDG energy targets becomes more difficult. While organizations owning larger sized buildings may have larger funds available to invest in Renewable Energy Systems (RES) and find additional motivation in promoting the image of being sustainable, the physical and geographical characteristics of many buildings, in combination with high energy consumption, leave comparatively little opportunity for localized RES reaching the SDG energy targets. This can be aggravated by design limitations that complicate maintenance as well as RES not growing in proportion to building energy use, which leads to a decreased share of renewable energy from the total energy use: the opposite trends of the energy targets of the SDGs. This issue may be solved through future larger (regional) scale integrated operations by community energy management systems that regulate energy transfers between storage batteries, high demand functions from building energy management systems, and hybrid RES with surplus energy production [3]. The NanoGREEN/WPI-MANA building of the National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) is the first commercial building in Japan to be installed with a “Micro-Grid System”. This is an RES consisting of four arrays of solar panels (photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation) (Fig. 2, Table 1) and a lead-acid battery, enabling energysaving during peak hours of electricity consumption and costs, as well as a backup energy supply during emergencies. It is incorporated into the building Energy Management System (EMS). Since installation in 2012 and start of operation in 2013, the solar panels have not undergone any maintenance, and the efficiency of the system is not known. The objective is therefore to determine to what degree the solar panels of the micro-grid are cost effective, given their expected decline in performance ratio. At the same time, the building’s total remaining energy use is examined. Table 1. Overview of micro-grid PV array characteristics
a
Array #
Location
Crystalline Silicon Type
1 2 3 4
Roof, east and west sides Roof, center north and south sides Roof, center north and south sides Wall, east side
b
Mono-Si Multi-Si Mono-Si Multi-Si
c
Capacity [kW]
Panels (#)
50.73 24.74 11.33 3.78
380 399 60 18
d
Fig. 2. Micro-grid PV Arrays (a) array 1; (b) array 2; (c) array 3; (d) array 4.
Area [m2] 332.78 251.44 107.81 29.56
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Despite the increase in studies regarding micro-grids and smart grids applying renewable energy systems [4], few studies report micro-grid performance and cost analysis as opposed to hypothetical optimization. Furthermore, while household sizes often increase, or more electricity consuming products are installed over the years, in commercial and research sized facilities these effects are often enlarged. As a novel viewpoint, this study compares the development of the originally installed PV capacity and performance with building energy use. 2. Methods On 26 and 27/02/2018 the four solar panel arrays were inspected for visible defects, soiling, etc. and the findings documented with photo camera and infrared camera (FLIR ONE Pro) where possible. Not all panels were accessible due to proximity of installed heavy machinery on the rooftop (Fig. 3c). Taking infrared (IR) pictures of the top surface of the panels led to cloud reflections, therefore, pictures were taken from the rear surface instead. Taking IR pictures of array 2 was not possible due to rooftop integration (Fig. 2b). Regarding data availability and analysis, a 5-year hourly data set of the micro-grid was available for analysis (solar irradiation [W/m2], solar power generation [kWh], battery charge/discharge [kWh], and electricity from the utility company to cover the remaining building energy consumption [kWh]). Missing or erroneous data were excluded. The total usable data formed 42,882 hours or 97.64% of the total set. A second data set concerned electricity contract prices varying by hour, season, and year [5]. This consists of annually increasing electricity prices for the periods: holiday/Sunday/night time (22:00-08:00); summer peak time (13:00-16:00, Jul-Sep, nonholiday etc.); summer day time (08:00-22:00, Jul-Sep, non-peak time, non-holiday etc.); and non-summer day time (08:00-22:00, non-holiday etc.). Note that fuel regulatory costs (adjustment charges), basic connection and spare line fees, and other costs related to the entire research site were not considered. A more accurate data set from the microgrid was available for 1-year (03/2016-02/2017), which was measured and recorded at slightly earlier time intervals. Compared seasonally, these values proved to be within 3.9% difference volumetric wise, upon which continuation of use of the 5-year data set was deemed justified. As data were available in excel file format, the files were combined using VBA programming and manually checked for consistency/validity. PV efficiency was compared monthly to the first year of operation relative to solar irradiation (Financial Year 2013, commencing in April). The hourly data was linked to the electricity price of the respective moments in time through an if/then formula. The final results were compared per season and per year. 3. Results Solar panels in array 1 suffer from shade by design errors, with as main cause the mandatory placement of a lightning conduction wire on the south side of the building (Fig. 2a). IR photos showed some overheating cells (Fig. 3a) among the 250 inspected panels (32 cells/panel, Fig. 3b). Other shadows were caused by the building itself and a closely placed antenna (Fig. 3c), which was also found to attract birds and thereby dirt. Arrays 2 and 3 are affected by dirt accumulation (Fig. 3d). Array 4 suffers from overgrowing plants, and shade from a nearby building (Fig. 2d). During measurements of Fig. 3a-c, the ambient temperature was between 5.8-9.4 °C. When analyzing the results per year and per season, battery charging has always been higher than battery discharging. It has also nearly always cost more than it has saved cost-wise, with four exceptions. Financially this is not a great burden or profit as the total seasonal costs-savings run between -21,153 and 14,002 JPY (USD -195 – 129 as per April 2018 conversion rates [6]). Averaging the monthly solar panel efficiency, the decrease over 5 years was 10.12%, amounting to 2.02% annually. a
b
c
d
Fig. 3. Visual inspection (a) overheating cell 57.8 °C; (b) normal cell 25.0 °C; (c) antenna adjacent to panels (array 1); (d) dirt (array 3).
Karina Vink et al. / Energy Procedia 156 (2019) 425–429 Karina Vink et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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a
b
Fig. 4. (a) net building energy use [MWh] and costs [JPY]; (b) PV energy generation [MWh] and saved costs [JPY].
As for cost effectiveness, over the past five years electricity prices have increased from 12.10 JPY/kWh (night/holiday time)/19.85 JPY/kWh (summer peak time) to 15.18 JPY/kWh / 22.79 JPY/kWh. The remaining building energy use has close to doubled in most seasons (Fig. 4a), whereas the installed PV capacity has remained the same and its performance ratio has decreased (Fig. 4b). When evaluating the FY2013 net building energy costs (set at 100%), the corresponding price trends show the opposite directions of what is ideally desired when considering the SDGs involving decreasing energy use and increasing the % of renewable energy sources (Fig. 5), as both energy costs (and use) are increasing and the share of costs saved by PV (and generation) is decreasing. 4. Discussion and conclusions The battery is designed to operate with two potentially conflicting goals: reducing energy use from the main grid and thereby reducing costs during the peak hours of summer, and functioning as an emergency power backup. In case the battery has become depleted during the day time when reducing energy from the main grid, the battery is recharged in the late hours of summer daytime prices. This phenomenon occurs on most days during summer, and is the main cause of high costs of battery charging. As there are no known studies to value the power quality and stability functions of integrated HRES [7], the value of steady emergency backup power was not part of this cost analysis. Despite the doubling of the building energy use, on a daily basis the peak cut (during summer) helps save several tens of kW from the total energy use. Contract details mention that an excess use of power beyond a set amount would be charged to 150% of the normal price, implying that peak cut helps save surcharge costs as well. Compared to the average PV degradation for mono/multi crystalline Si PV of <1% annually [8], the annual average decrease of solar panel performance of 2.02% is significantly larger. As pointed out by [8], panels with high
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degradation rates are usually removed or replaced and thereby not reported as often as panels with low degradation rates. As 90% efficiency for the first 10 years of operation is guaranteed by the warranty of the solar panels, it is unrealistic the current performance of 89.88% can be maintained to nearly fulfill this guarantee. Part of the reduction in electricity generation by the solar panels can be lessened since it is not due to irreversible degradation, but rather due to neglected maintenance and overgrowth by plants. Although the electricity generation reduction caused by shading from the lighting conduction wire is minor, this partial shading represents a strong risk of early PV module failure due to the formation of hot spots, for which the overheating cells are a first indication. Building energy use has increased by >100%, as the building still had many unoccupied rooms at the start of the operation in FY2013. Since FY2018 the building has become close to fully occupied. It is therefore likely the current building energy use will no longer increase significantly. The solar power generation will however continue to decrease. Though the observed trends are in opposition of the ideal SDG targets and may be lessened by maintenance, the effects cannot be reversed without compensating for the large increase of building energy use. The installation of additional solar panels in proportion to this increase can help overcome this trend. Their location may be on the side of the building, the rooftops of neighboring buildings, or above car parking lots. As of 2017, no method exists for assessing the economic and environmental impacts of smart grids [9]. To reach the SDG energy targets, future economic and environment impact assessments of newly designed building and community EMS should anticipate and allow for increasing RES concurrent to increasing energy demand.
Fig. 5. Net building energy costs and PV saved costs in FY2013 & 2018.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Ken Matsuoka from Solar Culture Co. for lending a FLIR ONE Pro IR camera; as well as Shinji Wada from the Facility Management Office at NIMS, Toshio Oyama and Toshihiro Yamane from Shimizu Co., and Kozo Nagasaki from Seiko Solutions Inc., for data provision and discussions on the micro-grid. References [1] UNDP. Goal 7 targets. 2019. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/ [2] Maes B. Utilities under transformation. Elia Group International; 2018. [3] Toshiba Corporation. Development of Community Energy Management System. 2018. https://www.toshiba.co.jp/rdc/rd/fields/12_e04_e.htm [4] Cardenas J, Gemoets L, Ablanedo R, Jose H, Sarfi R. A literature survey on smart grid distribution: an analytical approach. J Clean Prod 2014; 65: 202-216. [5] Tokyo Electric Power Energy Partner. High pressure seasonal power by time zone. http://www.tepco.co.jp/ep/corporate/plan_h/plan09.html [6] XE Currency Converter. 2018. https://www.xe.com/ [7] Fathima AH, Palanisamy K. Optimization in microgrids with hybrid energy systems – a review. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2015; 45(C): 431-446. [8] Jordan, DC, Kurtz SR. Photovoltaic Degradation Rates - An Analytical Review. NREL; NREL/JA-5200-51664, 2012. [9] Moretti M et al. A systematic review of environmental and economic impacts of smart grids. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2017; 68(2): 888-898.
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
Availableonline onlineatatwww.sciencedirect.com www.sciencedirect.com Available Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy (2019) 000–000 425–429 EnergyProcedia Procedia156 00 (2017) www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE 2018, 19-21 September Nagoya, Japan Engineering, CPESE 2018, 2018 5th International Conference on Power2018, and Energy Systems 19-21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan
a a
Performance and cost analysis of building scale micro-grid Performance cost analysis scale The 15th and International Symposiumof onbuilding District Heating andmicro-grid Cooling operation operation a feasibility of b Assessing the usingElborg the heat demand-outdoor Karina Vink *, Eriko Ankyua, Martin , Michihisa Koyamaa a a b a Karina Vink *, Eriko , Martin Elborg , Michihisa Koyama temperature function forAnkyu a long-term heat demand forecast Technology Integration Unit (TIU), Global Research Center for Environment anddistrict Energy based on Nanomaterials Science (GREEN), National for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki,and Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan. Science (GREEN), National Technology Integration UnitInstitute (TIU), Global Research Center for Environment EnergyIbaraki based on Nanomaterials b aNIMS, a 1-1 b305-0047, cposition until 2017-12-31) c International Centera,b,c forInstitute Young for Scientists, 1-2-1(NIMS), Sengen, Tsukuba, (former Materials Science Namiki,Ibaraki Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan 305-0044, Japan. b
I. Andrić
*, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
International Center for Young Scientists, NIMS, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan (former position until 2017-12-31) a IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal b Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France c Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France
Abstract The energy targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) call for both a reduction of total energy use and an increase in the share oftargets renewables part of theDevelopment total consumed energy. With of Renewable Energyuse Systems onina The energy of theas Sustainable Goals (SDGs) callthe foremergence both a reduction of total energy and an(RES) increase Abstract local scaleofthere is still little research the efficiency actual With micro-grids on building scale, let alone on how their (RES) functioning the share renewables as part of theontotal consumed of energy. the emergence of Renewable Energy Systems on a relates to reaching the energy targetson of the theefficiency SDGs. Here it is shown how an ofalone decrease in renewable energy local scale there is still little research of actual micro-grids onexpected building degree scale, let on how their functioning District networks arecombined commonly in as one ofbuilding the most effective solutions for decreasing the generation from solar a failure to the anticipate intensifying energy can in impede reaching the relates to heating reaching thepanels, energy targets of with theaddressed SDGs. Here it isliterature shown how an expected degree ofneeds, decrease renewable energy greenhouse gastargets emissions from thelevel. building These systems require investments are solar returned through the the heat SDGs’ energy on the local When examining a building scalehigh micro-grid, not which only had panel performance generation from solar panels, combined with asector. failure to anticipate intensifying building energy needs, can impede reaching sales. energy Due the the changed conditions and energy building renovation heat not demand in the future decrease, decreased by to twice expected average, but building had doubled by 156-203%, and the share of renewable SDGs’ targets on the climate local level. When examining a use building scalepolicies, micro-grid, onlythereby had solar panelcould performance prolonging the investment return period. energy of total energy use has decreased by 29-47%, depending on the season. This indicates that in order to reach the SDG decreased by twice the expected average, but building energy use had doubled by 156-203%, and thereby the share of renewable The main scope of important thisuse paper isdecreased tonewly assessdesigned the of using the heat demand –Energy outdoor temperature function for demand targets, itenergy is building, as well community Management Systems, do heat not energy of total hasthat by feasibility 29-47%, depending onas the season. This indicates that in order to reach themerely SDG forecast. of users, Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used toasincreasing aEnergy case study. The district is consisted of 665 account forThe current accommodate increasing energy demand. energy targets, itdistrict is energy important thatbut newly designed building, asRES wellconcurrent as community Management Systems, do not merely buildings varyenergy in both construction period and typology. Three weatherto scenarios medium, account for that current users, but accommodate increasing RES concurrent increasing(low, energy demand.high) and three district scenariosPublished were developed (shallow, ©renovation 2018 The Authors. by Elsevier Ltd. intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were ©compared 2019 The Authors. Published by Ltd. with results from aunder dynamic heatBY-NC-ND demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. This is an open access article the CC license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Theisresults showed when only weather change is considered, the margin of error on could be acceptable some applications Selection peer-review under responsibility of the 2018 5th International Conference Power and Energyfor Systems This an and open accessthat article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection peer-review underwas responsibility of20% the 2018 International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, (the errorand inCPESE annual 2018, demand lower than2018, for all5th weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation Engineering, 19–21responsibility September Nagoya, Japan. Selection and peer-review under of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems CPESE 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan. scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered). Engineering, CPESE 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan. The value of slope increased on average thePV; range of 3.8% upSDGs to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the Keywords: BEMS; RES;coefficient micro-grid; performance analysis; costwithin analysis; lead-acid battery; decrease BEMS; in the RES; number of heating hours ofanalysis; 22-139h during thePV; heating season (depending on the combination of weather and Keywords: micro-grid; performance cost analysis; lead-acid battery; SDGs renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations. © 2017 The Authors. by Elsevier fax: Ltd.+81-29-860-4981. * Corresponding author.Published Tel.: +81-29-851-3354; Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and E-mail address:author. [email protected] * Corresponding Tel.: +81-29-851-3354; fax: +81-29-860-4981. Cooling. E-mail address: [email protected]
1876-6102 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) This is an open access under the CC BY-NC-ND 1876-6102 © 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 2018, 19–21 2018, Nagoya, Japan. of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE Selection andSeptember peer-review under responsibility 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the 2018 5th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering, CPESE 2018, 19–21 September 2018, Nagoya, Japan. 10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.095
Karina Vink et al. / Energy Procedia 156 (2019) 425–429 Karina Vink et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
426
1. Introduction Goal 7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), affordable and clean energy, calls for energy transition in the form of both a substantial increase in renewable energy as a share of total energy use, and a doubling of the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency, to be reached by 2030 [1]. Methods to help reach the energy targets of the SDGs include decreasing total energy consumption and the localized generation of renewable energy (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Current and future energy use as envisioned by the SDGs (based on [2]).
For individual households there are now ample options to both decrease total energy consumption and increase the share of renewable energy used. Scaling up to larger, especially high-rise buildings, achieving the SDG energy targets becomes more difficult. While organizations owning larger sized buildings may have larger funds available to invest in Renewable Energy Systems (RES) and find additional motivation in promoting the image of being sustainable, the physical and geographical characteristics of many buildings, in combination with high energy consumption, leave comparatively little opportunity for localized RES reaching the SDG energy targets. This can be aggravated by design limitations that complicate maintenance as well as RES not growing in proportion to building energy use, which leads to a decreased share of renewable energy from the total energy use: the opposite trends of the energy targets of the SDGs. This issue may be solved through future larger (regional) scale integrated operations by community energy management systems that regulate energy transfers between storage batteries, high demand functions from building energy management systems, and hybrid RES with surplus energy production [3]. The NanoGREEN/WPI-MANA building of the National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) is the first commercial building in Japan to be installed with a “Micro-Grid System”. This is an RES consisting of four arrays of solar panels (photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation) (Fig. 2, Table 1) and a lead-acid battery, enabling energysaving during peak hours of electricity consumption and costs, as well as a backup energy supply during emergencies. It is incorporated into the building Energy Management System (EMS). Since installation in 2012 and start of operation in 2013, the solar panels have not undergone any maintenance, and the efficiency of the system is not known. The objective is therefore to determine to what degree the solar panels of the micro-grid are cost effective, given their expected decline in performance ratio. At the same time, the building’s total remaining energy use is examined. Table 1. Overview of micro-grid PV array characteristics
a
Array #
Location
Crystalline Silicon Type
1 2 3 4
Roof, east and west sides Roof, center north and south sides Roof, center north and south sides Wall, east side
b
Mono-Si Multi-Si Mono-Si Multi-Si
c
Capacity [kW]
Panels (#)
50.73 24.74 11.33 3.78
380 399 60 18
d
Fig. 2. Micro-grid PV Arrays (a) array 1; (b) array 2; (c) array 3; (d) array 4.
Area [m2] 332.78 251.44 107.81 29.56
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Despite the increase in studies regarding micro-grids and smart grids applying renewable energy systems [4], few studies report micro-grid performance and cost analysis as opposed to hypothetical optimization. Furthermore, while household sizes often increase, or more electricity consuming products are installed over the years, in commercial and research sized facilities these effects are often enlarged. As a novel viewpoint, this study compares the development of the originally installed PV capacity and performance with building energy use. 2. Methods On 26 and 27/02/2018 the four solar panel arrays were inspected for visible defects, soiling, etc. and the findings documented with photo camera and infrared camera (FLIR ONE Pro) where possible. Not all panels were accessible due to proximity of installed heavy machinery on the rooftop (Fig. 3c). Taking infrared (IR) pictures of the top surface of the panels led to cloud reflections, therefore, pictures were taken from the rear surface instead. Taking IR pictures of array 2 was not possible due to rooftop integration (Fig. 2b). Regarding data availability and analysis, a 5-year hourly data set of the micro-grid was available for analysis (solar irradiation [W/m2], solar power generation [kWh], battery charge/discharge [kWh], and electricity from the utility company to cover the remaining building energy consumption [kWh]). Missing or erroneous data were excluded. The total usable data formed 42,882 hours or 97.64% of the total set. A second data set concerned electricity contract prices varying by hour, season, and year [5]. This consists of annually increasing electricity prices for the periods: holiday/Sunday/night time (22:00-08:00); summer peak time (13:00-16:00, Jul-Sep, nonholiday etc.); summer day time (08:00-22:00, Jul-Sep, non-peak time, non-holiday etc.); and non-summer day time (08:00-22:00, non-holiday etc.). Note that fuel regulatory costs (adjustment charges), basic connection and spare line fees, and other costs related to the entire research site were not considered. A more accurate data set from the microgrid was available for 1-year (03/2016-02/2017), which was measured and recorded at slightly earlier time intervals. Compared seasonally, these values proved to be within 3.9% difference volumetric wise, upon which continuation of use of the 5-year data set was deemed justified. As data were available in excel file format, the files were combined using VBA programming and manually checked for consistency/validity. PV efficiency was compared monthly to the first year of operation relative to solar irradiation (Financial Year 2013, commencing in April). The hourly data was linked to the electricity price of the respective moments in time through an if/then formula. The final results were compared per season and per year. 3. Results Solar panels in array 1 suffer from shade by design errors, with as main cause the mandatory placement of a lightning conduction wire on the south side of the building (Fig. 2a). IR photos showed some overheating cells (Fig. 3a) among the 250 inspected panels (32 cells/panel, Fig. 3b). Other shadows were caused by the building itself and a closely placed antenna (Fig. 3c), which was also found to attract birds and thereby dirt. Arrays 2 and 3 are affected by dirt accumulation (Fig. 3d). Array 4 suffers from overgrowing plants, and shade from a nearby building (Fig. 2d). During measurements of Fig. 3a-c, the ambient temperature was between 5.8-9.4 °C. When analyzing the results per year and per season, battery charging has always been higher than battery discharging. It has also nearly always cost more than it has saved cost-wise, with four exceptions. Financially this is not a great burden or profit as the total seasonal costs-savings run between -21,153 and 14,002 JPY (USD -195 – 129 as per April 2018 conversion rates [6]). Averaging the monthly solar panel efficiency, the decrease over 5 years was 10.12%, amounting to 2.02% annually. a
b
c
d
Fig. 3. Visual inspection (a) overheating cell 57.8 °C; (b) normal cell 25.0 °C; (c) antenna adjacent to panels (array 1); (d) dirt (array 3).
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a
b
Fig. 4. (a) net building energy use [MWh] and costs [JPY]; (b) PV energy generation [MWh] and saved costs [JPY].
As for cost effectiveness, over the past five years electricity prices have increased from 12.10 JPY/kWh (night/holiday time)/19.85 JPY/kWh (summer peak time) to 15.18 JPY/kWh / 22.79 JPY/kWh. The remaining building energy use has close to doubled in most seasons (Fig. 4a), whereas the installed PV capacity has remained the same and its performance ratio has decreased (Fig. 4b). When evaluating the FY2013 net building energy costs (set at 100%), the corresponding price trends show the opposite directions of what is ideally desired when considering the SDGs involving decreasing energy use and increasing the % of renewable energy sources (Fig. 5), as both energy costs (and use) are increasing and the share of costs saved by PV (and generation) is decreasing. 4. Discussion and conclusions The battery is designed to operate with two potentially conflicting goals: reducing energy use from the main grid and thereby reducing costs during the peak hours of summer, and functioning as an emergency power backup. In case the battery has become depleted during the day time when reducing energy from the main grid, the battery is recharged in the late hours of summer daytime prices. This phenomenon occurs on most days during summer, and is the main cause of high costs of battery charging. As there are no known studies to value the power quality and stability functions of integrated HRES [7], the value of steady emergency backup power was not part of this cost analysis. Despite the doubling of the building energy use, on a daily basis the peak cut (during summer) helps save several tens of kW from the total energy use. Contract details mention that an excess use of power beyond a set amount would be charged to 150% of the normal price, implying that peak cut helps save surcharge costs as well. Compared to the average PV degradation for mono/multi crystalline Si PV of <1% annually [8], the annual average decrease of solar panel performance of 2.02% is significantly larger. As pointed out by [8], panels with high
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degradation rates are usually removed or replaced and thereby not reported as often as panels with low degradation rates. As 90% efficiency for the first 10 years of operation is guaranteed by the warranty of the solar panels, it is unrealistic the current performance of 89.88% can be maintained to nearly fulfill this guarantee. Part of the reduction in electricity generation by the solar panels can be lessened since it is not due to irreversible degradation, but rather due to neglected maintenance and overgrowth by plants. Although the electricity generation reduction caused by shading from the lighting conduction wire is minor, this partial shading represents a strong risk of early PV module failure due to the formation of hot spots, for which the overheating cells are a first indication. Building energy use has increased by >100%, as the building still had many unoccupied rooms at the start of the operation in FY2013. Since FY2018 the building has become close to fully occupied. It is therefore likely the current building energy use will no longer increase significantly. The solar power generation will however continue to decrease. Though the observed trends are in opposition of the ideal SDG targets and may be lessened by maintenance, the effects cannot be reversed without compensating for the large increase of building energy use. The installation of additional solar panels in proportion to this increase can help overcome this trend. Their location may be on the side of the building, the rooftops of neighboring buildings, or above car parking lots. As of 2017, no method exists for assessing the economic and environmental impacts of smart grids [9]. To reach the SDG energy targets, future economic and environment impact assessments of newly designed building and community EMS should anticipate and allow for increasing RES concurrent to increasing energy demand.
Fig. 5. Net building energy costs and PV saved costs in FY2013 & 2018.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Ken Matsuoka from Solar Culture Co. for lending a FLIR ONE Pro IR camera; as well as Shinji Wada from the Facility Management Office at NIMS, Toshio Oyama and Toshihiro Yamane from Shimizu Co., and Kozo Nagasaki from Seiko Solutions Inc., for data provision and discussions on the micro-grid. References [1] UNDP. Goal 7 targets. 2019. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/ [2] Maes B. Utilities under transformation. Elia Group International; 2018. [3] Toshiba Corporation. Development of Community Energy Management System. 2018. https://www.toshiba.co.jp/rdc/rd/fields/12_e04_e.htm [4] Cardenas J, Gemoets L, Ablanedo R, Jose H, Sarfi R. A literature survey on smart grid distribution: an analytical approach. J Clean Prod 2014; 65: 202-216. [5] Tokyo Electric Power Energy Partner. High pressure seasonal power by time zone. http://www.tepco.co.jp/ep/corporate/plan_h/plan09.html [6] XE Currency Converter. 2018. https://www.xe.com/ [7] Fathima AH, Palanisamy K. Optimization in microgrids with hybrid energy systems – a review. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2015; 45(C): 431-446. [8] Jordan, DC, Kurtz SR. Photovoltaic Degradation Rates - An Analytical Review. NREL; NREL/JA-5200-51664, 2012. [9] Moretti M et al. A systematic review of environmental and economic impacts of smart grids. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2017; 68(2): 888-898.