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Performance Anxiety
Journal of Voice Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 257–269 © 2001 The Voice Foundation
Performance Anxiety: Loss of the Spoken Edge Lorraine Merritt, Alison Richards, and Pamela Davis National Voice Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Summary: The study aimed to assess whether a specific training program in vocal and physical skills could reduce the level of perceived performance anxiety. Eighteen undergraduate performing arts students were divided into two even groups. The experimental group experienced 10 two-hour sessions in a specialized vocal and physical skills training program. The control group received the same number of sessions in text analysis by the same teacher. Ten weeks after the training period, both groups were videotaped delivering a short speech of general interest. The videotaped material was assessed by four judges, using a visual analog scale (VAS). Perceptual variables considered were eight vocal and physical features: physical ease, physical presence, effective gesture use, effective eye contact, correct breath use, suitable pace, vocal variety, speech clarity, and one performance feature: perceived performance anxiety. Results indicated that the particular vocal and physical skills training program used showed positive results in effectively reducing the level of perceived performance anxiety. The experimental group scored significantly higher on each of the eight vocal and physical features and significantly lower on the perceived anxiety feature than the control group. This research has implications for those affected by performance anxiety in vocal presentation. Key Words: Voice—Performance—Anxiety—Actors—Training.
INTRODUCTION
Performance anxiety may be described as a state of anxiety that occurs in particular situations and may be regarded as a reaction to a stimulus.4 As such, it is a transitory condition and occurs during confrontation with a specific stimulus. Public speaking, acting, singing or playing a musical instrument in public, or competing in sporting events are all known stimuli.1 This form of anxiety is different from trait anxieties such as communication apprehension, which represent a general tendency for anxious responses regardless of stimuli.5 Self-perceived performance anxiety is a subcategory of Social Phobia [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th edition (DSM-IV)]6 in the international classification of diseases (ICD-10).7
Performance anxiety is a common problem among people who are called upon to present or perform in public. It manifests itself in different ways, ranging from memory and physical disturbances1 to vocal problems such as a thin or quivering voice.2 Other symptoms reported have included rapid; shallow breathing, increased muscle tension,2 as well as a desire to avoid and withdraw from speaking, low verbal output and nonfluency, physical discomfort, and trembling.1, 3 Accepted for publication July 28, 2000. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Lorraine Merritt, National Voice Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Various reasons for the physiological symptoms and signs have been postulated. The physiological changes that accompany self-perceived performance anxiety have led to the simple explanation of the fight-or-flight reflex. This refers to distinct coping strategies that are triggered by different types of stimuli in the external or internal environment and that involve the activation of the autonomic sympathetic nervous system. The view has been expressed that, in modern society, there is often no objective enemy to fight or flee from, and a state of increased muscle tension is often observed in response to perceived environmental stress. Indeed, it has been suggested as a hypothetical body armor for protection against assault.3,8-10 However, it is the view of Steptoe et al11 that the increased muscle tension and accompanying arousal may also be a response to tasks that are challenging and stimulating. Certainly, the work of Schachter and Singer12 showed that such physiological activation underpins other emotional states such as excitement. While the physical symptoms may be the most immediately recognized features of performance anxiety, there have been several studies that have reported that the state of anxiety correlates with the subject’s cognitive state prior to giving a speech.13,14 As anxiety levels rise it is more likely that the presence of negative thoughts will dominate a person’s thinking. These negative thoughts manifest themselves in a variety of ways. They may include feelings of lack of control or irrational demands for perfection, an exaggerated perception of what the stakes are, fear of failure, or an impaired ability to focus while being distracted by irrelevant thoughts.13-14 The presence of such negative thoughts, as well as the experience of the physical discomfort caused by the state of anxiety, may lead to behavioral responses that further restrict the communication process. It has been reported that these responses may take the form of avoiding the speaking situations that make the person anxious,15 delivering a shorter speech than a more relaxed speaker would,16 or conveying an unwillingness to communicate.17 Anxiety about public speaking is one of the most commonly reported fears of adults.18,19 It is estimated that 40% of the American population suffer from this anxiety.20 In a survey of several thousand American college students, it was found that 40% experiJournal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
enced high anxiety in public speaking situations.21 In a survey of 500 members of the general public, Stein et al7 found that 1 in 20 subjects interviewed considered themselves disabled by performance anxiety. There have been few published reports into the incidence of performance anxiety among actors and acting students. However the results of a study of 178 English acting students showed that 9.6% rated performance anxiety as a severe problem and 36.7% rated it as a moderate problem.11 Research in the field of music performance reveals that performance anxiety is the most frequently mentioned medical problem of orchestral musicians.22 A survey of 300 music students found that 21.3% reported considerable distress from performance anxiety and 16.5% reported that it disabled their performance.23 In a survey of 155 professional musicians, it was reported that 91 had experienced performance anxiety to the extent that it seriously affected professional and personal lives.24 The state of performance anxiety is not peculiar to our own times. Rather its power to grip the heart and tighten the throat has afflicted many public speakers, and has been the subject of historical record. In the days of the Roman republic, the importance of public speaking in political life meant a high value was placed on rhetorical skill. The great orator, Cicero, wrote of the horrors that beset him upon speaking:25 I turn pale at the outset of a speech and quake in every limb and in all my soul. Thousands of years after Cicero, the great classical actor, Sir Laurence Olivier, wrote of the demons that attacked him while performing:26 My cue came and I went on to that stage where I knew with grim certainty I would not be capable of remaining more than a few minutes. I began to watch for the instant at which my knowledge of my next line would vanish. Only the next two now, no—one more . . . and then—now. I took one pace forward and stopped abruptly. My voice had started to fade, my throat closed up and the audience was beginning to go giddily round. . . . With unusual inaudibility, owing to my tightly clenched teeth, I somehow got on with the play.
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE So severe was Olivier’s malaise that, when performing a soliloquy, he had to get another actor to stay in the wings downstage where he could be seen, as Olivier feared he would not be able to stay in front of an audience by himself. How much poorer in thought and imagination would the world be if we had been robbed of the wisdom of Cicero’s words and deprived of the resonant magic that Olivier had in bringing alive the words of the great texts. If their performance anxiety had become too overwhelming, this might have been the case. Many professionals also experience performance anxiety when called upon to deliver a spoken presentation. Business presenters are expected to achieve results, to maximize the potential of the presentation experience, and there is an expectation that he or she should be able to bring alive the content of the message. It is demanded that the spoken word should do more than it can in written form. The presenter experiencing performance anxiety will often fall short in achieving the expected outcomes from the presentation. A range of techniques for dealing with performance anxiety has been suggested.8,27-30 A high proportion of these studies suggest cognitive restructuring. Although it is known that developing confidence in technique is associated with a reduction in music performance anxiety,31 there has been relatively little investigation of the effect of specific training in vocal skills in reducing performance anxiety.32 Fremouw and Zitter33 showed that skills training in voice inflection, rate, volume, eye contact, gestures, and speech organization significantly reduced selfreported performance anxiety. Steptoe et al11 found that the effects of performance anxiety were most apparent in student actors in the aspects of performance such as posture, voice production, movement, and breath control. The aforementioned factors have been the subject of intense development in theatre performance training, notably by Kristin Linklater, Cicely Berry, and Patsy Rodenburg. Linklater’s monographs34,35 present the premise that by freeing the voice and its habitual physical and psychological impediments, a new free voice is induced. Linklater asserts that the voice reveals the inner world to the outer world, hence the approach is to liberate the voice and the person with it. Therefore, Linklater’s philosophy is grounded in a psychotherapeutic context in its quest to unlock the
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mind and body in order to free the voice. The notion of personal and sociocultural liberation is evident in her philosophy of voice practice. The core of Berry’s belief is that meaning should inform sound, hence the point of departure in her method is through the text.36 This does not only mean an intellectual understanding of what is being said, but also an appreciation for the rhythm of words, their organic structure, and the verbal dynamic needed to express them.37 Berry38 believes that through the physical investigation of vowels and consonants, the movement of words becomes one with the inner self and the word becomes active. Therefore, she believes that the energy must reside in the word, rather than in the sound, for it is the word that is the result of thoughts and feelings. Berry’s works39,40 focus on this investigation of what is being conveyed, and with that, the relationship of the message to how it is said. The driving value in Rodenburg’s work is that each individual should have the right to speak and it is through voice work that the potential lies for such liberation. Rodenburg believes that the inhibition of that right to speak can occur because of the acquisition of habits that lead to a voice encrusted with restrictive tendencies. The source of such habits is complex, stemming from, for example, psychological, social, and environmental restrictions. She sees her purpose in voice work as setting the individual free from the habits that have armored the voice, allowing it no choice in communication. Linklater, Berry, and Rodenburg share common features within their different vocal pedagogy. Common to their practice is the quest to engender an integration of the source of sound between what is said and how it is said. Berry proposes that the means to this end be essentially through the text, Linklater through the voice, Rodenburg through the ownership of words. This study aimed to test the effectiveness of specific training in vocal and physical skills as a technique for minimizing the level of perceived performance anxiety. METHOD Twenty-two undergraduate university students enrolled in the first year of a performing arts course were the subjects in this study. There were four Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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males and eighteen females, a gender balance that reflected the number of the enrolled students in this course. The age range was 18 to 33 years. Fourteen subjects were between 18 and 20 years of age and 8 were older adult students. The project was approved by the institution’s ethics committee. Acting students were selected as they were available for a training program over 10 weeks. At the commencement of the academic year, the project was explained to the first-year students. They were told the aim of the project, how it would be conducted, and the degree of their expected involvement. All students volunteered. The students were divided into two groups by the departmental secretary who was naïve to the experimental design. She allocated the first 11 names on the departmental names list to one group (the experimental group) and the next 11 formed the control group. A criterion for subject selection was that the students needed to attend 90% or more of the sessions as the skill acquisition was considered essential for the project design. From the total of 22 students at the beginning of the semester, 4 students did not meet this criterion. Two students withdrew from the course in the first 2 weeks of semester, after the groups had been established. A further two students attended less than 50% of the sessions, leaving a total of nine students in the experimental group and 9 in the control group. Of the remaining 18 students, 3 in the experimental group and 5 in the control group were older students. As part of their academic timetable, the student subjects were scheduled to receive group voice and speech training for 2 hours each week over 10 weeks in a course called Performance Study. The other components of the course were movement and acting. The time slot allocated for the voice and speech training was used to conduct the study. The first author (LM) provided specialized voice training to the experimental group and, at a different time, classical text analysis for the same duration to the control group as detailed below. The text sessions were a mixture of scholarly analysis of text and physical investigation of text and are also a very necessary part of a student actor’s experience, and so were relevant to the course. The main difference is that the student subjects in the control group did not receive any specific voice training until after the completion of the data analysis for this project. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
Training program for the experimental group The design of the voice training program was influenced by indications in the literature that vocal and physical factors featured prominently among the negative consequences of performance anxiety1-3,8 as well as the first author’s professional practice in teaching presentation skills. The vocal program goals and methodologies of Linklater,34,35 Berry,39,40 and Rodenburg41-43 and the principles of the Alexander44 and Feldenkrais45 techniques informed the development of this training program. The voice training program, therefore, was designed to develop skilled behavior in vocal and physical use, specifically in physical ease, physical presence, vocal variety, speech clarity, and appropriate pace delivery. In addition, the program was designed to correct the subject’s breathing technique and to link this technique with the creation of a “supported” sound.41 The definition of the term supported is complex, but we mean that the breath is free, comes from low in the body, and that the control of the outgoing breath and resultant sound stems from wellbalanced abdominal muscular processes. Session one included an outline of how the voice works, discussion of the place of habit in physical and vocal use, and the importance of physical and vocal awareness. Session two covered the exploration of physical balance and spinal alignment. The first hour of the third session included a discussion of tension, the shoulder and neck release exercises, and a physical awareness exercise. The second hour of the third session dealt with physical presence activities. The first hour of session four covered a discussion on breathing. The second hour of session four and sessions five and six were spent on breathing awareness and exercises. Session seven covered a discussion of, and exercises for, the jaw, lips, and tongue. Sessions eight and nine dealt with vocal variety. Session ten was a review of all areas covered in the previous nine sessions. Text training program used with the control group This text unit closely followed the principles of text analysis as developed by Berry39 and Rodenburg.41 The text sources for this unit were monologues and scenes from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Midsummer Night’s Dream, and
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE King Lear, Euripides’s The Phoenician Women, and Shakespeare’s sonnet 129. Through a range of exercises, the student subjects experienced the physical power of text. The thoughts, structure, rhythm, and words were experienced in such a way as to liberate the student subjects’ ability to serve the text fully and memorably. Evaluation of physical and vocal skills At the commencement of the training period, subjects from both groups were informed that they would be required to present a short speech of approximately 3 minutes’ duration on a subject of general interest to other members of the group. They were told that this presentation would be videotaped and that they would be given 1 week’s notice of the scheduled videotaping session. They were informed that the presentation of this speech would not form part of the grade of the voice and speech unit. The subjects were videotaped 10 weeks after the conclusion of the training period and a semester vacation period of 6 weeks. After completion of this project’s data acquisition, specialized voice training was provided by the first author to the previous control group and text work to the previous experimental group. The subjects in the experimental and control groups were videotaped in separate sessions, conducted by the first author in a rehearsal studio. The room was neatly furnished, with chairs available for the audience, which consisted of the other members of the group. The camera was positioned as unobtrusively as possible in the audience. The department’s production manager, who was naïve to the experimental design, provided technical support in positioning the camera and framing the subjects. The subject being videotaped stood at a distance of 8 feet from the others. A gray curtain served as the background. The subject was given a few minutes, after the completion of the previous subject’s speech, before giving his or her speech in front of the camera. The subjects did not engage in conversation in this changeover period. The videotapes were edited and cut to the 3minute speech. The order of the subjects was randomly selected and controlled so that experimental and control subjects were interspersed to make a single videotape containing the 18 subjects’ speeches.
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The edited videotaped material was viewed in quiet conditions by four judges. Each judge viewed the videotape on two separate occasions, 3 weeks apart, so that intrasubject reliability could be assessed. On the first occasion the judges were unaware that they would be required to repeat this task a few weeks later, a criterion adopted so that the judges would not simply repeat their responses to the first judging when they were required to repeat the task. The judges were voice and speech teachers, with varying years of professional experience, but with the same voice training background, a 1-year postgraduate diploma in spoken voice training at the same institution that offered a curriculum encompassing the vocal philosophies of Berry,39 Linklater,34 and Rodenburg.43 One judge had 7 years of formal practice as a specialist voice teacher, two judges had 4 years of experience, and the other judge was a new graduate, but had been involved in theatrical performance for 15 years. The judges viewed the videotaped material independently, were naïve to the research design, and played no part in the execution of this study. They were not given any information about the subjects or their prior training The presence of performance anxiety has generally been based on self-report and/or physiological measures. Hamilton46 recognizes cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components of stage fright; however, her work with individual performers depends on the self-report of those who have found the condition sufficiently disabling to seek therapeutic help. We wished to study a broader population of performers, and to investigate the reliability of assessments by trained observers, as well as the effectiveness of particular vocal practices in reducing perceived performance anxiety. The study was designed to replicate the “eye” of the teacher or audience that detects the presence of symptoms of performance anxiety; the study replicates the interactivity of the performance situation. Accordingly, the judges completed a perceptual evaluation for each subject by viewing the video and using a visual analog scale (VAS) to indicate their perception of various specified features. The visual analog scales were undifferentiated lines 100 mm in length, with end points reading “absence of” and “high degree of” in reference to the features described below (Appendix A). The judges rated subjects on these undifferentiated Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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lines, making a mark with a pen or a pencil to indicate the extent to which the subject possessed the given feature. The VAS was chosen as a measurement means because it has been used in other studies47 to facilitate perceptual judgments of voice and speech quality, on the grounds that it enables more stability of evaluation than scales marked with intervals. Perceptual variables were physical ease, physical presence, effective gesture use, effective eye contact, correct breath use, suitable pace, vocal variety, speech clarity, and performance anxiety, the last as a global indicator. The first eight features were included in the evaluation process, since poor use of them has been cited in the literature as a negative effect of performance anxiety.1-3,8,11 The judges were given a definition for each of the above features (Appendix A). Data analysis Intrajudge agreement refers to the extent to which a rater assigns a similar scale value to the nine voice and performance features on two rating occasions. Intrajudge reliability was assessed for each of the four judges using intraclass correlations (ICC 2,1) with a matrix of speakers ⫻ occasions. Interjudge reliability was assessed using intraclass correlations (ICC 2,1) with a matrix of speakers ⫻ judges’ scores. To obtain the latter, the VAS score given by each judge on the two occasions was averaged. An intercorrelation matrix between all nine voice and performance features that were rated by the judges was used to assess the relationships between variables. Differences between the control and experimental groups on the perceived features was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS Intrajudge and interjudge agreement and reliability Intraclass correlations (ICC) involving a two-way analysis of variation for the matrix speakers ⫻ judges demonstrated that the four judges were each highly reliable across the repeated judgments. The correlations for the comparison of each judge on the two occasions ranged from 0.95 to 0.98. Individual values for each of the judges and the 95% confidence interval for the ICC are given in Table 1. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
TABLE 1. Measures of Judge Reliability. Intraclass Correlations (2, 1) and their 95% Confidence Interval Calculated by Comparing Visual Analogue Scale Ratings for Each Speaker for the Eight Vocal and Physical Features and the Perceived Performance Anxiety Feature ICC (2, 1) Values
95% Confidence Interval
Judge 1, 2 occasions
0.98
0.97 - 0.98
Judge 2, 2 occasions
0.97
0.96 - 0.98
Judge 3, 2 occasions
0.97
0.96 - 0.98
Judge 4, 2 occasions
0.95
0.93 - 0.96
0.94
0.93 - 0.96
Reliability Intrarater reliability
Interrater reliability 4 judges
The judges also demonstrated a highly significant level of interrater reliability or agreement with each other with ICC (2, 1) values of 0.94 with a 95% confidence interval for the ICC of 0.93-0.96 (Table 1). Perceptual ratings: comparison of control and experimental groups The judges’ ratings on the VAS of the eight vocal and physical features and the performance anxiety feature ranged from a low of 10 to a high of 97, indicating that the judges made full use of the extent of the scale. The mean and standard deviation for the ratings of the nine features are shown in Figure 1 and the subjects’ mean scores across all judges and the two occasions are shown in Table 2. The intercorrelation matrix between the eight vocal and physical skills factors and the single performance anxiety factor shown by the judges’ ratings indicated that the variables were so highly correlated that they were converging on a single underlying construct (Table 3). The variable perceived performance anxiety was almost perfectly negatively correlated with the eight vocal and physical skill factors. Reliability analyses (Chronbach’s alpha) using the eight vocal and physical skills factors confirmed this relationship, and the standardized item alpha for the scale was 0.9933. The construct identified was called “vocal and physical skills.” Using this variable, an ANOVA was conducted to assess differences between experimental and control groups. The
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE
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FIGURE 1. Mean visual analog scale scores and standard deviations for the control and experimental groups for the eight vocal and physical features and the performance anxiety feature. “Ease” refers to physical ease; “presence” to physical presence; “gesture” to effective gesture use; “eye” to effective eye contact; “breath” to correct breath use; “pace” to suitable pace; “variety” to vocal variety; “clarity” to speech clarity; and “anxiety” to perceived performance anxiety.
TABLE 2. Mean Visual Analog Scale Scores for Each of 18 Subjects by Four Judges over Two Occasions for the Eight Vocal and Physical Features and the Performance Anxiety Feature Subject
Ease
Presence
Gesture
Eye
Breath
Pace
Variety
Clarity
Anxiety
E1
58.00
57.75
63.25
70.88
69.00
73.62
66.88
72.38
33.38
E2
83.00
83.38
84.62
87.12
82.88
89.00
86.25
90.75
18.38
E3
54.75
55.25
63.12
69.25
61.38
68.75
61.00
72.12
38.38
E4
72.62
72.50
81.88
82.12
73.62
83.38
77.62
79.88
24.38
E5
66.62
65.75
71.12
77.25
71.38
81.25
67.25
82.00
25.50
E6
71.75
69.25
73.12
78.50
76.00
82.12
72.88
78.38
25.62
E7
88.62
85.25
85.12
89.12
84.38
88.50
89.12
90.62
12.50
E8
82.25
79.12
80.00
81.25
79.50
77.38
81.38
83.00
18.00
E9
83.88
80.25
84.25
87.38
83.12
89.12
89.50
92.38
14.00
C1
58.50
55.62
65.88
71.38
64.38
72.00
63.12
65.62
37.62
C2
47.00
42.25
45.38
59.75
53.12
63.25
49.88
62.75
56.00
C3
49.38
44.75
56.88
49.25
46.62
58.12
39.75
61.00
62.00
C4
70.12
67.38
75.00
76.62
71.00
80.25
74.12
76.75
25.88
C5
43.88
38.88
51.50
57.88
43.25
59.88
49.75
65.38
60.88
C6
51.50
46.62
52.88
56.88
45.25
55.25
43.75
62.00
58.50
C7
67.62
63.38
69.25
73.62
70.50
76.00
66.38
79.88
26.12
C8
57.88
54.88
63.50
69.75
67.38
71.25
65.62
70.25
42.38
C9
56.25
53.50
62.62
69.50
61.62
68.38
60.50
70.38
44.88
Abbreviations: C, control; E, experimental; other abbreviations as in Figure 1. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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LORRAINE MERRITT ET AL TABLE 3. Correlation Matrix of the Eight Vocal and Physical Features and Perceived Performance Anxiety for the 18 Subjects* Ease
Presence
Gesture
Eye
Breath
Pace
Ease
1.000
Presence
0.993
1.000
Gesture
0.962
0.975
1.000
Eye
0.933
0.952
0.934
1.000
Breath
0.937
0.955
0.926
0.968
1.000
Pace
0.916
0.937
0.931
0.969
0.964
1.000
Variety
0.944
0.957
0.940
0.985
0.969
0.960
Clarity Performance Anxiety *Abbreviations
Variety
Clarity
Performance Anxiety
1.000
0.944
0.951
0.923
0.940
0.922
0.938
0.941
1.000
⫺0.945
⫺0.962
⫺0.942
⫺0.972
⫺0.977
⫺0.961
⫺0.962
⫺0.939
1.000
as in Figure 1.
results indicated a significant difference between the groups (F1,16 = 16.382; P = 0.001). That means that the control group, whose members did not receive training in the eight physical and vocal skills, not unexpectedly rated significantly lower on “vocal and physical skills” than the experimental group whose members had received such training. However, the control group also rated significantly higher on perceived performance anxiety than the experimental group. Neither group received any direct training or advice related to performance anxiety. The differences between the experimental and control groups can be appreciated for the “vocal and physical skills” in Figure 2A and the negatively correlated perceived performance anxiety in Figure 2B. DISCUSSION The study revealed that a particular vocal and physical skills training program, when applied to a first-year group of performing arts students, showed positive results in effectively reducing the level of perceived performance anxiety when compared to a text analysis program applied to a separate, but similar, student group. The experimental group consistently scored higher on each of the eight vocal and physical features, that is, physical ease, physical presence, effective gesture, effective eye contact, correct breath use, suitable pace, vocal variety, and Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
speech clarity, and lower on the perceived anxiety feature than the control group (Figure 2). The experimental group was given a training program that was developed from specific approaches in vocal pedagogies34-35,39-43 and that focused in large part on the eight vocal and physical features that were also part of the perceptual ratings by the judges. It follows that higher scores might thus be expected from this group. On the other hand, the control group was given text analysis and would have received indirect training on some of these features. For example, pace was explored through the rhythm of the text, speech clarity through working on vowels, and vocal variety through the connection with emotional truth. The fact that the control group scored lower for all of the eight features may have something to do with a group or training-related difficulty in the transference of these skills to other communication contexts. Although neither group was given any training or advice related to performance anxiety, the results are strikingly different between the two groups. These differences between the control and experimental group data are surprising. Although the performance anxiety result is very clear with respect to first-year performing arts students, who had not presented with specific problems in performance anxiety, it is not known whether these results can be generalized. These students may fear appearing foolish in front of
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE
FIGURE 2. A. Box plots of the control and experimental group scores on the derived single variable “vocal and physical skills” (measured on a scale of 0-800 for the eight features on a 1-100 visual analog scale) as described in Results. B. Box plots of the control and experimental group scores on the perceived performance anxiety (averaged across judges and occasions and measured as described in Method on a visual analog scale from 0 to 100). Note that in each case the median line in the plot is well outside the 75th percentile box outline and close to the range limits. Because there is a negative correlation between the single construct “vocal and physical skills” and perceived performance anxiety, the relationship of the experimental and control data is reversed in A and B.
their peers, whereas an experienced actor or a business presenter may be concerned with professional credibility and this may heighten as the person’s professional status increases. The current findings support making the vocal and physical skills program available to members of the general public seeking assistance with this problem. However, implementation of such a program will likely require training teachers in the pedagogy that underlies this program.34,35,39-43
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In the construction of the training program, negative physiological symptoms that relate to the delivery of the spoken word were considered. Features such as muscle tension,48 shallow breathing,2 lack of voice control, and reduced movement capacity11 were directly addressed in the specific skills training. In addition to raising awareness of inappropriate behaviors, the skills training attempted to increase specific behaviors, such as physical ease, physical presence, supported voice, and vocal variety. This approach of being able to distinguish between the knowledge and the practice in skills application is in conformity with data reported by Fremouw and Zitter33 that training new skills is effective in reducing speech anxiety. Another factor was that principles of effective voice training were considered in the construction of the program. In particular, the logical approach and technical base of Berry40 and Rodenburg’s43 vocal methodologies influenced the training program. The work of Berry and Rodenburg has received wide acclaim for its effectiveness in addressing the demands of the spoken word.49 Voice training allows for the development of subtlety and nuance in vocal expression through media such as confidence in one’s sound, ease in delivery, and commitment to language. Acquisition of these skills is related to the specific demands placed upon the corporate presenter in terms of spoken presentation. In a business presentation, the presenter is required to do more than a print copy of his or her words can do. The delivery of the spoken message has to provide a different level and depth of access to the message. The findings of the present study indicate that confidence in physical and vocal skills allows the individual to communicate effectively with less distraction because of performance anxiety. The vocal and physical skills training program was also constructed in part by reference to methods that have been demonstrated to improve physical use. In particular, the principles of the Alexander and Feldenkrais techniques were considered. These methods, which apply habitual awareness and consciously expanded sensitivity to the architecture of the body, shaped the physical basis of the training program. It is not surprising that the experimental group scored higher on the features of physical ease and physical presence and lower on perceived performance anxiety than the control group. Some asJournal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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pects of the Feldenkrais45 and Alexander44 techniques are frequently used to address the anxiety experience of musicians and actors. However, no studies have measured their effectiveness in reducing performance anxiety in spoken communication. The correlation and reliability statistical analyses indicate that the perceptions of the eight vocal and physical skill features were so highly intercorrelated that they are more correctly viewed as a single entity. The perception of each of these features had a near perfect correlation with perceived performance anxiety (Table 3). A focus on breath underlies the pedagogy and philosophies of the voice training program used and overlaps with many of the other features, particularly pace, vocal variety, and physical ease. The fact that the perceptual study was carried out after a break of 10 weeks following the completion of the training programs supports the long-term application of the vocal and physical skills program. Fremouw and Zitter33 used what appear to be four of the vocal and physical features used here (i.e., voice inflection, similar to our “vocal variety”; rate, similar to our “pace”; eye contact; and gestures) and showed that a reduction in performance anxiety was maintained for 8 weeks. It is difficult to measure agreement between this study and previous studies for a number of reasons. One of the key reasons for this is that most studies have focused on self-reported performance anxiety, rather than perceived performance anxiety as in the present study. It is likely that self-reports may differ considerably, as the experiences of Olivier26 described in the introduction attest to. Other difficulties in comparisons with other studies are that a number of studies on performance anxiety address music performance rather than spoken performance.8,50,51 Other studies on performance anxiety address the effectiveness of cognitive coping strategies 52,53 or behavioral issues,28,54 rather than that of vocal and physical skills strategies. The relationship of performance anxiety to vocal and physical behaviors correlates with the findings of Steptoe et al10 who found that the effects of self-reported performance anxiety were most apparent in student actors in the aspects of performance such as posture, voice production, movement, and breath control. These results equate with our findings that the control group scored consistently lower in vocal and physical skills and higher in perceived performance anxiety. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
In showing that specific skills training has an impact on reducing perceived performance anxiety, this study however differs from the study of Steptoe et al.11 Their study applied relaxation prior to performance. They found that there was no correlation between the use of the skill of relaxation and the control of performance anxiety. On the other hand, Harris55 reported that relaxation training was effective with athletes in combating performance anxiety. Harris55 expressed the view that this was possibly so because of the accurate body map those athletes possess and their knowledge of specific muscle groups. The skills covered in this study may also have facilitated subjects’ acquisition of a more differentiated vocal and physical awareness, thus enabling more effective direction of effort which contributed to the perceived global reduction in performance anxiety. Implications for the corporate sector There are increasing professional expectations that corporate presenters will perform at a high level of competence. For corporate presenters to fulfil these expectations, many will need to address the debilitating performance anxiety that reduces their competency. Since corporate presenters are expected to achieve a high level of competency, it is imperative that the appropriate means of addressing performance anxiety be used. The business presenter may find himself or herself in a corporate culture that demands excellence in communication through presentation. Despite this, the cognitive and technical emphasis of corporate training has thwarted development of skills in the very means by which we communicate. The results-driven thrust of the corporate culture has largely ignored the time factor needed to hone oral communication expertise. Previous studies1-3,8 have revealed that it is the vocal and physical factors that are affected most by performance anxiety. The corporate presenter reveals his or her level of performance anxiety through vocal and physical behaviors. The intended impact of the presenter’s message may be lost, as negative vocal and physical features dilute the power of the words. Educational implications It is interesting to speculate about why the vocal and physical skills training used in this study helped to minimize perceived performance anxiety. The
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE skills training program directly addressed oral skills. The findings of the present study indicate that lack of oral skills acquisition highlights perceived performance anxiety. This raises some very stimulating questions. Has there been erosion of oral skills in present times? If so, has such erosion contributed to performance anxiety being experienced by so many? It would appear from observation of oral communication that detailed verbal interaction is losing ground worldwide. Oral skills are fast being eroded by the electronic communication of the technological superhighway. Electronic mail and fax have become accepted means of communication. Since people are speaking less because of the reliance on such modes of communication, and people are communicating in sound bites or minimal verbal signals, vocal expression is jeopardized. This direction in communication correlates with the philosophies of Rodenburg,43 Berry,40 and Linklater.35 They have all spoken out strongly on the erosion of skill in the delivery of the spoken word through the dominance of communication by electronic technology. Another factor in the erosion of oral skill has been changes in educational strategies. For example, changes in the English syllabus for the Australian state of New South Wales in the 25-year period from 1962 to 1987, indicates that there has been a definite shift in the approach to oral skills. There has been a change from the teaching methodology in 1962, that the application of skill and technique to the speaking of English, to the methodology in 1987 (the syllabus presently applied) that did not address technical skills. The “how” of talking was nowhere explicitly taught. It was regarded as an antiquated methodology.56 It was assumed that through the experience of language situations, students would acquire competence in communication. This example reflects trends throughout Western educational systems. The impoverishment of the spoken word that has occurred through change in educational practices is noted in the works of Rodenburg,43 Berry,40 and Linklater.35 The skills training program we developed for students in our experimental group directly addressed the most basic of skills that would ensure ease and competency in vocal delivery. The application of these skills allowed the experimental group to present with less evidence of performance anxiety. This
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finding has important implications. It provides valuable information to those developing educational syllabi, as well as those providing professional training. This information stresses the attributes of a successful communication skills training program and, of significance for educators, the factors that lead to positive outcomes in terms of implementation. Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge with gratitude the professional support of the judges and the co-operation and availability of the students. Associate Professor Dianna Kenny provided helpful advice on the statistical analyses for which the authors are very appreciative. Lorraine Merritt wishes to thank Associate Professor John Lohrey, the Deputy Head of the School of Visual and Performing Arts, University of Tasmania, Australia, for his constant support and inspiration.
REFERENCES 1. Beatty M. Situational and predispositional correlates of public speaking anxiety. Commun Educ. 1988;37;28-39. 2. Sharp D. Send in the crowds. Health. 1992:6:66-71. 3. Nichols D. The chamber musician’s secret terror. Harper’s Magazine. 1996:292:29-31. 4. Speilberger C. Theory and research on anxiety. In: Spielberger C, ed. Anxiety and Behaviour. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1966:3-20. 5. McCroskey J. Measures of communication-bound anxiety. Sp Mon. 1970;18;269-277. 6. American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994. 7. Stein M, Walker J, Forde D. Public speaking fears in a community sample: prevalence, impact on functioning and diagnostic classification. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996:53;169174. 8. Lehrer P. A review of the approaches to the management of tension and stage fright in music performance. J Res Mus Ed. 1987:35;143-152. 9. Burns R. Combating speech anxiety. Pub Rel J. 1991; 47:28-30. 10. Gutner T. High anxiety. Forbes. 1991;148:166-164. 11. Steptoe S, Malik F, Pay C, Pearson P, Price C, Win Z. The impact of stage fright on student actors. Brit J Psychol. 1995;86:27-39. 12. Schachter S, Singer J. Cognitive, social and psychological determinants of emotional state. Psychol Rev. 1962;69:379399. 13. Ayres J. Coping with speech anxiety: the power of positive thinking. Commun Educ. 1988;37:289-296. 14. Daly J, Vangelisti A, Neel H, Cavanaugh P. Pre-performance concerns associated with public speaking anxiety. Comm Q. 1989;37:39-53. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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15. Beatty M, Behnke R. An assimilation theory perspective of communication apprehension, Hum Commun Res. 1980;6: 319-325. 16. Stafford L, Daly J. Conversational memory: the effects of recall mode and memory expectancies on remembrances of natural conversations. Hum Commun Res. 1984;10:379-402. 17. Burgoon J. The unwillingness to communicate scale: development and validation. Comm Monog. 1976;43:60-69. 18. Jackson J, Latane B. All alone in front of all those people: stage fright as a function of number and type of co-performers and audience. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1981;40:73-85. 19. Bruskin Associates. What are Americans afraid of? Bruskin Report. 1973:53. 20. Beaver D. Got stage fright? It’s a common feeling, but one that can be turned into confidence more easily than you realise. ABA Banking J. 1998;90:96-97. 21. Richmond V, McCroskey J. Communication Apprehension, Avoidance and Effectiveness, Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch Scarisbrick Publishers; 1985. 22. Fishbein M, Middlestadt S. Medical problems among ICOMS students: overview of a national survey. Med Probl Performing Artists. 1988;3:1-8. 23. Wesner R., Noues R, Davis T. The occurrence of performance anxiety among musicians. J Affect Disord. 1990;18: 177-185. 24. van Kemenade J, van Son M, van Heesch N. Performance anxiety among professional musicians in symphonic orchestras: a self-report study. Psychol. Rep. 1995;77:555562. 25. Cicero. De Oratore. Vol 1. EW Sutton, trans. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press; 1942. 26. Olivier L. Confessions of an Actor. Hodder & Stoughton; London 1982. 27. Roland D. The Confident Performer. Sydney: Currency Press; 1997. 28. Griffin K. Beating performance anxiety, Work Wom, 1995;20:62-65. 29. Davis R. Performance anxiety. Am Music Teach. 1994;AugSept:24-27. 30. Ristad E. Soprano on Her Head: Right Side Up Reflections on Life, and Other Performances. Moab, UT: Real People Press; 1982. 31. Abel J, Larkin K. Anticipation of performance among musicians: physiological arousal, confidence, and state-anxiety. Psych Music. 1990;18 (2);171-182. 32. McCroskey J. The communication apprehension perspective. In: Daly J, McCroskey J. eds. Avoiding Communication: Shyness, Reticence and Communication Apprehension. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage: 1984;13-38. 33. Fremouw W, Zitter R. A comparison of skills training and cognitive restructuring-relaxation for the treatment of speech anxiety. Behaviour Therapy. 1978;9:248-259.
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34. Linklater K. Freeing Shakespeare’s Voice. New York, NY: Theatre Communications Group; 1992. 35. Linklater K. Freeing the Natural Voice. New York, NY: Drama Book Specialists; 1976. 36. Martin J. Voice in Modern Theatre. London: Routledge; 1991. 37. Barton R, Dal Vera R. Voice: Onstage and Off. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, Brace & Company; 1995. 38. Berry C. The secret voice. In: Hampton M, Acker B, eds. The Vocal Vision. New York, NY: Applause; 1996. 39. Berry C. The Actor and His Text. London: Harrap; 1987. 40. Berry C. Voice and the Actor. London: Harrap; 1973. 41. Rodenburg P. The Actor Speaks. London: Methuen Drama; 1997. 42. Rodenburg P. The Need for Words. London: Methuen Drama; 1993. 43. Rodenburg P. The Right to Speak. London: Methuen Drama; 1992. 44. Barlow W. The Alexander Principle. New York, NY: Knopf; 1977. 45. Feldenkrais M. Awareness through Movement. Hammondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin; 1977. 46. Hamilton L. The Person Behind the Mask: A Guide to Performing Arts Psychology. Greenwich, CT and London, England: Ablex; 1997. 47. Kreiman J, Kempster G, Erman A, Berke G. Perceptual evaluation of voice quality: review, tutorial, and framework for future research. J Speech Hear Res. 1993;36:21-40. 48. Motley M. Taking the terror out of talk: thinking in terms of communication rather than performance helps us to calm our biggest fear. Psychology Today. 1988;22:46-50. 49. Boston J. Voice: the practitioners, their practices, and their critics. NTQ. 1997;51:248-255. 50. Morasky R, Reynolds C, Sowell L. Generalization of lowered EMG levels during musical performance following EMG training. Biofeedback Self-Regul. 1983;6:565-572. 51. Morasky R, Reynolds C, Clarke G. Using biofeedback to reduce left arm extensor EMG of string players during musical performance. Biofeedback Self-Regul. 1981;8:207-216. 52. Hu S, Bostow T, Lipman D, Bell S, Klein S. Positive thinking reduces heart rate and fear responses to speech-phobic imagery. Percept Mot Skills. 1992;75:1067-1073. 53. Nagel J, Himle D, Papsdorf J. Cognitive-behavioural treatment of musical performance anxiety. Psych Music. 1989; 17:12-21. 54. Matthews A, Gelder M, Johnson D. Agoraphobia; Nature and Treatment. New York, NY: Guilford; 1981. 55. Harris D. Maximizing athletic potential. JOPERD. 1982; 53:31-33. 56. Honey J. Language is Power. London: Faber and Faber; 1997.
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APPENDIX A
PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ANXIETY EVALUATION Skilled Behavior
Absence of
Physical Ease Physical Presence Effective Gesture Use Effective Eye Contact Correct Breath Use Suitable Pace Vocal Variety Speech Clarity Evidence of Performance Anxiety
| | | | | | | |
Skilled Behaviors
High Degree of
--------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------|
| --------------------------------------------------|
Definition
Physical Ease
Presentation in a balanced, centered state Visible absence of tension
Physical Presence
Projection of external presence within the presentation space Recognition of the presence of the audience
Effective Gesture Use
Use of gestures to reinforce or illustrate the message
Effective Eye Contact
Use of eye contact to reveal the truth of the message and to comfortably connect with the audience in the communication
Correct Breath Use
The ability to speak on full breath support
Suitable Pace
A pace that allows the clear delivery of speech and time for the digestion of ideas by the audience
Vocal Variety
Effective use of pitch, pace, pause, volume, and inflection to convey the sense of the message
Speech Clarity
A standard of speech that is easily understood
Perceived Performance Anxiety
The perceived level of fear or anxiety associated with the communication
Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
Performance Anxiety: Loss of the Spoken Edge Lorraine Merritt, Alison Richards, and Pamela Davis National Voice Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Summary: The study aimed to assess whether a specific training program in vocal and physical skills could reduce the level of perceived performance anxiety. Eighteen undergraduate performing arts students were divided into two even groups. The experimental group experienced 10 two-hour sessions in a specialized vocal and physical skills training program. The control group received the same number of sessions in text analysis by the same teacher. Ten weeks after the training period, both groups were videotaped delivering a short speech of general interest. The videotaped material was assessed by four judges, using a visual analog scale (VAS). Perceptual variables considered were eight vocal and physical features: physical ease, physical presence, effective gesture use, effective eye contact, correct breath use, suitable pace, vocal variety, speech clarity, and one performance feature: perceived performance anxiety. Results indicated that the particular vocal and physical skills training program used showed positive results in effectively reducing the level of perceived performance anxiety. The experimental group scored significantly higher on each of the eight vocal and physical features and significantly lower on the perceived anxiety feature than the control group. This research has implications for those affected by performance anxiety in vocal presentation. Key Words: Voice—Performance—Anxiety—Actors—Training.
INTRODUCTION
Performance anxiety may be described as a state of anxiety that occurs in particular situations and may be regarded as a reaction to a stimulus.4 As such, it is a transitory condition and occurs during confrontation with a specific stimulus. Public speaking, acting, singing or playing a musical instrument in public, or competing in sporting events are all known stimuli.1 This form of anxiety is different from trait anxieties such as communication apprehension, which represent a general tendency for anxious responses regardless of stimuli.5 Self-perceived performance anxiety is a subcategory of Social Phobia [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th edition (DSM-IV)]6 in the international classification of diseases (ICD-10).7
Performance anxiety is a common problem among people who are called upon to present or perform in public. It manifests itself in different ways, ranging from memory and physical disturbances1 to vocal problems such as a thin or quivering voice.2 Other symptoms reported have included rapid; shallow breathing, increased muscle tension,2 as well as a desire to avoid and withdraw from speaking, low verbal output and nonfluency, physical discomfort, and trembling.1, 3 Accepted for publication July 28, 2000. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Lorraine Merritt, National Voice Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Various reasons for the physiological symptoms and signs have been postulated. The physiological changes that accompany self-perceived performance anxiety have led to the simple explanation of the fight-or-flight reflex. This refers to distinct coping strategies that are triggered by different types of stimuli in the external or internal environment and that involve the activation of the autonomic sympathetic nervous system. The view has been expressed that, in modern society, there is often no objective enemy to fight or flee from, and a state of increased muscle tension is often observed in response to perceived environmental stress. Indeed, it has been suggested as a hypothetical body armor for protection against assault.3,8-10 However, it is the view of Steptoe et al11 that the increased muscle tension and accompanying arousal may also be a response to tasks that are challenging and stimulating. Certainly, the work of Schachter and Singer12 showed that such physiological activation underpins other emotional states such as excitement. While the physical symptoms may be the most immediately recognized features of performance anxiety, there have been several studies that have reported that the state of anxiety correlates with the subject’s cognitive state prior to giving a speech.13,14 As anxiety levels rise it is more likely that the presence of negative thoughts will dominate a person’s thinking. These negative thoughts manifest themselves in a variety of ways. They may include feelings of lack of control or irrational demands for perfection, an exaggerated perception of what the stakes are, fear of failure, or an impaired ability to focus while being distracted by irrelevant thoughts.13-14 The presence of such negative thoughts, as well as the experience of the physical discomfort caused by the state of anxiety, may lead to behavioral responses that further restrict the communication process. It has been reported that these responses may take the form of avoiding the speaking situations that make the person anxious,15 delivering a shorter speech than a more relaxed speaker would,16 or conveying an unwillingness to communicate.17 Anxiety about public speaking is one of the most commonly reported fears of adults.18,19 It is estimated that 40% of the American population suffer from this anxiety.20 In a survey of several thousand American college students, it was found that 40% experiJournal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
enced high anxiety in public speaking situations.21 In a survey of 500 members of the general public, Stein et al7 found that 1 in 20 subjects interviewed considered themselves disabled by performance anxiety. There have been few published reports into the incidence of performance anxiety among actors and acting students. However the results of a study of 178 English acting students showed that 9.6% rated performance anxiety as a severe problem and 36.7% rated it as a moderate problem.11 Research in the field of music performance reveals that performance anxiety is the most frequently mentioned medical problem of orchestral musicians.22 A survey of 300 music students found that 21.3% reported considerable distress from performance anxiety and 16.5% reported that it disabled their performance.23 In a survey of 155 professional musicians, it was reported that 91 had experienced performance anxiety to the extent that it seriously affected professional and personal lives.24 The state of performance anxiety is not peculiar to our own times. Rather its power to grip the heart and tighten the throat has afflicted many public speakers, and has been the subject of historical record. In the days of the Roman republic, the importance of public speaking in political life meant a high value was placed on rhetorical skill. The great orator, Cicero, wrote of the horrors that beset him upon speaking:25 I turn pale at the outset of a speech and quake in every limb and in all my soul. Thousands of years after Cicero, the great classical actor, Sir Laurence Olivier, wrote of the demons that attacked him while performing:26 My cue came and I went on to that stage where I knew with grim certainty I would not be capable of remaining more than a few minutes. I began to watch for the instant at which my knowledge of my next line would vanish. Only the next two now, no—one more . . . and then—now. I took one pace forward and stopped abruptly. My voice had started to fade, my throat closed up and the audience was beginning to go giddily round. . . . With unusual inaudibility, owing to my tightly clenched teeth, I somehow got on with the play.
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE So severe was Olivier’s malaise that, when performing a soliloquy, he had to get another actor to stay in the wings downstage where he could be seen, as Olivier feared he would not be able to stay in front of an audience by himself. How much poorer in thought and imagination would the world be if we had been robbed of the wisdom of Cicero’s words and deprived of the resonant magic that Olivier had in bringing alive the words of the great texts. If their performance anxiety had become too overwhelming, this might have been the case. Many professionals also experience performance anxiety when called upon to deliver a spoken presentation. Business presenters are expected to achieve results, to maximize the potential of the presentation experience, and there is an expectation that he or she should be able to bring alive the content of the message. It is demanded that the spoken word should do more than it can in written form. The presenter experiencing performance anxiety will often fall short in achieving the expected outcomes from the presentation. A range of techniques for dealing with performance anxiety has been suggested.8,27-30 A high proportion of these studies suggest cognitive restructuring. Although it is known that developing confidence in technique is associated with a reduction in music performance anxiety,31 there has been relatively little investigation of the effect of specific training in vocal skills in reducing performance anxiety.32 Fremouw and Zitter33 showed that skills training in voice inflection, rate, volume, eye contact, gestures, and speech organization significantly reduced selfreported performance anxiety. Steptoe et al11 found that the effects of performance anxiety were most apparent in student actors in the aspects of performance such as posture, voice production, movement, and breath control. The aforementioned factors have been the subject of intense development in theatre performance training, notably by Kristin Linklater, Cicely Berry, and Patsy Rodenburg. Linklater’s monographs34,35 present the premise that by freeing the voice and its habitual physical and psychological impediments, a new free voice is induced. Linklater asserts that the voice reveals the inner world to the outer world, hence the approach is to liberate the voice and the person with it. Therefore, Linklater’s philosophy is grounded in a psychotherapeutic context in its quest to unlock the
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mind and body in order to free the voice. The notion of personal and sociocultural liberation is evident in her philosophy of voice practice. The core of Berry’s belief is that meaning should inform sound, hence the point of departure in her method is through the text.36 This does not only mean an intellectual understanding of what is being said, but also an appreciation for the rhythm of words, their organic structure, and the verbal dynamic needed to express them.37 Berry38 believes that through the physical investigation of vowels and consonants, the movement of words becomes one with the inner self and the word becomes active. Therefore, she believes that the energy must reside in the word, rather than in the sound, for it is the word that is the result of thoughts and feelings. Berry’s works39,40 focus on this investigation of what is being conveyed, and with that, the relationship of the message to how it is said. The driving value in Rodenburg’s work is that each individual should have the right to speak and it is through voice work that the potential lies for such liberation. Rodenburg believes that the inhibition of that right to speak can occur because of the acquisition of habits that lead to a voice encrusted with restrictive tendencies. The source of such habits is complex, stemming from, for example, psychological, social, and environmental restrictions. She sees her purpose in voice work as setting the individual free from the habits that have armored the voice, allowing it no choice in communication. Linklater, Berry, and Rodenburg share common features within their different vocal pedagogy. Common to their practice is the quest to engender an integration of the source of sound between what is said and how it is said. Berry proposes that the means to this end be essentially through the text, Linklater through the voice, Rodenburg through the ownership of words. This study aimed to test the effectiveness of specific training in vocal and physical skills as a technique for minimizing the level of perceived performance anxiety. METHOD Twenty-two undergraduate university students enrolled in the first year of a performing arts course were the subjects in this study. There were four Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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males and eighteen females, a gender balance that reflected the number of the enrolled students in this course. The age range was 18 to 33 years. Fourteen subjects were between 18 and 20 years of age and 8 were older adult students. The project was approved by the institution’s ethics committee. Acting students were selected as they were available for a training program over 10 weeks. At the commencement of the academic year, the project was explained to the first-year students. They were told the aim of the project, how it would be conducted, and the degree of their expected involvement. All students volunteered. The students were divided into two groups by the departmental secretary who was naïve to the experimental design. She allocated the first 11 names on the departmental names list to one group (the experimental group) and the next 11 formed the control group. A criterion for subject selection was that the students needed to attend 90% or more of the sessions as the skill acquisition was considered essential for the project design. From the total of 22 students at the beginning of the semester, 4 students did not meet this criterion. Two students withdrew from the course in the first 2 weeks of semester, after the groups had been established. A further two students attended less than 50% of the sessions, leaving a total of nine students in the experimental group and 9 in the control group. Of the remaining 18 students, 3 in the experimental group and 5 in the control group were older students. As part of their academic timetable, the student subjects were scheduled to receive group voice and speech training for 2 hours each week over 10 weeks in a course called Performance Study. The other components of the course were movement and acting. The time slot allocated for the voice and speech training was used to conduct the study. The first author (LM) provided specialized voice training to the experimental group and, at a different time, classical text analysis for the same duration to the control group as detailed below. The text sessions were a mixture of scholarly analysis of text and physical investigation of text and are also a very necessary part of a student actor’s experience, and so were relevant to the course. The main difference is that the student subjects in the control group did not receive any specific voice training until after the completion of the data analysis for this project. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
Training program for the experimental group The design of the voice training program was influenced by indications in the literature that vocal and physical factors featured prominently among the negative consequences of performance anxiety1-3,8 as well as the first author’s professional practice in teaching presentation skills. The vocal program goals and methodologies of Linklater,34,35 Berry,39,40 and Rodenburg41-43 and the principles of the Alexander44 and Feldenkrais45 techniques informed the development of this training program. The voice training program, therefore, was designed to develop skilled behavior in vocal and physical use, specifically in physical ease, physical presence, vocal variety, speech clarity, and appropriate pace delivery. In addition, the program was designed to correct the subject’s breathing technique and to link this technique with the creation of a “supported” sound.41 The definition of the term supported is complex, but we mean that the breath is free, comes from low in the body, and that the control of the outgoing breath and resultant sound stems from wellbalanced abdominal muscular processes. Session one included an outline of how the voice works, discussion of the place of habit in physical and vocal use, and the importance of physical and vocal awareness. Session two covered the exploration of physical balance and spinal alignment. The first hour of the third session included a discussion of tension, the shoulder and neck release exercises, and a physical awareness exercise. The second hour of the third session dealt with physical presence activities. The first hour of session four covered a discussion on breathing. The second hour of session four and sessions five and six were spent on breathing awareness and exercises. Session seven covered a discussion of, and exercises for, the jaw, lips, and tongue. Sessions eight and nine dealt with vocal variety. Session ten was a review of all areas covered in the previous nine sessions. Text training program used with the control group This text unit closely followed the principles of text analysis as developed by Berry39 and Rodenburg.41 The text sources for this unit were monologues and scenes from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Midsummer Night’s Dream, and
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE King Lear, Euripides’s The Phoenician Women, and Shakespeare’s sonnet 129. Through a range of exercises, the student subjects experienced the physical power of text. The thoughts, structure, rhythm, and words were experienced in such a way as to liberate the student subjects’ ability to serve the text fully and memorably. Evaluation of physical and vocal skills At the commencement of the training period, subjects from both groups were informed that they would be required to present a short speech of approximately 3 minutes’ duration on a subject of general interest to other members of the group. They were told that this presentation would be videotaped and that they would be given 1 week’s notice of the scheduled videotaping session. They were informed that the presentation of this speech would not form part of the grade of the voice and speech unit. The subjects were videotaped 10 weeks after the conclusion of the training period and a semester vacation period of 6 weeks. After completion of this project’s data acquisition, specialized voice training was provided by the first author to the previous control group and text work to the previous experimental group. The subjects in the experimental and control groups were videotaped in separate sessions, conducted by the first author in a rehearsal studio. The room was neatly furnished, with chairs available for the audience, which consisted of the other members of the group. The camera was positioned as unobtrusively as possible in the audience. The department’s production manager, who was naïve to the experimental design, provided technical support in positioning the camera and framing the subjects. The subject being videotaped stood at a distance of 8 feet from the others. A gray curtain served as the background. The subject was given a few minutes, after the completion of the previous subject’s speech, before giving his or her speech in front of the camera. The subjects did not engage in conversation in this changeover period. The videotapes were edited and cut to the 3minute speech. The order of the subjects was randomly selected and controlled so that experimental and control subjects were interspersed to make a single videotape containing the 18 subjects’ speeches.
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The edited videotaped material was viewed in quiet conditions by four judges. Each judge viewed the videotape on two separate occasions, 3 weeks apart, so that intrasubject reliability could be assessed. On the first occasion the judges were unaware that they would be required to repeat this task a few weeks later, a criterion adopted so that the judges would not simply repeat their responses to the first judging when they were required to repeat the task. The judges were voice and speech teachers, with varying years of professional experience, but with the same voice training background, a 1-year postgraduate diploma in spoken voice training at the same institution that offered a curriculum encompassing the vocal philosophies of Berry,39 Linklater,34 and Rodenburg.43 One judge had 7 years of formal practice as a specialist voice teacher, two judges had 4 years of experience, and the other judge was a new graduate, but had been involved in theatrical performance for 15 years. The judges viewed the videotaped material independently, were naïve to the research design, and played no part in the execution of this study. They were not given any information about the subjects or their prior training The presence of performance anxiety has generally been based on self-report and/or physiological measures. Hamilton46 recognizes cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components of stage fright; however, her work with individual performers depends on the self-report of those who have found the condition sufficiently disabling to seek therapeutic help. We wished to study a broader population of performers, and to investigate the reliability of assessments by trained observers, as well as the effectiveness of particular vocal practices in reducing perceived performance anxiety. The study was designed to replicate the “eye” of the teacher or audience that detects the presence of symptoms of performance anxiety; the study replicates the interactivity of the performance situation. Accordingly, the judges completed a perceptual evaluation for each subject by viewing the video and using a visual analog scale (VAS) to indicate their perception of various specified features. The visual analog scales were undifferentiated lines 100 mm in length, with end points reading “absence of” and “high degree of” in reference to the features described below (Appendix A). The judges rated subjects on these undifferentiated Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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lines, making a mark with a pen or a pencil to indicate the extent to which the subject possessed the given feature. The VAS was chosen as a measurement means because it has been used in other studies47 to facilitate perceptual judgments of voice and speech quality, on the grounds that it enables more stability of evaluation than scales marked with intervals. Perceptual variables were physical ease, physical presence, effective gesture use, effective eye contact, correct breath use, suitable pace, vocal variety, speech clarity, and performance anxiety, the last as a global indicator. The first eight features were included in the evaluation process, since poor use of them has been cited in the literature as a negative effect of performance anxiety.1-3,8,11 The judges were given a definition for each of the above features (Appendix A). Data analysis Intrajudge agreement refers to the extent to which a rater assigns a similar scale value to the nine voice and performance features on two rating occasions. Intrajudge reliability was assessed for each of the four judges using intraclass correlations (ICC 2,1) with a matrix of speakers ⫻ occasions. Interjudge reliability was assessed using intraclass correlations (ICC 2,1) with a matrix of speakers ⫻ judges’ scores. To obtain the latter, the VAS score given by each judge on the two occasions was averaged. An intercorrelation matrix between all nine voice and performance features that were rated by the judges was used to assess the relationships between variables. Differences between the control and experimental groups on the perceived features was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS Intrajudge and interjudge agreement and reliability Intraclass correlations (ICC) involving a two-way analysis of variation for the matrix speakers ⫻ judges demonstrated that the four judges were each highly reliable across the repeated judgments. The correlations for the comparison of each judge on the two occasions ranged from 0.95 to 0.98. Individual values for each of the judges and the 95% confidence interval for the ICC are given in Table 1. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
TABLE 1. Measures of Judge Reliability. Intraclass Correlations (2, 1) and their 95% Confidence Interval Calculated by Comparing Visual Analogue Scale Ratings for Each Speaker for the Eight Vocal and Physical Features and the Perceived Performance Anxiety Feature ICC (2, 1) Values
95% Confidence Interval
Judge 1, 2 occasions
0.98
0.97 - 0.98
Judge 2, 2 occasions
0.97
0.96 - 0.98
Judge 3, 2 occasions
0.97
0.96 - 0.98
Judge 4, 2 occasions
0.95
0.93 - 0.96
0.94
0.93 - 0.96
Reliability Intrarater reliability
Interrater reliability 4 judges
The judges also demonstrated a highly significant level of interrater reliability or agreement with each other with ICC (2, 1) values of 0.94 with a 95% confidence interval for the ICC of 0.93-0.96 (Table 1). Perceptual ratings: comparison of control and experimental groups The judges’ ratings on the VAS of the eight vocal and physical features and the performance anxiety feature ranged from a low of 10 to a high of 97, indicating that the judges made full use of the extent of the scale. The mean and standard deviation for the ratings of the nine features are shown in Figure 1 and the subjects’ mean scores across all judges and the two occasions are shown in Table 2. The intercorrelation matrix between the eight vocal and physical skills factors and the single performance anxiety factor shown by the judges’ ratings indicated that the variables were so highly correlated that they were converging on a single underlying construct (Table 3). The variable perceived performance anxiety was almost perfectly negatively correlated with the eight vocal and physical skill factors. Reliability analyses (Chronbach’s alpha) using the eight vocal and physical skills factors confirmed this relationship, and the standardized item alpha for the scale was 0.9933. The construct identified was called “vocal and physical skills.” Using this variable, an ANOVA was conducted to assess differences between experimental and control groups. The
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE
263
FIGURE 1. Mean visual analog scale scores and standard deviations for the control and experimental groups for the eight vocal and physical features and the performance anxiety feature. “Ease” refers to physical ease; “presence” to physical presence; “gesture” to effective gesture use; “eye” to effective eye contact; “breath” to correct breath use; “pace” to suitable pace; “variety” to vocal variety; “clarity” to speech clarity; and “anxiety” to perceived performance anxiety.
TABLE 2. Mean Visual Analog Scale Scores for Each of 18 Subjects by Four Judges over Two Occasions for the Eight Vocal and Physical Features and the Performance Anxiety Feature Subject
Ease
Presence
Gesture
Eye
Breath
Pace
Variety
Clarity
Anxiety
E1
58.00
57.75
63.25
70.88
69.00
73.62
66.88
72.38
33.38
E2
83.00
83.38
84.62
87.12
82.88
89.00
86.25
90.75
18.38
E3
54.75
55.25
63.12
69.25
61.38
68.75
61.00
72.12
38.38
E4
72.62
72.50
81.88
82.12
73.62
83.38
77.62
79.88
24.38
E5
66.62
65.75
71.12
77.25
71.38
81.25
67.25
82.00
25.50
E6
71.75
69.25
73.12
78.50
76.00
82.12
72.88
78.38
25.62
E7
88.62
85.25
85.12
89.12
84.38
88.50
89.12
90.62
12.50
E8
82.25
79.12
80.00
81.25
79.50
77.38
81.38
83.00
18.00
E9
83.88
80.25
84.25
87.38
83.12
89.12
89.50
92.38
14.00
C1
58.50
55.62
65.88
71.38
64.38
72.00
63.12
65.62
37.62
C2
47.00
42.25
45.38
59.75
53.12
63.25
49.88
62.75
56.00
C3
49.38
44.75
56.88
49.25
46.62
58.12
39.75
61.00
62.00
C4
70.12
67.38
75.00
76.62
71.00
80.25
74.12
76.75
25.88
C5
43.88
38.88
51.50
57.88
43.25
59.88
49.75
65.38
60.88
C6
51.50
46.62
52.88
56.88
45.25
55.25
43.75
62.00
58.50
C7
67.62
63.38
69.25
73.62
70.50
76.00
66.38
79.88
26.12
C8
57.88
54.88
63.50
69.75
67.38
71.25
65.62
70.25
42.38
C9
56.25
53.50
62.62
69.50
61.62
68.38
60.50
70.38
44.88
Abbreviations: C, control; E, experimental; other abbreviations as in Figure 1. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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LORRAINE MERRITT ET AL TABLE 3. Correlation Matrix of the Eight Vocal and Physical Features and Perceived Performance Anxiety for the 18 Subjects* Ease
Presence
Gesture
Eye
Breath
Pace
Ease
1.000
Presence
0.993
1.000
Gesture
0.962
0.975
1.000
Eye
0.933
0.952
0.934
1.000
Breath
0.937
0.955
0.926
0.968
1.000
Pace
0.916
0.937
0.931
0.969
0.964
1.000
Variety
0.944
0.957
0.940
0.985
0.969
0.960
Clarity Performance Anxiety *Abbreviations
Variety
Clarity
Performance Anxiety
1.000
0.944
0.951
0.923
0.940
0.922
0.938
0.941
1.000
⫺0.945
⫺0.962
⫺0.942
⫺0.972
⫺0.977
⫺0.961
⫺0.962
⫺0.939
1.000
as in Figure 1.
results indicated a significant difference between the groups (F1,16 = 16.382; P = 0.001). That means that the control group, whose members did not receive training in the eight physical and vocal skills, not unexpectedly rated significantly lower on “vocal and physical skills” than the experimental group whose members had received such training. However, the control group also rated significantly higher on perceived performance anxiety than the experimental group. Neither group received any direct training or advice related to performance anxiety. The differences between the experimental and control groups can be appreciated for the “vocal and physical skills” in Figure 2A and the negatively correlated perceived performance anxiety in Figure 2B. DISCUSSION The study revealed that a particular vocal and physical skills training program, when applied to a first-year group of performing arts students, showed positive results in effectively reducing the level of perceived performance anxiety when compared to a text analysis program applied to a separate, but similar, student group. The experimental group consistently scored higher on each of the eight vocal and physical features, that is, physical ease, physical presence, effective gesture, effective eye contact, correct breath use, suitable pace, vocal variety, and Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
speech clarity, and lower on the perceived anxiety feature than the control group (Figure 2). The experimental group was given a training program that was developed from specific approaches in vocal pedagogies34-35,39-43 and that focused in large part on the eight vocal and physical features that were also part of the perceptual ratings by the judges. It follows that higher scores might thus be expected from this group. On the other hand, the control group was given text analysis and would have received indirect training on some of these features. For example, pace was explored through the rhythm of the text, speech clarity through working on vowels, and vocal variety through the connection with emotional truth. The fact that the control group scored lower for all of the eight features may have something to do with a group or training-related difficulty in the transference of these skills to other communication contexts. Although neither group was given any training or advice related to performance anxiety, the results are strikingly different between the two groups. These differences between the control and experimental group data are surprising. Although the performance anxiety result is very clear with respect to first-year performing arts students, who had not presented with specific problems in performance anxiety, it is not known whether these results can be generalized. These students may fear appearing foolish in front of
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE
FIGURE 2. A. Box plots of the control and experimental group scores on the derived single variable “vocal and physical skills” (measured on a scale of 0-800 for the eight features on a 1-100 visual analog scale) as described in Results. B. Box plots of the control and experimental group scores on the perceived performance anxiety (averaged across judges and occasions and measured as described in Method on a visual analog scale from 0 to 100). Note that in each case the median line in the plot is well outside the 75th percentile box outline and close to the range limits. Because there is a negative correlation between the single construct “vocal and physical skills” and perceived performance anxiety, the relationship of the experimental and control data is reversed in A and B.
their peers, whereas an experienced actor or a business presenter may be concerned with professional credibility and this may heighten as the person’s professional status increases. The current findings support making the vocal and physical skills program available to members of the general public seeking assistance with this problem. However, implementation of such a program will likely require training teachers in the pedagogy that underlies this program.34,35,39-43
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In the construction of the training program, negative physiological symptoms that relate to the delivery of the spoken word were considered. Features such as muscle tension,48 shallow breathing,2 lack of voice control, and reduced movement capacity11 were directly addressed in the specific skills training. In addition to raising awareness of inappropriate behaviors, the skills training attempted to increase specific behaviors, such as physical ease, physical presence, supported voice, and vocal variety. This approach of being able to distinguish between the knowledge and the practice in skills application is in conformity with data reported by Fremouw and Zitter33 that training new skills is effective in reducing speech anxiety. Another factor was that principles of effective voice training were considered in the construction of the program. In particular, the logical approach and technical base of Berry40 and Rodenburg’s43 vocal methodologies influenced the training program. The work of Berry and Rodenburg has received wide acclaim for its effectiveness in addressing the demands of the spoken word.49 Voice training allows for the development of subtlety and nuance in vocal expression through media such as confidence in one’s sound, ease in delivery, and commitment to language. Acquisition of these skills is related to the specific demands placed upon the corporate presenter in terms of spoken presentation. In a business presentation, the presenter is required to do more than a print copy of his or her words can do. The delivery of the spoken message has to provide a different level and depth of access to the message. The findings of the present study indicate that confidence in physical and vocal skills allows the individual to communicate effectively with less distraction because of performance anxiety. The vocal and physical skills training program was also constructed in part by reference to methods that have been demonstrated to improve physical use. In particular, the principles of the Alexander and Feldenkrais techniques were considered. These methods, which apply habitual awareness and consciously expanded sensitivity to the architecture of the body, shaped the physical basis of the training program. It is not surprising that the experimental group scored higher on the features of physical ease and physical presence and lower on perceived performance anxiety than the control group. Some asJournal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
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pects of the Feldenkrais45 and Alexander44 techniques are frequently used to address the anxiety experience of musicians and actors. However, no studies have measured their effectiveness in reducing performance anxiety in spoken communication. The correlation and reliability statistical analyses indicate that the perceptions of the eight vocal and physical skill features were so highly intercorrelated that they are more correctly viewed as a single entity. The perception of each of these features had a near perfect correlation with perceived performance anxiety (Table 3). A focus on breath underlies the pedagogy and philosophies of the voice training program used and overlaps with many of the other features, particularly pace, vocal variety, and physical ease. The fact that the perceptual study was carried out after a break of 10 weeks following the completion of the training programs supports the long-term application of the vocal and physical skills program. Fremouw and Zitter33 used what appear to be four of the vocal and physical features used here (i.e., voice inflection, similar to our “vocal variety”; rate, similar to our “pace”; eye contact; and gestures) and showed that a reduction in performance anxiety was maintained for 8 weeks. It is difficult to measure agreement between this study and previous studies for a number of reasons. One of the key reasons for this is that most studies have focused on self-reported performance anxiety, rather than perceived performance anxiety as in the present study. It is likely that self-reports may differ considerably, as the experiences of Olivier26 described in the introduction attest to. Other difficulties in comparisons with other studies are that a number of studies on performance anxiety address music performance rather than spoken performance.8,50,51 Other studies on performance anxiety address the effectiveness of cognitive coping strategies 52,53 or behavioral issues,28,54 rather than that of vocal and physical skills strategies. The relationship of performance anxiety to vocal and physical behaviors correlates with the findings of Steptoe et al10 who found that the effects of self-reported performance anxiety were most apparent in student actors in the aspects of performance such as posture, voice production, movement, and breath control. These results equate with our findings that the control group scored consistently lower in vocal and physical skills and higher in perceived performance anxiety. Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001
In showing that specific skills training has an impact on reducing perceived performance anxiety, this study however differs from the study of Steptoe et al.11 Their study applied relaxation prior to performance. They found that there was no correlation between the use of the skill of relaxation and the control of performance anxiety. On the other hand, Harris55 reported that relaxation training was effective with athletes in combating performance anxiety. Harris55 expressed the view that this was possibly so because of the accurate body map those athletes possess and their knowledge of specific muscle groups. The skills covered in this study may also have facilitated subjects’ acquisition of a more differentiated vocal and physical awareness, thus enabling more effective direction of effort which contributed to the perceived global reduction in performance anxiety. Implications for the corporate sector There are increasing professional expectations that corporate presenters will perform at a high level of competence. For corporate presenters to fulfil these expectations, many will need to address the debilitating performance anxiety that reduces their competency. Since corporate presenters are expected to achieve a high level of competency, it is imperative that the appropriate means of addressing performance anxiety be used. The business presenter may find himself or herself in a corporate culture that demands excellence in communication through presentation. Despite this, the cognitive and technical emphasis of corporate training has thwarted development of skills in the very means by which we communicate. The results-driven thrust of the corporate culture has largely ignored the time factor needed to hone oral communication expertise. Previous studies1-3,8 have revealed that it is the vocal and physical factors that are affected most by performance anxiety. The corporate presenter reveals his or her level of performance anxiety through vocal and physical behaviors. The intended impact of the presenter’s message may be lost, as negative vocal and physical features dilute the power of the words. Educational implications It is interesting to speculate about why the vocal and physical skills training used in this study helped to minimize perceived performance anxiety. The
PERFORMANCE ANXIETY: LOSS OF THE SPOKEN EDGE skills training program directly addressed oral skills. The findings of the present study indicate that lack of oral skills acquisition highlights perceived performance anxiety. This raises some very stimulating questions. Has there been erosion of oral skills in present times? If so, has such erosion contributed to performance anxiety being experienced by so many? It would appear from observation of oral communication that detailed verbal interaction is losing ground worldwide. Oral skills are fast being eroded by the electronic communication of the technological superhighway. Electronic mail and fax have become accepted means of communication. Since people are speaking less because of the reliance on such modes of communication, and people are communicating in sound bites or minimal verbal signals, vocal expression is jeopardized. This direction in communication correlates with the philosophies of Rodenburg,43 Berry,40 and Linklater.35 They have all spoken out strongly on the erosion of skill in the delivery of the spoken word through the dominance of communication by electronic technology. Another factor in the erosion of oral skill has been changes in educational strategies. For example, changes in the English syllabus for the Australian state of New South Wales in the 25-year period from 1962 to 1987, indicates that there has been a definite shift in the approach to oral skills. There has been a change from the teaching methodology in 1962, that the application of skill and technique to the speaking of English, to the methodology in 1987 (the syllabus presently applied) that did not address technical skills. The “how” of talking was nowhere explicitly taught. It was regarded as an antiquated methodology.56 It was assumed that through the experience of language situations, students would acquire competence in communication. This example reflects trends throughout Western educational systems. The impoverishment of the spoken word that has occurred through change in educational practices is noted in the works of Rodenburg,43 Berry,40 and Linklater.35 The skills training program we developed for students in our experimental group directly addressed the most basic of skills that would ensure ease and competency in vocal delivery. The application of these skills allowed the experimental group to present with less evidence of performance anxiety. This
267
finding has important implications. It provides valuable information to those developing educational syllabi, as well as those providing professional training. This information stresses the attributes of a successful communication skills training program and, of significance for educators, the factors that lead to positive outcomes in terms of implementation. Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge with gratitude the professional support of the judges and the co-operation and availability of the students. Associate Professor Dianna Kenny provided helpful advice on the statistical analyses for which the authors are very appreciative. Lorraine Merritt wishes to thank Associate Professor John Lohrey, the Deputy Head of the School of Visual and Performing Arts, University of Tasmania, Australia, for his constant support and inspiration.
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APPENDIX A
PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ANXIETY EVALUATION Skilled Behavior
Absence of
Physical Ease Physical Presence Effective Gesture Use Effective Eye Contact Correct Breath Use Suitable Pace Vocal Variety Speech Clarity Evidence of Performance Anxiety
| | | | | | | |
Skilled Behaviors
High Degree of
--------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------|
| --------------------------------------------------|
Definition
Physical Ease
Presentation in a balanced, centered state Visible absence of tension
Physical Presence
Projection of external presence within the presentation space Recognition of the presence of the audience
Effective Gesture Use
Use of gestures to reinforce or illustrate the message
Effective Eye Contact
Use of eye contact to reveal the truth of the message and to comfortably connect with the audience in the communication
Correct Breath Use
The ability to speak on full breath support
Suitable Pace
A pace that allows the clear delivery of speech and time for the digestion of ideas by the audience
Vocal Variety
Effective use of pitch, pace, pause, volume, and inflection to convey the sense of the message
Speech Clarity
A standard of speech that is easily understood
Perceived Performance Anxiety
The perceived level of fear or anxiety associated with the communication
Journal of Voice, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2001