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Persecution of Jewish forensic pathologists
Forensic Science International 144 (2004) 125–127
Persecution of Jewish forensic pathologists H. Straucha,*, I. Wirthb a
Institute of Legal Medicine, Humboldt University, Campus Charite´ Mitte, Hannoversche Strabe 6, 10115 Berlin, Germany b Police Academy, State of Brandenburg, 16352 Basdorf, Germany Available online 28 July 2004
Abstract Not even forensic pathologists were spared by the anti-Jewish laws of the Third Reich. Fritz Strassmann and Paul Fraenckel were among more than 140 faculty of the Berlin Department of Medicine persecuted by the national socialist dictatorship. It was because of their Jewish background that Georg Strassmann was expelled from university in Breslau, and Leone Lattes was forced to leave in Pavia. Miklo´s Nyiszli was deported from Oradea to Auschwitz and forced to perform forensic autopsies. Stefan Jellinek in Vienna, Ludwik Hirszfeld in Warsaw and Friedrich Schiff in Berlin were other medical professionals whose achievements had enriched legal medicine before they became victims of anti-Jewish persecution. # 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: National socialism; Anti-Jewish persecution; Forensic medicine; Jewish doctors
When the national socialists took power, antisemitism along with eradication of all constitutional principles were imposed on Germany as part of government policy. The Reichstag general elections in March 1933 were followed by a wave of anti-Jewish laws and acts of terrorism. Antisemitism did not even stop short of universities. Right at the beginning of the national socialist regime, Jewish university teachers were harassed for their racial descent and were so prevented from continuing to teach. An act was issued on April 7, 1933, under the heading of ‘‘Law for the Restoration of Professional Civil Service’’ which resulted in large-scale removal from office and revocation of teaching licences. A statistical record, most likely incomplete, shows that by the winter term of 1934/1935 at least 1145 German university teachers were dismissed (14.34%), among them 313 full professors and chair holders. Fritz Strassmann (1858–1940)1, highly renowned forensic pathologist, was one of more than 140 medical professionals and other scientists persecuted and removed from the Berlin Department and School of Medicine. During his long* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 30 450 525262; fax: þ49 30 450 525903. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Strauch). 1 Comprehensive reference in a dissertation of Cathrin Menzel, Leben und Werk von Fritz Strassmann (1858–1940), Med. Diss. HU Berlin 1989.
time directorate, the Praktische Unterrichtsanstalt fu¨r Staatsarzneikunde at the University of Berlin [PracticeOriented School of Public Health and Medicine] was turned into a centre of regular and advanced education in forensic medicine. His school was located on the premises of the Morgue of Berlin which, on his initiative, in 1913/1914 was enlarged with a third storey and its appearance preserved unto this day. The building was named Fritz Strassmann House on November 12, 2002. An assembly of nature research scientists was held in Breslau, 1904, where the delegates approved a proposal to establish a permanent association of forensic medicine. Strassmann had served on the committee of founders. He was elected as the founding chairman of the German Society of Forensic Medicine at the first meeting of the association in Meran, 1905. Strassmann initiated a change to the Vierteljahrsschrift fu¨r gerichtliche Medicin und o¨ffentliches Sanita¨tswesen [Quarterly of Forensic Medicine and Public Health] and, in 1922, in cooperation with Paul Fraenckel, Georg Puppe and Ernst Schultze, began to publish the journal under the name of Deutsche Zeitschrift fu¨r die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin, Organ der Deutschen Gesellschaft fu¨r gerichtliche und soziale Medizin [German Journal of all Facets of Forensic Medicine, Organ of the German Society of Forensic and Social Medicine]. Strassmann was appointed Honorary Member of the Society in 1927.
0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.045
126
H. Strauch, I. Wirth / Forensic Science International 144 (2004) 125–127
Yielding to aggravating political pressure by the national socialists, Strassmann together with his wife dissociated themselves from Judaism by an official statement on December 4, 1933. Nevertheless, although in retirement for years, he was forced to submit the following additional statement to the administration of the university on December 16, 1935: ‘‘Responding to your request of December 14, 1935, I hereby declare under official oath that to the best of my knowledge all my four grandparents were of Jewish descent and were members of the Jewish religious community.’’ In a letter dated December 19, 1935, he was informed of his formal dismissal into retirement as of December 31, 1935. This automatically implied revocation of his teaching licence. Reinhold Strassmann (1893–1944), his youngest son, submitted the following written statement on February 5 to the university administration informing the latter of his father’s death: ‘‘As I told you on the phone, my father, Prof. Dr. Fritz Israel Strassmann (med.), has died on January 30, 1940, 11 a.m.’’ After Fritz Strassmann’s death, his son Reinhold lived in Berlin for another four years. He was put on the 101th ‘‘transport of advanced-age deportees’’, on February 9, 1944, and was deported to the ghetto of Theresienstadt and was subsequently killed in Auschwitz close to the end of war. While Reinhold had been a mathematician, his older brother, Georg Strassmann (1890–1972) completed medical education to become a so called court physician. His father was to be his academic teacher. At the beginning of the summer term 1921, he moved to the Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Vienna as a scientific assistant where he took a post-doctoral degree one year later. He accepted a call for the position of extraordinary professor to the University of Breslau in 1928. At the beginning of the 1935/1936 winter term, ‘‘n.b.a.o. Professor Dr. Georg Strassmann (med.)’’ was suspended from office ‘‘in anticipation of the forthcoming decree of implementing regulations to the Reich Citizenship Law’’. He then emigrated to the USA. In 1948, after the end of World War Two, Georg Strassmann turned out as one of the publishers of the first postward volume of the Deutsche Zeitschrift fu¨ r die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin. From 1970 to the end of his life, he was co-publisher of the Zeitschrift fu¨ r Rechtsmedizin (Journal of Legal Medicine(. His merits for legal medicine were acknowledged by conferment of honorary membership of the Society. Paul Fraenckel (1874–1941)2, just as Fritz and Georg Strassmann, was subjected to the anti-Jewish legislation of the NS regime. He had started his career as an assistant to Fritz Strassmann in 1905, was appointed to the position of extraordinary professor in 1921 and, after Strassmann’s move into retirement, deputy director of the institute up 2 See also Ingo Wirth and Hansju¨ rg Strauch, Paul Fraenckel (1874–1941) und seine Ta¨ tigkeit am Institut fu¨ r gerichtliche Medizin der Universita¨ t Berlin, Kriminal. forens. Wiss. 63/64 (1986) 70–74.
to October 1930. In 1933, he was removed from his post as court physician to the Office of the Police President, again with reference to the Law for the Restoration of Professional Civil Service. On October 26, 1935, he was suspended from office by the university administration. On February 22, 1936, he received an official letter in which his university teaching licence was retrospectively rescinded with effect of December 31, 1935, that ruling being made with reference to the implementing regulations to the Reich Citizenship Law. He had been forced to resign from the office of co-publisher of his journal with the Springer publishers even before, early 1935. When the updated membership list of the Society was published on July 31, 1937, the name of this long-time member was missing. He was entirely struck off the medical register in 1938 in conformity with an implementing regulation to the Law for the Restoration of Professional Civil Service. The following reference to Fraenckel’s death was made in a commemorative article: ‘‘Prof. Dr. med. Paul Fraenckel died on September 10, 1941, in the Martin Luther Hospital. The former Berlin court physician had been admitted to the emergency room of the hospital on September 7 for Morphine-Veronal poisoning.’’ The following note on his own suicide had been left behind by him: ‘‘I cannot stand it — to wear the yellow David star on my chest! It has been the frightening blow which I refused to anticipate all the time, although there had been so many foreboding signals. It destroys the remaining remnant of freedom of movement.’’ A decree had been issued on September 1, 1941, according to which Jews were ordered, as of September 19, to visibly wear on the outside of their clothing a yellow star with the inscription ‘‘Jew’’. Also by the same decree, Jews were not permitted to move from their registered place of residence without police permission. The German Society of Forensic Medicine had a number of international members, among them Leone Lattes (1887– 1954), a forensic pathologist from Italy. He was the first scientist to use the blood group AB0 system in trace identification. His developed method by which to detect agglutinins in blood scales bears his name. His promotion to professoral status in 1913 was followed by an academic career across several Italian universities and, finally in 1933, appointment to a chair at Pavia University. A wave of antisemitism pushed him into emigration to South America in 1939. When the war was over, he returned to Pavia and headed the institute for the rest of his life. An extraordinary fate was suffered by Miklo´s Nyiszli (1901–1956), a Romanian citizen of Hungarian nationality. He had been affiliated for some time to the Institute of Forensic Medicine of Breslau University, whereafter he practised as a physician in the Romanian city of Ordea. In May 1944, he was deported from Ordea to Auschwitz together with other Hungarian Jews. After the war, he wrote down his experiences in a report which read as follows: ‘‘. . . I had to work at the crematorium of Birkenau and its funeral pyres, . . . in my capacity as a physician, I formulated countless medical and
H. Strauch, I. Wirth / Forensic Science International 144 (2004) 125–127
forensic protocols of autopsies performed on corpses, and I signed them with my tatooed prisoner number rather than my name. Those documents were subsequently initialled by Dr. Mengele, my superior SS doctor.’’ Nyiszli’s report was used for judicial evidence by the International Military Tribunal of Nuremberg and was translated into many languages3. There were as well representatives of other medical disciplines whose achievements had enriched legal medicine and who were victims of anti-Jewish persecution. Stefan Jellinek (1871–1968) began to conduct his electropathological studies in Vienna at the turn from the 19th to 20th century. His investigations were primarily relating to the accident situation, clinical course and histopathology of the electrical trauma. He was the founder of electropathology and received calls to the Vienna university and to the school of technology. A statement was issued by the NS-Dozentenbund [Association of National Socialist University Lecturers] on July 4, 1938, according to which ‘‘a Jew must never be an academic teacher, and Prof. Dr. Jellinek, consequently, can no longer be tolerated as a teacher at the Department of Medicine’’. He left for Great Britain in 1939. He returned to Vienna after the end of the second world war and resumed teaching as a visiting professor. Ludwik Hirszfeld (1884–1954) had originated from a Polonized Jewish family and worked for some years under Emil von Dungern in Heidelberg. They jointly published substantive findings on the AB0 system, among them preliminary concepts on the heritablity of blood groups and the proposal to define the group characteristics A, B, 0 and AB. Hirszfeld later on was appointed to the post of research director of the National Hygiene Institute in Warsaw, and in 1931 he was promoted to professorship at Warsaw University. On February 28, 1941, the scholar was police-escorted to the Warsaw ghetto. After the war,
3 A German edition was published under the heading of Friedrich Herber: Miklo´ s Nyiszli, Im Jenseits der Menschlichkeit. Ein Gerichtsmediziner in Auschwitz. Berlin: Karl Dietz Verlag, 1992.
127
he made substantive contributions to establish the Medical Academy of Wroclaw. Friedrich Schiff (1889–1940), a serologist, was head of a unit at the Berlin Community Hospital of Friedrichshain from 1922 through 1935. He was an internationally renowned expert in the areas of immunology and infectious diseases. He actually suggested to use the human blood groups for paternity testing. He lost his job at the hospital on October 7, 1935, and was suspended from the office of university lecturer in Berlin by ministerial order on October 26, 1935. His teaching licence was definitely withdrawn by the end of the same year. Together with his family, he emigrated to New York in 1936 and continued to work until his early death. The ousting and expulsion from Germany of Jewish university teachers, scientists and medical professionals led to severe intellectual impoverishment. Yet, that exodus was just the beginning. It was soon followed by the historically unprecedented project of exterminating the Jewish people.
Further reading [1] B. Engelmann, Deutschland ohne Juden. Eine Bilanz. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1988. [2] H. Eschwege (Ed.), Kennzeichen J. Bilder, Dokumente, Berichte zur Geschichte der Verbrechen des Hitlerfaschismus an den deutschen Juden 1933–1945. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1981. [3] F. Herber, Gerichtsmedizin unterm Hakenkreuz. Militzke, Leipzig, 2002. ¨ ber den Exodus medizinischer Hochschullehrer [4] P. Schneck, U der Berliner Universita¨ t wa¨ hrend des deutschen Faschismus (1933–1945), Wiss. Zschr. Humboldt-Univ., Math.-Nat. R. 36 (1987) 120–122.
Persecution of Jewish forensic pathologists H. Straucha,*, I. Wirthb a
Institute of Legal Medicine, Humboldt University, Campus Charite´ Mitte, Hannoversche Strabe 6, 10115 Berlin, Germany b Police Academy, State of Brandenburg, 16352 Basdorf, Germany Available online 28 July 2004
Abstract Not even forensic pathologists were spared by the anti-Jewish laws of the Third Reich. Fritz Strassmann and Paul Fraenckel were among more than 140 faculty of the Berlin Department of Medicine persecuted by the national socialist dictatorship. It was because of their Jewish background that Georg Strassmann was expelled from university in Breslau, and Leone Lattes was forced to leave in Pavia. Miklo´s Nyiszli was deported from Oradea to Auschwitz and forced to perform forensic autopsies. Stefan Jellinek in Vienna, Ludwik Hirszfeld in Warsaw and Friedrich Schiff in Berlin were other medical professionals whose achievements had enriched legal medicine before they became victims of anti-Jewish persecution. # 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: National socialism; Anti-Jewish persecution; Forensic medicine; Jewish doctors
When the national socialists took power, antisemitism along with eradication of all constitutional principles were imposed on Germany as part of government policy. The Reichstag general elections in March 1933 were followed by a wave of anti-Jewish laws and acts of terrorism. Antisemitism did not even stop short of universities. Right at the beginning of the national socialist regime, Jewish university teachers were harassed for their racial descent and were so prevented from continuing to teach. An act was issued on April 7, 1933, under the heading of ‘‘Law for the Restoration of Professional Civil Service’’ which resulted in large-scale removal from office and revocation of teaching licences. A statistical record, most likely incomplete, shows that by the winter term of 1934/1935 at least 1145 German university teachers were dismissed (14.34%), among them 313 full professors and chair holders. Fritz Strassmann (1858–1940)1, highly renowned forensic pathologist, was one of more than 140 medical professionals and other scientists persecuted and removed from the Berlin Department and School of Medicine. During his long* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 30 450 525262; fax: þ49 30 450 525903. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Strauch). 1 Comprehensive reference in a dissertation of Cathrin Menzel, Leben und Werk von Fritz Strassmann (1858–1940), Med. Diss. HU Berlin 1989.
time directorate, the Praktische Unterrichtsanstalt fu¨r Staatsarzneikunde at the University of Berlin [PracticeOriented School of Public Health and Medicine] was turned into a centre of regular and advanced education in forensic medicine. His school was located on the premises of the Morgue of Berlin which, on his initiative, in 1913/1914 was enlarged with a third storey and its appearance preserved unto this day. The building was named Fritz Strassmann House on November 12, 2002. An assembly of nature research scientists was held in Breslau, 1904, where the delegates approved a proposal to establish a permanent association of forensic medicine. Strassmann had served on the committee of founders. He was elected as the founding chairman of the German Society of Forensic Medicine at the first meeting of the association in Meran, 1905. Strassmann initiated a change to the Vierteljahrsschrift fu¨r gerichtliche Medicin und o¨ffentliches Sanita¨tswesen [Quarterly of Forensic Medicine and Public Health] and, in 1922, in cooperation with Paul Fraenckel, Georg Puppe and Ernst Schultze, began to publish the journal under the name of Deutsche Zeitschrift fu¨r die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin, Organ der Deutschen Gesellschaft fu¨r gerichtliche und soziale Medizin [German Journal of all Facets of Forensic Medicine, Organ of the German Society of Forensic and Social Medicine]. Strassmann was appointed Honorary Member of the Society in 1927.
0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.045
126
H. Strauch, I. Wirth / Forensic Science International 144 (2004) 125–127
Yielding to aggravating political pressure by the national socialists, Strassmann together with his wife dissociated themselves from Judaism by an official statement on December 4, 1933. Nevertheless, although in retirement for years, he was forced to submit the following additional statement to the administration of the university on December 16, 1935: ‘‘Responding to your request of December 14, 1935, I hereby declare under official oath that to the best of my knowledge all my four grandparents were of Jewish descent and were members of the Jewish religious community.’’ In a letter dated December 19, 1935, he was informed of his formal dismissal into retirement as of December 31, 1935. This automatically implied revocation of his teaching licence. Reinhold Strassmann (1893–1944), his youngest son, submitted the following written statement on February 5 to the university administration informing the latter of his father’s death: ‘‘As I told you on the phone, my father, Prof. Dr. Fritz Israel Strassmann (med.), has died on January 30, 1940, 11 a.m.’’ After Fritz Strassmann’s death, his son Reinhold lived in Berlin for another four years. He was put on the 101th ‘‘transport of advanced-age deportees’’, on February 9, 1944, and was deported to the ghetto of Theresienstadt and was subsequently killed in Auschwitz close to the end of war. While Reinhold had been a mathematician, his older brother, Georg Strassmann (1890–1972) completed medical education to become a so called court physician. His father was to be his academic teacher. At the beginning of the summer term 1921, he moved to the Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Vienna as a scientific assistant where he took a post-doctoral degree one year later. He accepted a call for the position of extraordinary professor to the University of Breslau in 1928. At the beginning of the 1935/1936 winter term, ‘‘n.b.a.o. Professor Dr. Georg Strassmann (med.)’’ was suspended from office ‘‘in anticipation of the forthcoming decree of implementing regulations to the Reich Citizenship Law’’. He then emigrated to the USA. In 1948, after the end of World War Two, Georg Strassmann turned out as one of the publishers of the first postward volume of the Deutsche Zeitschrift fu¨ r die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin. From 1970 to the end of his life, he was co-publisher of the Zeitschrift fu¨ r Rechtsmedizin (Journal of Legal Medicine(. His merits for legal medicine were acknowledged by conferment of honorary membership of the Society. Paul Fraenckel (1874–1941)2, just as Fritz and Georg Strassmann, was subjected to the anti-Jewish legislation of the NS regime. He had started his career as an assistant to Fritz Strassmann in 1905, was appointed to the position of extraordinary professor in 1921 and, after Strassmann’s move into retirement, deputy director of the institute up 2 See also Ingo Wirth and Hansju¨ rg Strauch, Paul Fraenckel (1874–1941) und seine Ta¨ tigkeit am Institut fu¨ r gerichtliche Medizin der Universita¨ t Berlin, Kriminal. forens. Wiss. 63/64 (1986) 70–74.
to October 1930. In 1933, he was removed from his post as court physician to the Office of the Police President, again with reference to the Law for the Restoration of Professional Civil Service. On October 26, 1935, he was suspended from office by the university administration. On February 22, 1936, he received an official letter in which his university teaching licence was retrospectively rescinded with effect of December 31, 1935, that ruling being made with reference to the implementing regulations to the Reich Citizenship Law. He had been forced to resign from the office of co-publisher of his journal with the Springer publishers even before, early 1935. When the updated membership list of the Society was published on July 31, 1937, the name of this long-time member was missing. He was entirely struck off the medical register in 1938 in conformity with an implementing regulation to the Law for the Restoration of Professional Civil Service. The following reference to Fraenckel’s death was made in a commemorative article: ‘‘Prof. Dr. med. Paul Fraenckel died on September 10, 1941, in the Martin Luther Hospital. The former Berlin court physician had been admitted to the emergency room of the hospital on September 7 for Morphine-Veronal poisoning.’’ The following note on his own suicide had been left behind by him: ‘‘I cannot stand it — to wear the yellow David star on my chest! It has been the frightening blow which I refused to anticipate all the time, although there had been so many foreboding signals. It destroys the remaining remnant of freedom of movement.’’ A decree had been issued on September 1, 1941, according to which Jews were ordered, as of September 19, to visibly wear on the outside of their clothing a yellow star with the inscription ‘‘Jew’’. Also by the same decree, Jews were not permitted to move from their registered place of residence without police permission. The German Society of Forensic Medicine had a number of international members, among them Leone Lattes (1887– 1954), a forensic pathologist from Italy. He was the first scientist to use the blood group AB0 system in trace identification. His developed method by which to detect agglutinins in blood scales bears his name. His promotion to professoral status in 1913 was followed by an academic career across several Italian universities and, finally in 1933, appointment to a chair at Pavia University. A wave of antisemitism pushed him into emigration to South America in 1939. When the war was over, he returned to Pavia and headed the institute for the rest of his life. An extraordinary fate was suffered by Miklo´s Nyiszli (1901–1956), a Romanian citizen of Hungarian nationality. He had been affiliated for some time to the Institute of Forensic Medicine of Breslau University, whereafter he practised as a physician in the Romanian city of Ordea. In May 1944, he was deported from Ordea to Auschwitz together with other Hungarian Jews. After the war, he wrote down his experiences in a report which read as follows: ‘‘. . . I had to work at the crematorium of Birkenau and its funeral pyres, . . . in my capacity as a physician, I formulated countless medical and
H. Strauch, I. Wirth / Forensic Science International 144 (2004) 125–127
forensic protocols of autopsies performed on corpses, and I signed them with my tatooed prisoner number rather than my name. Those documents were subsequently initialled by Dr. Mengele, my superior SS doctor.’’ Nyiszli’s report was used for judicial evidence by the International Military Tribunal of Nuremberg and was translated into many languages3. There were as well representatives of other medical disciplines whose achievements had enriched legal medicine and who were victims of anti-Jewish persecution. Stefan Jellinek (1871–1968) began to conduct his electropathological studies in Vienna at the turn from the 19th to 20th century. His investigations were primarily relating to the accident situation, clinical course and histopathology of the electrical trauma. He was the founder of electropathology and received calls to the Vienna university and to the school of technology. A statement was issued by the NS-Dozentenbund [Association of National Socialist University Lecturers] on July 4, 1938, according to which ‘‘a Jew must never be an academic teacher, and Prof. Dr. Jellinek, consequently, can no longer be tolerated as a teacher at the Department of Medicine’’. He left for Great Britain in 1939. He returned to Vienna after the end of the second world war and resumed teaching as a visiting professor. Ludwik Hirszfeld (1884–1954) had originated from a Polonized Jewish family and worked for some years under Emil von Dungern in Heidelberg. They jointly published substantive findings on the AB0 system, among them preliminary concepts on the heritablity of blood groups and the proposal to define the group characteristics A, B, 0 and AB. Hirszfeld later on was appointed to the post of research director of the National Hygiene Institute in Warsaw, and in 1931 he was promoted to professorship at Warsaw University. On February 28, 1941, the scholar was police-escorted to the Warsaw ghetto. After the war,
3 A German edition was published under the heading of Friedrich Herber: Miklo´ s Nyiszli, Im Jenseits der Menschlichkeit. Ein Gerichtsmediziner in Auschwitz. Berlin: Karl Dietz Verlag, 1992.
127
he made substantive contributions to establish the Medical Academy of Wroclaw. Friedrich Schiff (1889–1940), a serologist, was head of a unit at the Berlin Community Hospital of Friedrichshain from 1922 through 1935. He was an internationally renowned expert in the areas of immunology and infectious diseases. He actually suggested to use the human blood groups for paternity testing. He lost his job at the hospital on October 7, 1935, and was suspended from the office of university lecturer in Berlin by ministerial order on October 26, 1935. His teaching licence was definitely withdrawn by the end of the same year. Together with his family, he emigrated to New York in 1936 and continued to work until his early death. The ousting and expulsion from Germany of Jewish university teachers, scientists and medical professionals led to severe intellectual impoverishment. Yet, that exodus was just the beginning. It was soon followed by the historically unprecedented project of exterminating the Jewish people.
Further reading [1] B. Engelmann, Deutschland ohne Juden. Eine Bilanz. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1988. [2] H. Eschwege (Ed.), Kennzeichen J. Bilder, Dokumente, Berichte zur Geschichte der Verbrechen des Hitlerfaschismus an den deutschen Juden 1933–1945. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1981. [3] F. Herber, Gerichtsmedizin unterm Hakenkreuz. Militzke, Leipzig, 2002. ¨ ber den Exodus medizinischer Hochschullehrer [4] P. Schneck, U der Berliner Universita¨ t wa¨ hrend des deutschen Faschismus (1933–1945), Wiss. Zschr. Humboldt-Univ., Math.-Nat. R. 36 (1987) 120–122.