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Personal computer corner
O©IitPIjYI!!Iit By Alec N. Brooks This column will be devoted to reporting significant developments in personal computer hardware and software, and covering particularly innovative or effective uses of personalcomputers in the environmental field. Input and feedback from the readers is essential to achieving these goals. Please address correspondence to: Alec Brooks, Personal Computer Corner, AeroVironment Inc, 825 Myrtle Ave., Monrovia, Ca. 91016, USA.
The personal computer is barely ten years old. In this short time, there have been astounding advances in both hardware and software. The first PC's had 4 - 16 K bytes of main memory, a bewildering array of switches and lights on the front panel, and 8-bit microprocessors plodding along at clock speeds of one or two megahertz. Programs and data were loaded and saved from cassette tape, at the agonizing speed of about 6K bytes per minute. The human interface was either a dumb terminal or an ancient teletype. Software was almost nonexistent. Oh yes, they also all came in" kit form. Today, we can marvel at how primitive these systems were. Modem personal computers are equipped with memory measured in megabytes, 16 and 32-bit microprocessors, highspeed disk ddves, high resolution bit-mapped display screens, laser printers, and large and complex operating systems. Good software is available for a wide range of applications. The systems ten years ago were not
considered primitive at the time - they were considered to be at the cutting edge of technology, just as our modern-day systems are. It's quite likely that ten years from now, today's PC's will seem as primitive as the PC's of ten years ago seem to us today. Ten years from now, expect to see PC's with tens or hundreds of megabytes of main memory, gigabytes of seconday storage, ultra-high resolution color display screens, and color laser printers.Also expect to see major improvements in operating system, software. Operating systems will continue to grow in size and power, but will have far better user interfaces. The "A>" prompt of MS-DOS will be history, replaced by humanengineered visual interfaces (as pioneered by the XEROX Star and Apple Lisa and Macintosh). The power of the hardware and software of the new machines will result in a great increase in processing power at the hands of the user. As good as today's PC's are, they are still slow in carrying out user commands. Today's PC operating systems are not multi-tasking, forcing the user to handle tasks sequentially often waiting tens of seconds to switch between applications. Future PC's will be capable of handling many tasks simultaneously, and switching between applications almost instantaneously. They won't impose as many "wait states" on the human operator - they will be able to carry out commands nearly as fast as the operator can issue them. If some tasks still take any appreciable amount of time, the operator will be able to instantly switch to another application, leaving the previous task to execute in a background mode. ~ (~
5 8 Environmental Software, 1986, Vol 1, No. 1 •
They will be able to carry out commands nearly as fast as the operator can Issue them.
An example of this evolutionary path can be seen in the short but rich history of the Apple Macintosh. At its introduction two years ago, the Mac was labelled "the computer for the rest of us". It's innovative user interface was easy to learn, but the initial hardware and software were so limited that the machine was almost useless for serious applications. Simply copying a disk on a singledrive Mac was at least a tenminute ordeal of disk swapping. Today's basic Mac, with 512K of main memory and second floppy drive, is a far more useable machine, but is still quite sluggish in many areas. Some recent developments for the Mac give an inkling of the enormous potential of the Macintosh concept. The foremost development is Apple's new Switcher program, which allows the Mac's memory to be partitioned into up to eight '~virtual Mac's", with different programs loaded into each partition. Switching between programs is virtually instantaneous. The current release of Switcher is not multi-tasking only one of the programs can be active at a time. Future versions of Switcher will have multitasking capability, although application programs must be written to make use of it. Switcher cannot be fully exploited on standard 512K Mac - only two or three applications will fit at a time. This brings us to the second major Mac development increased main memory. When the Switcher program and RAM disk programs first appeared, it was immediately apparent that the Mac could effectively use far more than 512K of main memory. Many enterprising third-party developers are now offering internal memory upgrades past 512K. Today, an "ultimate Mac" can be configured with 4 megabytes of internal memory, and a 20 megabyte internal hard disk drive. With such a system, Switcher can be loaded up with eight serious applications, and the entire operating system "startup disk" (Finder, fonts, desk accesories, etc.) can be stored on a giant RAM disk. The
The second major Mac development - Increased main memory.
performance of this arrangement is simply staggering, compared with plodding baseline Mac. Apple's upcoming second generation openarchitecture Mac will be better yet, with a faster CPU and built-in expansion slots. What are today's personal computers capable of in an engineering/scientific environment? In addition to the standard applications (word processing, spreadsheets, etc) personal computers make excellent terminals to timesharing systems (often much
THE BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD Boundary methods are becoming increasingly popular with engineersas they are far more economical than other numerical techniques and, in many cases, more accurate. The principal advantage of the technique is that only the external surface of the domain under consideration needs to be discretized to elements. Studentsfind thisvideo-cassetteaconsiderable help in understanding the basic mathematical theory and how it is implemented in the computer. "Boundary Elements" was produced at the Teaching Media Centre, Southampton University. under a grant from the Nuffield Foundation. It is in colour, includes a descriptive commentary and has a duration of 1 0 minutes
Video $275
better than standalone terminals), and can easily be programmed for laboratory or field data acquisition and analysis. All major PC's have FORTRAN compilers available, and can run many of the large codes originally developed on mainframes, as long as processing speed is not too much of a limitation. Simply porting the applications to PC's i.s relatively easy, but the result is often just another batchexecution program that just runs slower than it did on a mini or mainframe, albeit at lower cost. The great potential of PC application software is realized when the interactive capabilities of the PC user interface are used to full advantage. For example, a graphic display of the solution to an environmental dispersion problem could be updated in real time as the user changes values of key parameters using a mouse. This would communicate a far better understanding of the physics of the problem than a simple batch execution version would.
MICROSOFTWARE FOR ENGINEERS This new joumal alms to alleviate the shortage of computer software; in particular, for personal computers. This shortage produces a sadous imbalance which has delayed the exploitation of computer capabilities and has provided a negative reaction on the pad of many professionals. The journal provides a forum for the exchangeof information about codes developed for engineedng personal computers and workstations as well as for the publication of innovative Ideas in the field of engineering software. The emphasis is on papers dealing with usable software, including complete codes or part of them. Papers in the first issue included Some Guidelines for Developing BASIC programs (Ginsburg); A Wise Technique of Data Entry for Interactive Engineering Programs (Roth); Microcomputer Analysis of Continuous Beam Systems (Pardoen); Procedure and Computer Program for Design of Trickle Irrigation Manifolds (Gonzales and Devries); and
many more. The journal is available from Computational Mechanics Publications, Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO4 2AA, UK. Or, in USA,Computational Mechanics Inc. Suite 6200, 400 West Cummings Park, Wobum, MA 01801, USA. Published quarterly, a year's subscription costs $90.
FINITE ELEMENTS This video-cassette effectively shows the basis of the mathematical theory of the finite element method and then demonstrates its application to practical engineering problems. "'Finite Elements" was produced at the Atlas 'Computing Division of the Rutherford Laboratory using the Antics computer animation package. It is in colour, includes a descriptive c o m m e n t a r y and has a duration
11 minutes
Video $275
e
Compgta " Me .hanics Com ta " Me .hanics
Co_mputati Me
mnics
I From: Computational Mechanics P u b l i c a t i o n s , A s h u r s t Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton SO4 2AA, U.K.
I
Film $300
Prices in the U.K. on application Environmental Software, 1986, Vol 1, No. 1 5 9
The personal computer is barely ten years old. In this short time, there have been astounding advances in both hardware and software. The first PC's had 4 - 16 K bytes of main memory, a bewildering array of switches and lights on the front panel, and 8-bit microprocessors plodding along at clock speeds of one or two megahertz. Programs and data were loaded and saved from cassette tape, at the agonizing speed of about 6K bytes per minute. The human interface was either a dumb terminal or an ancient teletype. Software was almost nonexistent. Oh yes, they also all came in" kit form. Today, we can marvel at how primitive these systems were. Modem personal computers are equipped with memory measured in megabytes, 16 and 32-bit microprocessors, highspeed disk ddves, high resolution bit-mapped display screens, laser printers, and large and complex operating systems. Good software is available for a wide range of applications. The systems ten years ago were not
considered primitive at the time - they were considered to be at the cutting edge of technology, just as our modern-day systems are. It's quite likely that ten years from now, today's PC's will seem as primitive as the PC's of ten years ago seem to us today. Ten years from now, expect to see PC's with tens or hundreds of megabytes of main memory, gigabytes of seconday storage, ultra-high resolution color display screens, and color laser printers.Also expect to see major improvements in operating system, software. Operating systems will continue to grow in size and power, but will have far better user interfaces. The "A>" prompt of MS-DOS will be history, replaced by humanengineered visual interfaces (as pioneered by the XEROX Star and Apple Lisa and Macintosh). The power of the hardware and software of the new machines will result in a great increase in processing power at the hands of the user. As good as today's PC's are, they are still slow in carrying out user commands. Today's PC operating systems are not multi-tasking, forcing the user to handle tasks sequentially often waiting tens of seconds to switch between applications. Future PC's will be capable of handling many tasks simultaneously, and switching between applications almost instantaneously. They won't impose as many "wait states" on the human operator - they will be able to carry out commands nearly as fast as the operator can issue them. If some tasks still take any appreciable amount of time, the operator will be able to instantly switch to another application, leaving the previous task to execute in a background mode. ~ (~
5 8 Environmental Software, 1986, Vol 1, No. 1 •
They will be able to carry out commands nearly as fast as the operator can Issue them.
An example of this evolutionary path can be seen in the short but rich history of the Apple Macintosh. At its introduction two years ago, the Mac was labelled "the computer for the rest of us". It's innovative user interface was easy to learn, but the initial hardware and software were so limited that the machine was almost useless for serious applications. Simply copying a disk on a singledrive Mac was at least a tenminute ordeal of disk swapping. Today's basic Mac, with 512K of main memory and second floppy drive, is a far more useable machine, but is still quite sluggish in many areas. Some recent developments for the Mac give an inkling of the enormous potential of the Macintosh concept. The foremost development is Apple's new Switcher program, which allows the Mac's memory to be partitioned into up to eight '~virtual Mac's", with different programs loaded into each partition. Switching between programs is virtually instantaneous. The current release of Switcher is not multi-tasking only one of the programs can be active at a time. Future versions of Switcher will have multitasking capability, although application programs must be written to make use of it. Switcher cannot be fully exploited on standard 512K Mac - only two or three applications will fit at a time. This brings us to the second major Mac development increased main memory. When the Switcher program and RAM disk programs first appeared, it was immediately apparent that the Mac could effectively use far more than 512K of main memory. Many enterprising third-party developers are now offering internal memory upgrades past 512K. Today, an "ultimate Mac" can be configured with 4 megabytes of internal memory, and a 20 megabyte internal hard disk drive. With such a system, Switcher can be loaded up with eight serious applications, and the entire operating system "startup disk" (Finder, fonts, desk accesories, etc.) can be stored on a giant RAM disk. The
The second major Mac development - Increased main memory.
performance of this arrangement is simply staggering, compared with plodding baseline Mac. Apple's upcoming second generation openarchitecture Mac will be better yet, with a faster CPU and built-in expansion slots. What are today's personal computers capable of in an engineering/scientific environment? In addition to the standard applications (word processing, spreadsheets, etc) personal computers make excellent terminals to timesharing systems (often much
THE BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD Boundary methods are becoming increasingly popular with engineersas they are far more economical than other numerical techniques and, in many cases, more accurate. The principal advantage of the technique is that only the external surface of the domain under consideration needs to be discretized to elements. Studentsfind thisvideo-cassetteaconsiderable help in understanding the basic mathematical theory and how it is implemented in the computer. "Boundary Elements" was produced at the Teaching Media Centre, Southampton University. under a grant from the Nuffield Foundation. It is in colour, includes a descriptive commentary and has a duration of 1 0 minutes
Video $275
better than standalone terminals), and can easily be programmed for laboratory or field data acquisition and analysis. All major PC's have FORTRAN compilers available, and can run many of the large codes originally developed on mainframes, as long as processing speed is not too much of a limitation. Simply porting the applications to PC's i.s relatively easy, but the result is often just another batchexecution program that just runs slower than it did on a mini or mainframe, albeit at lower cost. The great potential of PC application software is realized when the interactive capabilities of the PC user interface are used to full advantage. For example, a graphic display of the solution to an environmental dispersion problem could be updated in real time as the user changes values of key parameters using a mouse. This would communicate a far better understanding of the physics of the problem than a simple batch execution version would.
MICROSOFTWARE FOR ENGINEERS This new joumal alms to alleviate the shortage of computer software; in particular, for personal computers. This shortage produces a sadous imbalance which has delayed the exploitation of computer capabilities and has provided a negative reaction on the pad of many professionals. The journal provides a forum for the exchangeof information about codes developed for engineedng personal computers and workstations as well as for the publication of innovative Ideas in the field of engineering software. The emphasis is on papers dealing with usable software, including complete codes or part of them. Papers in the first issue included Some Guidelines for Developing BASIC programs (Ginsburg); A Wise Technique of Data Entry for Interactive Engineering Programs (Roth); Microcomputer Analysis of Continuous Beam Systems (Pardoen); Procedure and Computer Program for Design of Trickle Irrigation Manifolds (Gonzales and Devries); and
many more. The journal is available from Computational Mechanics Publications, Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO4 2AA, UK. Or, in USA,Computational Mechanics Inc. Suite 6200, 400 West Cummings Park, Wobum, MA 01801, USA. Published quarterly, a year's subscription costs $90.
FINITE ELEMENTS This video-cassette effectively shows the basis of the mathematical theory of the finite element method and then demonstrates its application to practical engineering problems. "'Finite Elements" was produced at the Atlas 'Computing Division of the Rutherford Laboratory using the Antics computer animation package. It is in colour, includes a descriptive c o m m e n t a r y and has a duration
11 minutes
Video $275
e
Compgta " Me .hanics Com ta " Me .hanics
Co_mputati Me
mnics
I From: Computational Mechanics P u b l i c a t i o n s , A s h u r s t Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton SO4 2AA, U.K.
I
Film $300
Prices in the U.K. on application Environmental Software, 1986, Vol 1, No. 1 5 9